Music Theory

Other Sequence Terms

1. The term sequence is also widely used to describe a recording or file of MIDI data created by music recording (sequencing) software. 2. The least common use of the term sequence refers to phrases of chant sung after the Alleluia in the mass. Such sequences were common in church services during the Middle Ages.

Beat

A beat is a type of pulse or accent which occurs throughout a piece of music. Beats can be felt by an audience or created by performers at various levels. In Western music, beats are a pattern of accents which occur in each bar and different patterns of beats are created by different metres.

Metric Modulation

A change in pulse rate (tempo) and/or pulse grouping (subdivision) which is derived from a note value or grouping heard before the change. A change in tempo and note value during a piece of music. It can be used to create certain impact or effect in music.

Bass Clef

A clef placing F below middle C on the second-highest line of the staff. A clef where one ledger line above is Middle C.

Treble Clef

A clef placing G above middle C on the second-lowest line of the staff. A clef where one ledger line below is Middle C.

Polymetre

A composition that uses more than one time signature simultaneously is described as polymetric. Polymetric compositions are polyrhythmic and the simultaneous use of more than one time signature will usually create cross rhythms. Polymetric music is usually associated with composers since the twentieth century such as Gordon Jacob (1895-1984), Charles Ives (1874-1954) and Terry Riley (b.1935).

Isometric

A composition with the same rhythm in each part is described as isometric or homorhythmic. The term isometric can also be used to describe music where the same time signature is used throughout resulting in a consistent, regular beat.

Tuplet Slur

A curved line (slur) is usually drawn over the note heads or stems and the number of notes in the group is written above or below the group, or in a break in the slur. The slur and number can be written above or below the stave and aligned to either the note heads or stems. The slur is often omitted with only the number in the group written. Where there is more than one tuplet marking in a bar, the slurs and numbers are written consistently above or below the stave for ease of reading.

Syncopation

A deliberate upsetting of the normal pattern of accents. A displacement of accent onto a beat that is usually unaccented When a normal pattern of strong, medium or weak beats (metrical accents) has been established in a particular time signature, and that pattern is then varied by unexpected accents on normally weak beats, a rhythmic effect known as syncopation is created. Notes that are played off the beat can also create syncopation. Syncopation can also occur when no sound is heard on a beat that is normally strong. Syncopation is an essential characteristic in some styles or genres of music. The back beat (accenting the second and fourth beats of the bar), found in many forms of rock music, is an example of syncopation.

Dotted Notes

A dot placed after a note or rest adds half the value of the note or rest.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Down Bow

A down bow is made by placing the bow on the string and moving it towards the tip.

Drone

A drone is a continuous note or group of notes over which a melody evolves/plays. A drone can be a single note or chord and may also incorporate rhythmic elements. A drone is a note that is played and held continuously throughout a piece of the song or the entire song. A drone does not stop at all and it does not change notes but it may have a rhythm pattern.

INVERSIONS OF MAJOR 7TH CHORDS: First Inversion

A first inversion (6, 5, 3) is usually abbreviated to 6, 5. The chord name CMA7/E symbolises a C major seventh chord with E as the lowest note. So a First chord would be written as I6/5 OR i6/5 when it has a first inversion.

INVERSIONS OF Dom7 CHORDS: 1st Inversion

A first inversion (6, 5, 3) is usually abbreviated to 6, 5. The chord name x7/B symbolises a x7 chord with B as the lowest note. x - Fill in note

Ground Bass Information

A ground bass is a compositional device that was commonly used in the Renaissance and Baroque periods (1600 - 1750) of Western art music. Ground basses were often used as accompaniments for dances or served as a framework for improvising. They were also used as accompaniments for songs with the repeated chord progression above providing unity. Each verse of the song would be accompanied by a cycle of the ground with its chord progression. Composers either used an easily recognised common ground or composed their own.

Dominant Seventh Chord

A major triad with a minor third on top Dominant seventh ( 7 ) chords are constructed by adding a minor seventh interval to a major triad. Dominant seventh chords can also be referred to as major-minor 7ths (Mm7) to reflect the quality of both the triad (M) and seventh (m). Dominant seventh chords are often built on the fifth scale degree (the dominant) and generally move to a triad that is built on the key note that is a fifth below or a fourth above. This establishes the key of the tonic by forming a perfect cadence. In contemporary music such as blues, dominant sevenths are often freely used without forming part of a cadence.

Inversion

A melody is inverted when the direction of each successive interval is reversed. This inversion preserves only the size of the interval and not the quality (major or minor), and as a result does not require chromatic notes. An exact inversion of a phrase or group of notes can be made by reversing the direction of successive intervals with regard to their size and quality. The result of this inversion will most likely require the use of chromatic notes if a key signature is used.

Retrograde

A melody or group of notes that has been created using each note from an original phrase or group of notes in reverse order is termed retrograde. Melodies in inversion and retrograde were often used by composers during the Baroque period and by twentieth century composers using tone rows in 12 tone technique.

Scientific Pitch Notation

A method of naming the notes combining a letter name, accidentals, and a number identifying the pitch's octave. Notes in different octaves can be identified by using a system called Scientific Pitch Notation or Note Octave Notation. This system identifies the lowest C on the grand piano as C1, with the number one referring to the first octave. The notes within the octave above that C are all identified with the number one after their letter names - C1, D1, E1, F1, G1, A1 and B1. The next C is labelled C2, and the notes within that octave are all identified with the number two after their letter names. This process is repeated for all octaves of the piano. Middle C, (C4) begins the fourth octave.

Time Signature

A musical notation indicating the number of beats to a measure and kind of note that takes a beat

Pedal Point

A pedal point is a note which is sustained over successive bars and is used in the lowest voice of a composition. An Inverted Pedal Point is the same as the pedal point but in the highest voice of a composition (or any voice not in the bass). The note sustained is usually the tonic (the first note or keynote of the scale) or dominant (the fifth note of the scale) and the harmony changes freely above the pedal point or below the inverted pedal point. A note sustained during changing harmonies is another definition.

Difference Between Drone and Pedal Point

A pedal point is a repeated note that typically has other notes played between the pedal note. A drone is a note that is held throughout the chords without stopping.

Perfect Cadence (V-I)

A perfect cadence is usually found at the end of a composition where it marks the conclusion in the tonic key, or at the beginning of the composition where it is used to establish the tonic key. The chord progression is chord V (dominant) followed by chord I (tonic) with the tonic chord usually appearing on the strong beat of the bar. Sevenths, ninths, elevenths and thirteenths can be added to the dominant chord for extra colour.

Octave Signs

A performer can be directed to play notes one or two octaves above or below the written notes by using the appropriate sign. Written above the stave, the number 8 with notes under a dotted line directs a performer to play the notes one octave higher. Written below the stave, the number 8 with notes above a dotted line directs a performer to play the notes one octave lower. The letters va are sometimes used together with the number 8. The signs 8va bassa, 8ba or 8vb are sometimes used to indicate the octave below.

Phrase

A phrase is a group of notes which is coherent within itself. Since the nineteenth century composers have used curved lines to mark out phrases of various lengths.

Pitch Bend

A pitch bend is a performance controller usually found on the left hand side of a synthesiser or electronic keyboard. The controller can be a lever or wheel with the centre or neutral position corresponding to correct pitch. Rotating the wheel or bending the lever up raises the pitch of the note, while rotating the wheel or bending the lever down from the neutral position lowers the pitch of the note. The type of change in pitch is similar to a portamento, where no gradations of pitch are able to be heard. Pitch bend controllers were developed in the 1970s to make synthesisers more expressive and enable them to bend notes in a similar way to voices and instruments such as guitars.

Plagal Cadence (IV-I)

A plagal cadence can be found at the end of a phrase and occasionally at the end of a composition. It is a less forceful cadence and is often associated with the "Amen" sung at the end of hymn. The chord progression is chord IV (subdominant) followed by chord I (tonic).

Additive Rhythm

A process that has the effect on the listener of unequal groupings of subdivisions being added together. Additive rhythms are formed by adding small rhythmic groupings together to form a longer structure.

Pulse

A pulse is the subdivision of a beat. Most beats in Western music subdivide consistently to two (simple) or three pulses (compound) for the duration of the composition or section (regular beat) with the speed of the pulse determined by the tempo at which the piece is set. Pulse is usually described as having no accents whereas beats have a metric accent described as strong, medium or weak.

Register

A register is a section within the overall range of an instrument or voice which has a distinct and consistent tonal quality.

Rhythmic Ostinato

A rhythmic ostinato is generally understood to be a repeated rhythmic pattern in which the focus is primarily on rhythm rather than pitch or harmony. The notes used are most likely to be of indefinite pitch such as drums or hand claps.

Riff

A riff is an ostinato common in rock and jazz. In rock music, a riff frequently provides the structural framework for the song and is often played on the electric guitar or bass guitar; providing an accompaniment for the song. While an ostinato in Western art music can provide an unobtrusive accompaniment, a riff tends to be the main musical idea of a rock song; enabling it to be instantly identified. Some examples of well-known riffs in rock songs are Smoke on the Water by Deep Purple and Sunshine of Your Love by Cream.

INVERSIONS OF Dom7 CHORDS: 2nd Inversion

A second inversion (6, 4, 3) is abbreviated to 4, 3. The chord name x7/D symbolises a x7 chord with D as the lowest note. x - Fill in note

INVERSIONS OF MAJOR 7TH CHORDS: Second Inversion

A second inversion (6, 4, 3) is usually abbreviated to 4, 3. The chord name CMA7/G symbolises a C major seventh chord with G as the lowest note. So a First chord would be written as I4/3 OR i4/3 when it has a second inversion.

Semitone

A semitone is the smallest interval in conventional notation. It is the distance from one note to the next on the keyboard regardless of the colour of the key; black or white. A semitone may also be referred to as a half step (it is a half of a tone or whole step) or as a minor second (it is a semitone smaller than a major second).

Drum fill

A short flourish or solo played on the drums to fill a gap in the music Drum parts are notated using a combination of these notes to form patterns or beats such as a rock beat. A sign indicates that the pattern is to be repeated in successive bars. Fills can be notated or the word "FILL" can be written on the score above a rest or space to indicate that the performer can play an appropriate fill for the duration of the rest or space.

Ground Bass

A short melody, usually in the bass, which is constantly repeated as the other parts of the music vary. Typically, a short, simple bass line was repeated while different and often elaborate melodies were constructed above it. The notes of the ground bass could imply a chord progression above it. These chords were used for the accompaniment; either being repeated exactly or varied in each repetition of the ground.

Slur

A slur is similar to a phrase mark, however it is drawn above or below a smaller group of notes of different pitch. Slurs are not to be confused with ties which join notes of the same pitch. In a keyboard composition, a slur indicates that the notes are to be played smoothly (legato). In music for stringed instruments, a slur indicates that the notes are to be played on the same bow (up bow or down bow) which ensures they are joined smoothly together. In music for wind instruments, a slur indicates that each note after the first under the slur is to be played without re-tonguing to ensure that the notes are joined smoothly.

Portamento

A smooth, uninterrupted glide from one pitch/note to another.

Rhythm

A strong, regular, repeated pattern of movement or sound. Rhythm is the arrangement of notes and/or rests of different duration over time.

DYNAMICS SIGN: sfp TERM: sforzando piano

A sudden accent then immediately softer

DYNAMICS SIGN: fz TERM: forzando

A sudden strong accent

DYNAMICS SIGN: sf or sfz TERM: sforzando

A sudden, strong accent

INVERSIONS OF Dom7 CHORDS: 3rd Inversion

A third inversion (6, 4, 2) is abbreviated to 4, 2. The chord name x7/F symbolises a x7 chord with F as the lowest note. x - Fill in note

INVERSIONS OF MAJOR 7TH CHORDS: Third Inversion

A third inversion (6, 4, 2) is usually abbreviated to 4, 2. The chord name CMA7/B symbolises a C major seventh chord with B as the lowest note. So a First chord would be written as I4/2 OR i4/2 when it has a third inversion.

Ties

A tie is a curved line joining two or more notes of the same pitch. The first note is held for its duration as well as the duration of any tied notes. When the stems of the two notes to be tied point up, the tie is drawn under the note heads. When the stems point down, the tie is drawn over the note heads.

Tone

A tone (whole step or major second) is the interval formed by two semitones.

Triad

A triad is a chord of three notes that is usually constructed on the degrees of a scale or mode. When a triad has been constructed on a scale degree such as the tonic, it is known as the tonic triad. Commonly used triads are major, minor, diminished or augmented.

TRIAD INVERSIONS: Root Position

A triad with the root or fundamental note as the lowest note is called a root position or fundamental triad. The figures that denote a root position triad are 5 and 3; reflecting the intervals of a fifth and a third above the root note. Chords in this position are so commonly used these figures are usually omitted. The chord names C, CM, C maj., can be used to symbolise a C major triad.

Turns

A turn is an ornament of four notes beginning with the diatonic note above the principal note, followed by the principal note, the semitone below the principal note, finishing with the principal note. The turn can be played on one note or between two notes. If the symbol is placed on a note, the turn begins immediately on the diatonic note above the written note. The accidental below the turn symbol is applied to the note below the written note and is sometimes needed to create the semitone below the written note. In the example below, the A flat is to be played as a natural. If the symbol is placed between two notes, the first note is played, then the turn beginning with the diatonic note above the first note.

Direct Modulation

A type of modulation that does not use common chords, common tones, or sequences. Compositions can modulate directly to related or unrelated chords without any preparation or pivot chords. Composers use this technique to contrast themes in different keys and juxtapose major and minor tonalities to quickly change the mood of a composition.

Inverted Diminished Scale Information

A variant of this scale progresses with similar steps however it begins with a semitone instead of a tone. This scale is also octotonic and is called the inverted diminished (half-tone whole-tone, dominant diminished) scale. It can be used by jazz musicians to improvise over dominant seventh chords as it contains the notes of the dominant seventh chord formed on its starting note. It also suits improvising over dominant seventh chords with: raised ninths lowered ninths raised fourths flattened fifths This scale also contains two complete dominant seventh chords. One is formed on the starting note and one formed on the note a tritone away In a C-Diminished Scale: F sharp is the tritone substitute of C, this creates the opportunity to superimpose the two chords on top of each other and this characteristic has been exploited by jazz musicians and art music composers alike.

BRASS ARTICULATION: Accent

Accented notes have a stronger attack

Writing Slurs

All slurs are represented the same way and are usually drawn from note head to note head. Slurs which end at the barline are incorrect. Where the stems of the notes are not in the same direction, the slur is usually drawn above the group. Where there are two parts sharing a stave, the slurs in the upper part are drawn above the notes and the slurs in the lower part are drawn below. Slurs finishing on a tied note are drawn to the last note of the tie. Slurs are usually drawn outside staccato and tenuto markings but are inside accents.

The Algerian

Also known as Gypsy minor (major 7th variant), Hungarian minor and double harmonic minor. This scale is similar to the minor gypsy (with a flattened third, raised fourth, flattened sixth, flattened seventh), However there is no flattened seventh in the Algerian The absence of this interval creates another augmented second between the sixth and seventh degrees.

Minor Gypsy

Also known as Gypsy minor (minor 7th variant) and Hungarian Gypsy. This scale is constructed with a flattened third and raised fourth creating the interval of an augmented second. The upper half of the scale has a flattened sixth and flattened seventh.

Accented Passing Notes

An accented passing note is approached by step, occurs on a strong beat of the bar and is not part of the chord it sounds with. It creates a dissonant sound which is resolved by step to a note from the chord. The role of the accented passing note is to allow a melody to move by step and to create and resolve dissonance.

Agogic Accent

An agogic accent is the emphasis given to a note by its duration. The practice of performers lengthening notes by a small amount to create agogic accents is common; particularly on the first beat of the bar. Composers can also create an agogic accent by lengthening the duration of a particular note in relation to the surrounding notes in the bar.

Anacrusis

An anacrusis (pickup or lead in) is an incomplete bar at the beginning of a piece of music.

Auxiliary Notes

An auxiliary note is an unessential note used when a melody moves from a note of the harmony, to a note above (upper auxiliary) or a note below (lower auxiliary note), and returns to the original note. The auxiliary note may or may not be a chromatic note and its function is to add interest to the melody.

Imperfect Cadence (?-V)

An imperfect cadence occurs during a composition. This cadence sounds incomplete as it ends on chord V (dominant), and therefore requires another cadence which ends on the tonic to balance it. The chord which precedes chord V (dominant) is usually either chord I (tonic), chord II/ii (supertonic), chord IV (subdominant) or chord VI/vi (submediant). Here is typical imperfect cadence in the key of C major, using chord II/ii (supertonic) to precede chord V (dominant). (Example on left)

Transposing Instruments

An instrument (e.g., clarinet, saxophone, or horn) whose notated pitches are not the same as the pitches that sound when played. Performers of other instruments read and play a note of one pitch, yet this note sounds at a different pitch. These instruments are called transposing instruments. Instruments which sound at a different pitch to the written notes are useful in a number of situations. For example, some instruments play at a very high or very low pitch. If music for these instruments was notated at the correct pitch, notes would be hard to read due to the amount of ledger lines required. Music for these instruments is transposed one or sometimes two octaves higher or lower to make it easier to read. Families of instruments such as clarinets and saxophones are made easier to play by reading music in one clef. Performers use the same fingering patterns on each instrument which then sounds at different pitches.

Interrupted Cadence (V-VI)

An interrupted cadence is a progression from the dominant chord to a chord other than the tonic. In most cases the progression is from chord V (dominant) to chord VI/vi (submediant). It is an unexpected progression as the ear is expecting the tonic chord and the completion of a perfect cadence after hearing the dominant chord. In a major key, chord VI/vi is a minor chord and in a minor key, chord VI is a major chord. This change of tonality is also unexpected. An interrupted cadence lacks a feeling of completion so it is not usually found at the end of a composition. This cadence is usually placed in the middle of a piece whilst perfect and plagal cadences usually finish pieces.

Interval

An interval is the difference in pitch between two notes. Intervals formed by successive notes of a melody are called melodic intervals while two notes sounding simultaneously are called an harmonic interval. Intervals can be measured by the number of scale degrees they span (e.g. a 3rd or 5th) Intervals can also be measured by the number of tones or semitones they contain. Intervals can be described by their quality (major, minor, perfect, diminished or augmented).

Scale

An organized series of pitches

Acciaccatura

An ornament which sounds like a crushed note played very quickly on the beat or just before it. The term acciaccatura is also from the Italian meaning "to crush". It is often called a short appoggiatura and is written in a similar way to the appoggiatura however the stem of the grace note has a line through it. The effect of the acciaccatura is as if both notes were played simultaneously and the grace note was immediately released, however in practice the grace note is usually played first and the principal note immediately following. This means that the grace note does not effectively take any value from the principal note and the accent remains on the principal note rather than the grace note. The acciaccatura can either be performed on the beat (1) or immediately before the beat (2), allowing the principal note to sound on the beat.

Unaccented Passing Notes

An unaccented passing note occurs in a melody between the notes from two chords and is called unaccented because it is on a weaker beat of the bar than the notes on either side of it. It must be approached and left by step, and so the notes it joins are a third apart. The function of an unaccented passing note is to allow a part to move by step instead of a leap and to create interest in the melody that is not essential to the harmony.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Up Bow

An up bow is made by placing the bow on the string and moving it towards the frog (where it is held by the right hand)

Measure

Another name for a Bar

Articulation

Articulation refers to the way a note is played. Articulation markings can alter the dynamic level (how loud or soft the note is), the duration of the note or the transition from one note to the next. Markings such as accents may also affect the tonal quality of the sound. In most cases, with exception of the marcato marking which is usually placed above the stave, articulation is aligned to the note head. In some examples editions of printed music such as jazz, all articulation markings may placed above the notes and outside the stave.

Atonality Information

As tonal music evolved throughout the nineteenth century, composers created more dissonance by using increasing numbers of chromatic notes that made the tonic key less obvious to the listener. Music written by many late eighteenth century composers such as Richard Wagner (1813 - 1883), featured frequent chromatic dissonances, however these were always resolved within a tonal framework. The process of atonal composition was pioneered by the composer Arnold Schoenberg (1874 - 1951), who wished to free music from the necessity of resolving dissonance to consonance. In the early twentieth century he began composing music where all twelve tones were equal and traditional tonal relationships did not exist. Schoenberg never supported the use of the term atonal to describe his music. He argued that there were always relationships between the twelve tones and that these relationships created tonal centres. He preferred the term "pantonal"; meaning the synthesis of all tonalities. Atonality was used by many composers in the early part of the twentieth century and has been adopted by other composers since that time. The term atonal is often used to describe music that is not tonal, and therefore does not have a tonal centre or the tonal relationships that were the basis of eighteenth and nineteenth century Western music.

ITALIAN TEMPO TERMS: tempo commodo

At a comfortable speed

TEMPO: Moderato, Modéré or Massig

At a moderate tempo

TEMPO: Andante

At a walking pace

ITALIAN TEMPO TERMS: l'istesso tempo

At the same tempo, used at a metre change

Augmentation

Augmentation refers to lengthening the duration of the notes in a rhythm or melody. Usually this is by a consistent amount such as doubling.

Augmented Triad

Augmented triads (also known as aug., + or +5 ) are constructed using an augmented fifth instead of the perfect fifth used in the major triad. The intervals created in this chord are both major thirds.

Anacrusis and Bar Numbering

Bar numbering usually begins from the first complete bar. This means that an anacrusis isn't labelled as a bar, rather it is apart of the final bar that its value was taken from.

Irregular Beats

Bars with patterns of beats with different numbers of subdivisions create irregular beats. Time signaturessuch as 5/4, 7/4, 5/8, and 7/8 convey these irregular beats and these metres are often termed asymmetric.

Writing an Interrupted Cadence (V-VI)

Based on Left Example In a typical interrupted cadence in the key of C major, the leading note, which is found in chord V, rises to the keynote (C). This keynote however is now the minor third of chord VI/vi. (B-C) The seventh of the dominant chord falls to the fifth of chord VI/vi. (G-E) The remaining note of the chord can move down by step. (D-C) It is acceptable to double the minor third (C) in chord VI/vi. The root note of the chord (G) moves up by step to the root note of chord VI/vi (A). (G-A)

Natural

Cancels a sharp or flat

Dynamic Contrast

Change in dynamic levels is referred to as dynamic contrast. This change may be sudden or gradual, and is indicated in scores in the same place as dynamic levels.

TEMPO: Allegro or Rasch

Cheerful, lively, quick

Chromatic Scales

Chromatic scales are a succession of semitones and are written without a key signature.

Consonant

Consonant music is often described as music that is pleasing to the ear. Harmonious. While there are elements of truth in these descriptions, it must be remembered that the personal taste and cultural background of listeners differ. Music considered as consonant by one listener could be described as dissonant by another. It is more useful to think of consonance in Western music as sounds that are resolved, stable and complete. Intervals that can commonly contribute to consonance are unisons, thirds, fifths, sixths and octaves.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Staccato

Detached or staccato notes are produced by stopping the bow on the string between each note.

Diatonic

Diatonic notes belong to a particular key, scale or mode.

Diatonic Triad

Diatonic triads of a scale are constructed by adding the third and fifth above each scale degree using only notes from that scale. The triads formed in this process may be major, minor, diminished or augmented.

Producing Glissando

Different types of glissandi are produced by different instruments. In keyboard music, a glissando is the effect created when a pianist runs the back of their finger across the white or black keys, striking each in succession and producing separate, successive pitches. Instruments such as the trombone, synthesiser and string instruments in general are able to produce a glissando which glides from the beginning note to the ending note. Pressing pedals which alter the tuning of strings on the harp enables the performer to produce glissandi over different scales or chords.

Diminished Triad

Diminished triads (also known as dim. or o) are constructed using a diminished fifth instead of the perfect fifth used in the minor triad. The intervals created in this chord are both minor thirds.

Diminution

Diminution is the opposite of augmentation and is also usually done by a consistent amount such as halving the duration of all notes.

Direct Modulation Information

Direct modulation is a common technique in rock and popular music that is used to maintain interest and create excitement. The modulation is commonly up to the key one semitone or tone above the original key. This type of modulation is effective if it is used once or possibly twice in a song, however overuse of this technique tends to weaken the effect.

Dissonant

Dissonant music is often described as music that is displeasing to the ear. Inharmonious. While there are elements of truth in these descriptions, it must be remembered that the personal taste and cultural background of listeners differ. Music considered as dissonant by one listener could be described as consonant by another. It is more useful to think of dissonance in Western music as sounds that create tension, movement and are incomplete. Intervals that can create dissonance are seconds, sevenths and tritones (augmented 4ths). Related pages

Minor Pentatonic Scale

Do Me Fa Sol Te

Major Pentatonic Scale

Do Re Mi So La

Dotted Notes and Rests Guide Lines

Dots are written to the right of a note or rest. Dotted rests written in their normal place on the stave have dots to the right of the rest, in the second top space. If the note head is on a line, the dot is written to the right in the space above the line. If the note head is in a space, the dot is written to the right in the centre of the space. If the note head is on the middle line of the stave, the dot is written to the right in the space above the middle line.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Double stops

Double stops refers to playing two strings at the same time.

Duple metre

Duple metre has two beats in a bar; the first accented (strong) and the second unaccented (weak).

Modes History

During the Middle Ages (450 - 1450), the majority of musical activity was centred around the church. The music to accompany the daily liturgy, commonly called Gregorian chant, was written in manuscripts which dated from the ninth century. These chants were composed using modes and by the eleventh century there were four modes which were commonly used: Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian and Mixolydian. By the end of the sixteenth century there were two additional modes: Aeolian and Ionian. The eighth mode, Locrian, was added later however it is rarely used. During the Renaissance (1450 - 1600), the supremacy of church modes was challenged by music theorists and composers who used different systems of tuning (temperaments) which enabled them to explore new concepts in harmony. By the late Baroque period (1600 - 1750), the equal temperament system of tuning had become more widely accepted in Europe. With this system, all major and minor scales had the same structure of tones and semitones; a characteristic which would allow musicians from the Classical period (1750 - 1820) to compose and perform music using all 12 keys.

Isorhythm

During the fourteenth century, many examples of choral music were composed isorhythmically. Isorhythm is a musical technique using a repeating rhythmic pattern in at least one voice part throughout a composition. From the Greek word isos, meaning equal, isorhythm was a process where a series of pitches or intervals was combined with a series of rhythmic values to create a melody. The note values of the rhythmic series could be varied by augmentation or diminution. The use of an isorhythm gave the composition structural unity.

Chromatic Modulations Information

During the nineteenth century composers experimented with modulations to unrelated keys to create interest and explore other relationships to the tonic. Composers of this period frequently only hinted at the modulations and on some occasions did not return to the original tonic. Common modulations during this period were to keys a major or minor third above or below the original tonic.

TEMPO: Presto, Vite or Schnell

Fast

Concert Pitch

For many instruments, the pitch music is written at is the same as the pitch it will sound at when played. This means a performer will read and play the note C and the note produced will also be a C. These instruments are said to play at concert pitch.

TEMPO CHANGE: Rubato

Freely changing the tempo to suite expression

Ostinato

From an Italian word meaning "stubborn" or "obstinate", an ostinato is a device that can be applied to the elements of pitch, harmony, duration and structure. It is a repeated pattern, and can be constructed from notes of repeated pitches, a repeated melodic phrase, a repeated rhythm, a bass line, or a repeated chord progression with or without an accompanying melody. The use of an ostinato quite often becomes a unifying device in music, with other contrasting parts layered above.

Ostinato

From an Italian word meaning stubborn or obstinate, an ostinato is a repeating melody, rhythm and/or chord progression. The use of an ostinato becomes a unifying device in music, with other contrasting parts layered above or below. Ostinati occur in world, contemporary and Western art music. The ground bass is an example of an ostinato and was used to provide a bass and/or harmonic framework for the Baroque passacaglia or chaconne. Stravinsky frequently used elaborate ostinati; often with interlocking instrumental parts. Minimalist composers from the 1960s used ostinati, and the tape loop used by composers of electronic music in the 1950s is an extended form of an ostinato. The composition for piano below is based on a two bar ostinato in the left hand (bass stave). The notes used come from the diminished (whole-tone half-tone) scale.

Arpeggios

From the Italian word meaning "harp-like", an arpeggio (broken chord) is the individual notes of a chord sounded successively. An arpeggio can be ascending or descending and can be formed from any chord. Arpeggios are frequently used to accompany melodies. Arpeggios are useful for instruments that can only play one note at a time.

ITALIAN TEMPO TERMS: Calando

Getting softer and slower

Glissando

Glissando (gliss.) refers to sliding or gliding in pitch from one note to another. The glissando is notated using a line drawn between the noteheads of the beginning and ending note together with the abbreviation gliss. A straight line is often used, however a wavy line is also common.

BRASS ARTICULATION: Glissando

Glissando (gliss.) refers to sliding or gliding in pitch from one note to another. In this example, the valves on the trumpet are pressed half-way down and no distinct pitches are heard in the glissando.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Glissando

Glissando refers to gliding from one note to another. On a bowed string instrument, this is done by sliding the finger up or down the fingerboard.

DYNAMICS SIGN: < TERM: crescendo or cresc.

Gradually becoming louder

DYNAMICS SIGN: > TERM: decrescendo or decresc.

Gradually becoming softer

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: diminuendo, dimin. or dim.

Gradually becoming softer

TEMPO CHANGE: Accelerando or Accel.

Gradually getting faster

TEMPO CHANGE: Rallentando or Rall.

Gradually getting slower

TEMPO CHANGE: Ritardando, Rit or Ritard.

Gradually getting slower

TEMPO CHANGE: Slentando

Gradually getting slower

Harmonic Minor Scale

Harmonic minor scales have a raised seventh (leading note) that is written as an accidental when a key signature is used. The raised seventh creates an augmented second interval between the sixth and seventh scale degrees. The augmented second is often avoided when composing a melody in a minor key. Semitones occur between the the scale degree numbers 2 - 3, 5 - 6 and #7 - 8/1.

Harmonic Rhythm

Harmonic rhythm (harmonic tempo) refers to the frequency of harmony or chord changes in a composition. (How often chords change in a piece of music) Where there are few chord changes, the harmonic rhythm is described as slow. Where there are frequent chord changes, the harmonic rhythm is described as fast.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Harmonics

Harmonics are produced by placing the finger very lightly at certain places on the string. Notes produced as harmonics have a distinctive timbre which is thinner and less rich than normally produced notes. There are different conventions for notating harmonics and the notation also differs according to the type of harmonic (either natural or artificial).

Time Signature Top Number

How many beats per measure/bar

TEMPO CHANGE: Ritenuto, Rit. or Riten.

Immediately slower

Staff

In Western musical notation, the staff or stave is a set of five horizontal lines and four spaces that each represent a different musical pitch or in the case of a percussion staff, different percussion instruments.

Writing a Perfect Cadence (V-I)

In a typical perfect cadence in the key of C major, the leading note, which is found in the dominant chord, would rise to the tonic note (B to C). If there is a seventh in the dominant chord, it falls to the third of the tonic chord (F to E). One note can remain the same as it is common to both chords (G). The root note of the dominant either rises or falls to the root note of the tonic chord. (G to C). In a minor key, the leading note is usually raised one semitone (for example, Bb would become B natural if in C minor)

Writing a Plagal Cadence (IV-I)

In a typical plagal cadence in the key of C major: The key note of C is common to both chords and can remain the same. This stability contributes to a less forceful sound. (C-C) The remaining notes of the subdominant chord move by step to notes of the tonic chord. (F-E) and (A-G) The root note of the subdominant chord rises a fifth or falls a fourth to the root note of the tonic chord. (F-C) Note that the Subdominant chord (Chord IV) contains the notes FAC and that the Tonic chord (Chord I) contains he notes CEG.

Grouping Notes in Asymmetric Metre

In asymmetric metres with time signatures such as 5/8 and 7/8, notes are placed in groups of two, three or four according to the accents required by the composer.

Compound Time

In compound time signatures, the upper number can be divided by three to give the number of beats in a bar while the lower number, representing a note value which is a proportion of the semibreve, is multiplied by three. For example, in 6/8 the upper number (6) is divided by three to give the number of beats (2). The lower number (8), represents a quaver (one eighth of a semibreve), and is multiplied by three (three quavers equal a dotted crotchet). The time signature 6/8 represents two dotted crotchet beats in a bar.

Grouping Notes in Duple Metre

In duple metre, notes are in two groups of the beat value expressed by the time signature.

Diatonic Scales

In its strictest definition, diatonic scales and modes use only the sharps or flats found in their key signature.

BRASS ARTICULATION: Marcato

In jazz, notes with the marcato "cap" are played with a forceful attack and are usually regarded as shorter than their written value and separate from other notes. In some scores all articulation is aligned to the notehead with the marcato sign placed above the note, regardless of stem direction. In other scores all articulation signs are placed above the notes.

Phrase Information

In literature, a phrase is a connected group of words within a sentence. In music, a phrase has a similar role; referring to a group of notes that are coherent within themselves and found within a longer composition. The term "regular" can be used to describe phrases with a consistent length, or "irregular" to describe phrases of inconsistent lengths. During the Baroque period (1600 - 1750), phrase lengths tended to be irregular due to the nature of the composing style. Melodic material was "spun out" of an original idea; a process that often provided little feeling for regular phrase lengths. Composers during the Classical period (1750 - 1820) focused on balanced four bar phrases that created a sense of symmetry. This symmetry is evident in the example below by Mozart. Nineteenth century composers began to mark phrases more frequently on their music to ensure consistent interpretation by the performer. Curved lines (phrase marks) connecting the first and last notes of a phrase were used above or below the notes. Phrase marks are not to be confused with slurs, which are also curved lines. A slur connects smaller numbers of notes and is an expression marking.

Grouping Notes

In non-Western cultures where music is not usually notated, notes of different duration are organized according to cycles of regular or irregular beats. In Western music which is traditionally notated, notes of different duration are usually grouped according to the metre (simple, triple or quadruple) and the beat value shown in the time signature (crotchet, dotted crotchet etc.). These groupings are then organized into bars. For example, if you have 8 quavers in a bar of 2/2 time (2 minims per bar) they would be grouped into fours. This is because 4 quavers = one minim.

Grouping Notes in Quadruple Metre

In quadruple metre, notes are in four groups of the beat value expressed by the time signature.

Clef

In sheet music, a symbol at the beginning of the staff defining the pitch of the notes found in that particular staff. A sign that helps organize the staff so notes can be easily read

Diatonic Triad Information

In some systems of music theory, chord III of the diatonic harmonic minor triads is not constructed using a raised leading note and is therefore a major chord instead of an augmented chord. Triads built on the raised 6th and 7th from the harmonic and melodic minor scales are usually not prefaced with a "#" sign (i.e. #viio) Diatonic triads of the descending melodic minor scale are the same as those of the natural minor.

Grouping Notes in Triple Metre

In triple metre, notes are in three groups of the beat value expressed by the time signature.

Producing Vibrato

In vocal performance, a wide variety of vibrato styles are produced depending on the genre or style of the music and the country of origin. Performers of string instruments shake or rock the finger that stops the string on the fingerboard. Performers of brass instruments can produce vibrato by varying their lip pressure, by moving the instrument gently or by changes of abdominal pressure. On synthesisers, vibrato can be added using the mod wheel that is usually found to the left of the keyboard next to the pitch controller. The tones produced by many electronic instruments such as the Theremin, invented by Russian physicist Leon Theremin in 1919, are so pure that some degree of vibrato is essential.

Playing Tremolo

Instruments also have different capabilities of performing tremolos. String instruments such as violins often perform tremolos on the same note or between two different notes. Keyboard instruments such as the piano usually perform tremolos between two or more notes of different pitches. Electronic instruments and amplifiers often have a tremolo setting which creates a shimmering effect by using rapid alternation of low and high volume. The frequency of the alternation can usually be controlled by the tremolo speed control. Some devices are able to create a tremolo of alternating volumes as well as a vibrato effect of raising and lowering pitch. The Leslie amplifier, commonly used with the Hammond organ in the 1960s, had a rotating speaker that created a tremolo effect as well as variations in pitch that simulated vibrato. Since the 1950s, many electric guitars feature a tremolo arm (whammy bar, wang bar) attached to the bridge of the guitar. Variations in pitch are created by raising or lowering the bridge of the guitar and styles of rock such as surf rock have exploited this effect. Although called a tremolo arm, the variations in pitch it produces are more correctly described as vibrato.

Dynamics Guide Lines

Instruments with music written on a single stave have dynamics written below the stave. In vocal music where the lyrics are below the stave, dynamics are placed above the stave. In keyboard music with two staves, the dynamic will usually be found between the two staves. For occasions where the left and right hands are required to play at different dynamic levels, separate dynamics for both hands can be used. In a score with staves for many instruments, each stave must have its own dynamic markings. In all cases, the dynamic marking is written under the note it affects (or above on vocal staves). Some references recommend placing the sign slightly before the note it affects however in many cases the sign is directly above or below the note.

Augmented Intervals

Intervals are augmented if they are one semitone more than a perfect or major interval. The interval of an augmented fourth is called a tritone as it spans three tones (six semitones) and divides the octave equally in half. (Note that M3 means major 3rd)

Diminished Intervals

Intervals are diminished if they are one semitone less than a perfect or minor interval. (Note that m3 means minor 3rd)

Drone Information

It is considered to be one of the first forms of harmony and its use in Western music dates from the Middle Ages (450 - 1450). Drones are also widely used in traditional music from other cultures. Some instruments such as the tambura, a stringed instrument from India, are used exclusively to provide a drone while other instruments such as the bagpipe can provide a drone as well as a melody. Drones provide a solid foundation for the melody or melodies above and their use conveys strength and antiquity. Composers of Western music such as Ravel (Pictures at an Exhibition - The Old Castle) have used this device to evoke a mood of ancient times. The pedal point in Western music is thought to be related to the drone

Scale Degree Name Information

It is often easier to understand these names when the notes of the scale are arranged in two groups. The upper group above the tonic has a dominant that is five notes above the tonic as well as a mediant or middle of the upper group. The lower group below the tonic has a subdominant that is five notes below the tonic as well as a submediant or middle of the lower group. The groups are completed by adding the notes immediately above (super tonic) and below (leading note) the tonic note. Modes also have degrees called dominants however they are not consistently five notes above the tonic of each mode.

Anacrusis Information

It usually consists of a note or group of notes on weaker beats of the bar and leads to the strong beat on the first beat of the first complete bar that follows. The anacrusis is often a note from the dominant chord (V) and leads to a note from the tonic chord (I). This creates a perfect cadence that helps to establish the key of the music on the strong beat of of the first bar. The value of notes in the anacrusis is often taken from the last bar of the composition or movement. In the example below, the value of the anacrusis (one crotchet beat) has been deducted from the last bar.

Related Keys on the Circle of Fifths

Keys that are close to each other on the circle are said to be related as these keys share significant numbers of common chords. In a major key, these are generally accepted to be: The minor key that shares the same key signature (known as the relative minor) The key of the dominant or 5th note in the scale The key of the subdominant or 4th note in the scale Related keys are easily identified on the circle as being one step clockwise (the key of the dominant), one step anticlockwise (the key of the subdominant) and the relative minor (or major).

Unrelated Key

Keys which share few or no common chords are known as unrelated keys.

Related Key

Keys which share significant numbers of common chords are known as related keys.

Divisive Rhythm

Larger period of time is divided into smaller units A longer structure can be divided into smaller rhythmic groupings based on equally spaced beats

TEMPO CHANGE: Meno mosso

Less movement, slower

TEMPO: Vivace, Vif or Lebhaft

Lively

DYNAMICS SIGN: fp TERM: forte piano

Loud then immediately soft

STRING TECHNIQUES: Louré or portato

Louré or portato are slightly separated legato notes.

Flat

Lowers a note by a half step/one semitone

Double Flat

Lowers a note by a whole step/one tone

STRING TECHNIQUES: Bartok or snap pizzicato

Made by lifting the string above the fingerboard and releasing it very quickly. This produces a very aggressive sound as the string snaps against the fingerboard. It is indicated on the score using the term pizz. as well as a special symbol.

Major Intervals

Major 2nd Major 3rd Major 6th Major 7th Major intervals (seconds, thirds, sixths and sevenths) are found using the notes from the major scale.

Major Triad

Major Triads (also known as MA, maj., ma. or M) are constructed by combining the intervals of a major third and a perfect fifth.

Major and Minor Scales

Major and minor scales are a series of notes constructed from a tonic note or key note. Each scale has a particular order of intervals that creates a pattern of tones and semitones. It is the difference between these patterns that gives major and minor scales their individual character.

Tetrachords

Major and minor scales can also be constructed by joining two, four note sequences called tetrachords. Tetrachords were the basis of ancient Greek scales and each was the division of a perfect fourth into four notes. Major scales have an upper and lower tetrachord, which are identical in structure and are separated by a tone (major second). Minor scales share a common lower tetrachord and have one of three upper tetrachords that create the natural, harmonic and melodic minors. These are also separated by a tone

Major Scales

Major scales are constructed with the following structure. In the example, the letter "T" represents the interval of a tone (major second) and the letter "S" represents a semitone (minor second). Semitones occur between the scale degree numbers 3 - 4 and 7 - 8/1. The scale can also be written using a key signatureinstead of accidentals.

Major Seventh Chord

Major seventh (also known as MA7, MAJ7, maj7, M7 and △ ) chords combine a major seventh interval with a major triad. Major seventh chords can also be referred to as major-major 7ths (MM7) to reflect the quality of both the triad and seventh. Major seventh chords are harmonically stable and usually do not create any movement in a chord progression.

Word Painting

Making the music directly reflect the meaning of the words. For example : If the words say 'ascending to the heavens' the melody might be ascending also to reflect the words. Word painting (tone painting) is the practice of reflecting the text in the setting of a vocal melody.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Martelé

Martelé (French) or martellato (Italian) is an accented staccato stroke. It can be indicated on a score using wedges with the term written above the notes.

Notating Tremolos

Measured repetitions of single notes are sometimes referred to as tremolos and have one line drawn through the note stem representing the duration of the repeated note or notes. One line represents quavers, two lines represent semiquavers etc. Unmeasured tremolos are typically written with three short lines above, below or between the relevant notes. Unmeasured tremolos between two notes are usually written with the full duration for each note of the tremolo resulting what appears to be doubled duration values. Tremolos between notes with stems are usually joined with a beam that takes the place of one of the three lines.

Melismatic Word Setting

Melismatic word setting describes the technique of extending syllables using a decorative and often elaborate series of notes known as a melisma. This style of word setting is often used for words which are important or whose meaning is significant. Several notes per syllable of a word.

Melodic Minor Scale

Melodic minor scales have an ascending and descending form. In the ascending form the sixth and seventh notes are raised. In the descending form they sound without alteration and according to the key signature, which is the same as the natural minor. The melodic minor scale avoids the augmented second found in the harmonic minor and is often used to compose a melody in a minor key.

Compound Metre

Metres with beats that subdivide into three notes are called compound. These beats are often dotted notessuch as dotted crotchets, dotted minims or dotted quavers.

Simple Metre

Metres with beats that subdivide into two notes are called simple metres.

Metrical Accents

Metrical Accent : Where a note has a natural emphasis because it is the first in the bar. When music is organised in bars according to a time signature, beats acquire a natural emphasis which can be described as strong, medium or weak. These accents are often referred to as metrical accents. The first beat in a bar is the strongest (S) and depending on the time signature and their place in the bar, other beats may be referred to as weak (W) or medium (M).

Microtone

Microtones are intervals that are smaller than a semitone (minor second). Many instruments and voices are capable of producing microtones, as well as synthesisers and electronic keyboards using a pitch bend. Different systems of tuning (temperaments) may also use intervals which are larger or smaller than tones and semitones.

Minor Intervals

Minor 2nd Minor 3rd Minor 6th Minor 7th Minor seconds, thirds, sixths and sevenths have one semitone less than their major counterparts. (Note that Major intervals are found using the notes from the major scale.)

Minor Scales

Minor scales have three forms: natural, harmonic and melodic.

Minor Triad

Minor triads (also known as MI, min., mi. or m) are constructed by combining the intervals of a minor third and a perfect fifth.

Modulation

Modulation is the movement from one tonal centre to another in a composition. These new tonal centres are usually temporary and the composition generally returns to finish in the key in which it began. The use of a new tonal centre provides contrast and is a means of creating interest within larger scale compositions. Modulations also serve to strengthen the original tonic by the process of returning to the original key or tonic. True modulations establish the new tonal centre and use the diatonic harmony of that tonality. The process of creating a new tonal centre and moving immediately away is called tonicisation and is not considered a true modulation.

Common Note Modulations

Modulation to a key that has no chords in common with the original key can be made using a note which is common to both keys.

Diatonic Pivot Chord

Modulations are often made using a diatonic pivot chord that provides a smooth transition to the next key. This is a chord of transition that stands between the original and the new key and is common and diatonic in both keys. A chord that has a diatonic function in both of the keys for which it acts as a connection. Modulations using diatonic pivot chords often move to related keys that share significant numbers of common chords.

Chromatic Modulations

Modulations which use a pivot chord or note which is non-diatonic to either the original or destination key are called chromatic modulations. These modulations can be to related keys or to keys which are unrelated to the original tonic and share no common chords. In general, modulations to unrelated keys sound harmonically further away from the tonic key than modulations to related keys. They can also be more difficult to prepare and equally difficult to return to the original tonic.

TEMPO CHANGE: Piu mosso

More movement, faster

Glissando/Portamento Information

Most references use the term glissando as a general term to describe sliding or gliding in pitch from one note to another by any instrument. Other references use the term glissando to describe the effect on an instrument where individual notes can be heard and the term portamento for instruments such as the trombone where no individual notes can be heard.

Multiple Bar Rest

Multiple bar rests are found in instrumental parts and indicate the number of bar rests.

Drum Notation

Music for drum kit is usually notated on a five line stave with either a "double bar" or "narrow box" clef.

Modal

Music made up of modes. Such As: Ionian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Locrian

Atonality

Music that is atonal does not have key signature and uses many accidentals.

Natural Minor Scale

Natural minor scales have no sharps or flats (accidentals) other than those in the key signature. Semitonesoccur between the the scale degree numbers 2 - 3 and 5 - 6.

TEMPO: Allegretto

Not as fast as allegro

ITALIAN TEMPO TERMS: non troppo

Not too much - Allegro (ma) non troppo - Quickly, but not too fast

STRING TECHNIQUES: Détaché

Notes are smooth and connected, however the direction of the bow changes for each note.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Legato

Notes marked with slur or with the word legato means they are to be played smoothly without changing the direction of the bow.

Chromatic or Non-Diatonic

Notes which do not belong to a particular key, scale or mode are referred to as chromatic or non-diatonic. Non-diatonic or chromatic notes require the use of accidentals within a key signature. Melodies that do not fall within the key or key center they are written in. Usually sound quite strange (even unpleasant) to the ear.

Beaming

Notes with the value of a quaver or less are joined when their "flags" or "tails" are replaced by a horizontal line called a beam. Two or more quavers are joined by one beam to reflect one flag. Two or more semiquavers are joined by two beams to reflect two flags and so on.

Perfect Intervals

Perfect 4th Perfect 5th Perfect Octave Intervals of a fourth, fifth or octave cannot be major or minor and are called perfect. Perfect intervals are the same in both major and minor scales.

Periodic Phrasing

Periodic phrasing refers to a melodic phrase structure that was commonly used during the Classical period. The feeling of balance created by the symmetry of this structure became one of the important musical characteristics of the Classical period. An eight bar period consisted of two balanced four bar phrases.

Backbeat

Placing a strong accent on the offbeats. In a four-beat measure, the drummer typically emphasizes beats 2 and 4, creating the basic rhythm of rock music. The backbeat (back beat) is a form of syncopation commonly used in contemporary music which emphasises the second and fourth beats in a bar of 4/4.

Creating Polyrhythmic Music

Polyrhythmic music can be created in a variety of ways. Forms such as rounds, canons and fugues (polyphonic music) are usually considered polyrhythmic as each individual part is independent. Music that is polymetric is also usually polyrhythmic due to the different metrical accents and rhythmic patterns created by each time signature.

Polytonality

Polytonality is the compositional device of simultaneously using more than one tonality. Polytonality refers to the use of more than two tonalities. More commonly however, the term polytonality refers to any use of more than one tonality.

TEMPO CHANGE: Stringendo

Pressing on, getting faster

Quadruple Metre

Quadruple metre has four beats in a bar; the first accented (strong), the third a slightly lesser accent (medium) and the second and fourth unaccented (weak).

STRING TECHNIQUES: Quadruple stops

Quadruple stops refers to playing four strings at the same time. The four notes are usually sounded in two groups.

ITALIAN TEMPO TERMS: tranquillo

Quiet, calm

Sharp

Raises a note by a half step/one semitone

Double Sharp

Raises a note by a whole step/one tone

Range

Range is the difference in pitch between the lowest and highest notes of a melody or phrase. The range of a melody can generally be described as small or large, or it can be expressed in terms of an interval. Range is also used to describe the compass of an instrument or voice.

DYNAMICS SIGN: rfz TERM: rinforzando

Reinforced

Related Key Information

Related keys are generally accepted to be: the major or minor key which shares the same key signature (known as the relative major or relative minor) the key of the dominant or 5th note in the scale the key of the subdominant or 4th note in the scale

TEMPO CHANGE: Tempo 1 or Tempo primo

Return to the original speed

TEMPO CHANGE: a tempo

Return to the previous tempo

STRING TECHNIQUES: Saltando or ricochet

Saltando or ricochet is the very quick bouncing of the bow on the string and is usually done at a fast tempo.

Scale Degree Names

Scale degree names can be assigned to the notes of the major and minor scales. They Include: Tonic Supertonic Mediant Subdominant Dominant Submediant Leading Note Tonic

Scale Degree Numbers

Scale degree numbers can be assigned to the notes of scales beginning with the number 1 that is assigned to the tonic note.The octave above the tonic note is usually labelled as 1. In some systems of music theory, a caret symbol (circumflex) is placed above the number to indicate that it refers to a scale degree. Scale degree numbers (with or without carets) can be used to identify the notes in a melody.

Inverted Diminished Scale

Semitone, Tone, Semitone, Tone, Semitone, Tone, Semitone, Tone.

Modulation by Sequence

Sequences, or repeated patterns of notes in a melody are also used as a method of modulation. The repetition of a phrase one tone higher is also called rosalia.

Dynamics

Signs used by composers to indicate the dynamic level to the performer. The different gradations of the signs and terms are relative to each other.

Simple Time

Simple time signatures are the easiest to count, because a one-two pulse in a piece of music feels the most natural to a listener and a performer. Common examples of simple time signatures are 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, 3/8, and 2/2

TEMPO: Andantino

Slower than andante

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: perdendosi or morendo

Slower, dying away

ITALIAN TEMPO TERMS: perdendosi

Slower, dying away

TEMPO: Adagio, Lent or Langsam

Slowly

TEMPO: Lento

Slowly

TEMPO: Largo

Slowly and broadly

TEMPO: Larghetto

Slowly and broadly, not as slow as largo

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: calando

Softer and slower

Diatonic Scale Information

Some references describe diatonic scales and modes as being constructed using recurring patterns of five tones and two semitones. These tones (T) and semitones (S) are arranged in two groups TTS and TTTS. The major, natural minor scales and modes are considered to be diatonic. Notes from these scales and modes are referred to as diatonic notes. Some references also include all forms of the minor scale (natural, harmonic and melodic) as diatonic scales regardless of their accidentals (i.e. the raised 7th of the harmonic minor and the raised 6th and 7th of the melodic minor ascending form). Other references don't include the harmonic or melodic minor (ascending form) scales as diatonic scales because they contain notes which are altered from their natural minor form and do not use groupings of TTS and TTTS.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Spiccato

Spiccato is created by lifting the bow between the notes with a slight bouncing action. It is usually reserved for notes of short duration.

BRASS ARTICULATION: Staccato

Staccato notes are shorter than their written value, detached and played without an accent. According to some references, staccato notes are described as being held for half their written value.

Note Stems

Stems are drawn up from the right hand side on notes below the middle line and down from the left hand side on notes above the middle line. Notes on the middle line can have stems that are either up or down, with the direction usually determined by the surrounding notes. If there is a choice of direction, the stem of a note on the middle line is usually drawn down. The correct length of the stem of a single note is approximately three additional spaces for notes in a space or three additional lines for notes on a line, although extremely high or low notes will often have much longer stems. The stem direction in beamed groups that contain notes above and below the middle line will usually be determined by the stem direction of a majority of notes in the group. The stem direction of a chord is usually determined by the number of notes above or below the middle line.

Suspended Fourth Triad

Suspended fourth chords (also known as sus4. and sus) are formed using a using a perfect fourth in place of a third. The dissonant sound created by the fourth (C-F in this case) and fifth (C-G in this case) being played together creates tension. In periods of Western art music such as the Baroque or Classical periods, the dissonance created by this chord would have been resolved. In contemporary music, suspended fourth chords are often used without resolution. The image shows a Csus4 chord

Syllabic Word Setting

Syllabic word setting describes the use of single notes in a melody for individual syllables of the words or lyrics. This style of word setting is usually easier to learn and clearly understood. One note per syllable of a word.

Accidentals

Symbol used to raise or lower a given pitch by 1 or 2 semi-tones, or to cancel a previous sign or part of a key signature.

BRASS ARTICULATION: Tenuto

Tenuto notes are unaccented notes which are held for their full written value.

Homorhythmic

Texture in which all voices, or lines, move together in the same rhythm. The use of different patterns contrasts with compositions where all parts have the same rhythmic patterns; creating music that can be described as homorhythmic. Examples of homorhythmic music are found in vocal writing such as hymns, where identical rhythmic patterns are used in all parts for the same words.

Accent

The accent is drawn as a small, open wedge with the point on the right hand side. This accent adds emphasis to a note in any dynamic level and is held for its full value.

Chromatic Scale Information

The ascending and descending chromatic scale can be notated using intervals formed from the tonic (in this case the tonic is F) in the following order: tonic, minor second (F - Gb) major second (F - G) minor third (F - Ab) major third (F - A) perfect fourth (F - Bb) augmented fourth (F - B) perfect fifth (F - C) minor sixth (F - Db) major sixth (F - D) minor seventh (F - Eb) major seventh (F - E) perfect octave (F - F)

BRASS ARTICULATION: Bend

The bend is created by the performer playing the note at its written pitch, bending the note down and returning to the written pitch.

Blues Scales

The blues scale is similar in structure to the minor pentatonic scale however it has an added flattened fifth. In the example, the C blues scale is created from the C minor pentatonic scale by adding G flat. The intervals used in the blues scale are: tonic minor third perfect fourth diminished fifth perfect fifth minor seventh tonic The flattened third (E flat), flattened fifth (G flat) and flattened seventh (B flat) are often referred to as blue or blues notes as they are usually bent (flattened or raised) slightly by singers and performers of instruments capable of playing microtonal intervals. The blues scale is used extensively as a basis for improvising by jazz, blues and rock musicians.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Bowed tremolo

The bowed tremolo is created on one note by rapidly moving the bow back and forth on the string.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Arco

The bowing of the string. The indication arco (or arco ord., arco nat., arco norm.) is used on a score to cancel another indication such as pizzicato.

Circle of Fifths as a Chord Progression

The circle of fifths is also the name given to a chord progression where the underlying harmony progresses in an anticlockwise direction through the circle of fifths. These chord progressions were commonly used during the Baroque period (1600 - 1750) in Western art music and often accompanied a descending melodic sequence. Chord progressions based on the circle of fifths can vary in length from short progressions of four chords to long progressions of eight or more chords. The root or lowest note of each chord usually moves down by a fifth, although there are times when it has to move up by a fourth before the bass becomes too low to be played. Long progressions of chords are often used to modulate (change key). In many examples, the progression is cut short by using a diminished fifth (or augmented fourth in a rising line) in the bass instead of the perfect fifth. In practice, many of the chords used can be seventh chords (major 7th, minor 7th or dominant 7th). The tonality of the chords (major or minor) can also be varied depending on the function of the chord and chords can also be used in different inversions.

Circle of Fifths

The circle of fifths is the name given to a diagram of all major and minor keys arranged in a circle with C major/A minor in the twelve o'clock position. Moving in a clockwise direction from C major, each new key is a fifth above the previous one and has one additional sharp in its key signature. Moving in an anticlockwise direction from C major, each new key is a fifth below the previous one and has one additional flat in its key signature. Keys at the base of the circle are enharmonic, meaning they are based on the same note but have two different names and different key signatures (e.g. B major and C flat major). The progression of minor keys is the same, however A minor is at top of the circle of minor keys as it has no sharps or flats in its key signature.

Diminished Scale Information

The diminished (whole-tone half-tone) scale is an eight note (octotonic) symmetrical scale that ascends in alternating intervals of tones and semitones. The first, third, fifth and seventh note outline a diminished seventh chord. This scale was used by Stravinsky, Scriabin, Rimsky-Korsakov and Messiaen, who classified it as a mode of limited transposition as there are only three transpositions of this scale before the pitches begin to repeat. In jazz, this scale is used to improvise over diminished seventh chords.

Drum Notation Information

The direction of the stems indicates whether the notes are played with the hands or feet. Notes with stems pointing up are played with the hands (snare drum, toms, ride and crash cymbals). Notes with stems pointing down are played with the feet (bass drum, hi-hat with pedal). Regular note heads are used for drums while cymbals use "x" note heads. There are many different systems of notating music for drum kit and most publications will include a notation key to define the system used.

BRASS ARTICULATION: Doit

The doit is the opposite of a fall or drop with the performer forcing the pitch of the note upwards.

Tierce de Picardie

The final chord of a piece of music in the minor key is changed to major. When a composition in a minor key unexpectedly finishes with a major tonic chord instead of the minor chord, the device is called a Tierce de Picardie. The practice began during the 1500s, was commonly used during the Baroque period and was rarely used from the Classical period onwards..

STRING TECHNIQUES: Finger tremolo

The finger tremolo is a tremolo between two notes of different pitch. It is created by the fingers on the fingerboard together with a smooth bowing action.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Left-hand pizzicato

The fingers of the left hand can also be used to create pizzicato. A plus sign is used to indicate left hand pizzicato on the score.

Downbeat

The first and strongest beat in a bar is often referred to as the downbeat (down-beat). Conducting patterns for each time signature begin with the conductor bringing their arm or baton DOWN to signify the first beat of the the bar.

Backbeat History

The inclusion of the snare drum in the drum kit used by jazz musicians in the US throughout the early decades of the 1900s contributed to the development of the backbeat. By the 1950s it was evident in the shuffle beat used in songs by many rhythm and blues performers. As the use of the shuffle beat evolved throughout the 1950s to the rock beat of the 1960s, the backbeat, usually heard on the snare drum, remained an important characteristic. The importance of the snare drum and backbeat reached its height during the 1980s in the music of performers such as Bruce Springsteen and Phil Collins. The use of recording techniques to shape and enhance the sound of the snare drum enabled the backbeat to become one of the most powerful elements of the song.

Real (Chromatic) Sequence

The intervals found in the original phrase are repeated exactly at the new pitch; often requiring the use of chromatic notes.

Jazz Minor Scale

The jazz minor scale uses the natural minor scale with raised sixth and seventh degrees. This corresponds to the ascending form of the melodic minor scale used for both ascending and descending. The intervals used in one octave ascending are: Unison Major 2nd Minor 3rd Perfect 4th Perfect 5th Major 6th Major 7th Perfect octave.

Finding the Key of a Composition

The key of a composition can be found by looking at the key signature which indicates either a major or minor key. (For example : a key with no sharps or flats could either be C-Major or A-Minor) Compositions usually begin and end on the tonic chord (chord 1) of the key, and this chord should indicate whether the key is major or minor. The tonic chord provides the listener with a frame of reference from which the composer can change keys (modulate). Changes of key can be indicated by either a new key signature appearing in the piece or the use of accidentals. These are flats, sharps or naturals which occur during the composition that are not part of the key signature.

Key

The key of a composition is the grouping of tones and semitones around a tonic note. In Western music, the key can be major or minor and based on any of the 12 notes within an octave. Music composed before the use of key signatures was often modal, while much music composed since the beginning of the twentieth century explored relationships of notes outside traditional keys. The initial key signature of a composition occurs after the clef and can use either sharps or flats. These are used as required in the following order. Sharps: F, C, G, D, A, E, B Flats: B, E, A, D, G, C, F

Lower Mordent

The lower mordent is a similar alternation between the principal note, the note below, and returning to the principal note. The note below the principal note may or may not be a semitone. The lower mordent is distinguished by the vertical line through the sign.

Major Blues Scale

The major blues scale is another scale commonly used by jazz, blues and rock musicians. It is based on the major pentatonic scale however the major blues scale has an added flattened third. In the example, the C major blues scale is created from the C major pentatonic scale by adding Eb.

Marcato

The marcato is a heavier accent than the normal accent and is not usually held for its full value. The marcato is often used in jazz and is referred to as the cap or hat. As it's not held for its full value, the marcato is not usually applied to notes of long duration. The marcato marking is usually written above the stave.

Mordents

The mordent is a simple ornament involving the use of just one unessential note. The upper mordent is a rapid alteration between the principal note, the note above, and returning to the principal note. The terms "upper" and "lower" are now used to overcome confusion which arose from different meanings of the terms "mordent" and "inverted mordent" during the Baroque period.

The Tenuto and Staccato

The most common articulation markings controlling the duration of a note are the tenuto and staccato.

The Accent and Marcato

The most common markings which affect the dynamic level of a note are the accent and the marcato.

Sequence

The most common use is to describe the repetition of a melodic phrase in the same part or voice but at a higher or lower pitch.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Con sordino (con sord.)

The mute is attached to the bridge and creates a veiled, muffled sound. Always leave sufficient time in compositions for the performer to fit or remove the mute.

Two Octaves Above

The number 15 (or 15ma) is used to indicate notes to be played two octave higher or lower.

Common Compound Time

The number and type of beats per bar in commonly used compound time signatures are : 6/4 - 2 dotted minim beats 6/8 - 2 dotted crotchet beats 6/16 - 2 dotted quaver beats 9/4 - 3 dotted minim beats 9/8 - 3 dotted crotchet beats 9/16 - 3 dotted quaver beats 12/4 - 4 dotted minim beats 12/8 - 4 dotted crotchet beats 12/16 - 4 dotted quaver beats

Common Simple Time

The number and type of beats per bar in commonly used simple time signatures are : 2/2 - 2 minim beats 2/4 - 2 crotchet beats 2/8 - 2 quaver beats 3/2 - 3 minim beats 3/4 - 3 crotchet beats 3/8 - 3 quaver beats 4/2 - 4 minim beats 4/4 - 4 crotchet beats 4/8 - 4 quaver beats

Tuplet Information

The number refers to how many notes are to be played in the time of a normal group of notes of that duration. For example, a tuplet of seven semiquavers is to be played in the space of a normal group of four semiquavers.

Antecedent phrase

The opening, incomplete-sounding phrase of a melody; often followed by a consequent phrase that brings the melody to closure The first four bar phrase is referred to as the antecedent (or question). It can be further subdivided into two balanced phrases of two bars. The conclusion of the antecedent is usually marked by an imperfect cadence.

Ground Bass - Passacaglia and Chaconne Information

The passacaglia and chaconne were two forms of ground bass commonly used during the Baroque period. The passacaglia and chaconne were two forms of ground bass commonly used during the Baroque period. Both were originally distinct instrumental forms that evolved from Spanish dances, however even during the Baroque period the distinction between them was not clear. Some references today associate a passacaglia with a descending bass melody and a chaconne with a repeated chord progression. They typically used a four bar pattern in a triple metre and had a slow tempo. Ground basses in the Baroque period often used a descending pattern that began on the tonic and moved down by step to the dominant. Minor forms of this pattern could use chromatic notes, which Baroque composers used to depict grief or sorrow. Twentieth century composers also recognised the contribution of a repeated bass to the unity of a composition. Composers such as Alban Berg (1885 - 1935) and Paul Hindemith (1895 - 1963) used the passacaglia to provide unity while they experimented with new systems of tonality.

Pentatonic Scales

The pentatonic scale has five notes and is one of the most ancient and widely used scales. There are many different forms of this scale and the pitches used depend on the context. Chinese music is based on the pentatonic scale and it is also found in the music of Tibet, Mongolia, Oceania, India, Russia, Bali, Java and Africa as well as being widely used in the folk music of America, England, Ireland and Scotland. Two well-known examples of melodies using the pentatonic scale are Auld Lang Syne and Amazing Grace.

BRASS ARTICULATION: Fall, Long Fall, Fall Off or Long Drop

The pitch is forced further down over a longer period of time. The wavy line usually indicates the longer fall and the words Long fall can be used.

BRASS ARTICULATION: Short Fall, Quick Fall, Drop or Short Drop

The pitch of a note is forced down over a short space of time.

Tonic Note

The pitch that begins and ends the scale of a given key and gives the key its name; the tonal center of the key.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Pizzicato

The plucking of the string. The fingers of the right hand are usually used for pizzicato. Pizzicato is indicated in the score using pizz.

BRASS ARTICULATION: Rip

The rip is used to approach a high note by moving rapidly through notes of the harmonic series. The rip is usually indicated using a wavy line, however a straight line is also used in some scores.

INVERSIONS OF Dom7 CHORDS: Root Position

The root position dominant seventh chord (7, 5, 3) is usually abbreviated to 7.

INVERSIONS OF MAJOR 7TH CHORDS: Root Position

The root position major seventh chord (7, 5, 3) is usually abbreviated to 7. So a First chord would be written as I7 or i7 when it has no inversions instead of just I or i.

Consequent phrase

The second phrase of a two-part melodic unit that brings a melody to a point of repose and closure. The second four bar phrase is referred to as the consequent (or answer). It can also be subdivided into two balanced phrases of two bars. The first two bars of the consequent are often the same or similar to the first two bars of the antecedent. The closing two bars might begin in a similar way yet finish differently; usually with a perfect cadence. This cadence resolves the tension created by the antecedent.

Whole Bar Rest Information

The semibreve or whole bar rest rest can be used to indicate a whole bar of silence in any time signature.

BRASS ARTICULATION: Shake

The shake is similar to a trill and is a rapid alternation between two notes created by shaking the instrument against the lips of the performer. The speed of the shake can be varied and it is usually indicated on the score with a wavy line.

Tonal (Diatonic) Sequence

The sizes of the intervals in the original phrase are preserved but the quality of the intervals (whether they are major or minor) may not be.

Tempo

The speed of music

Staccato

The staccato marking indicates the note should be shortened but not emphasised. According to some references, a staccato marking reduces the note value by a half; however the reduction must vary with the tempo and style of the music being performed. Notes written in spaces have staccato marks in the next space above or below the note head. Notes which are on the line have staccato marks in the space above or below the next line. Some music editions only show staccato markings outside the stave.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Col legno tratto

The strings are bowed using the wood of the bow.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Col legno battuto

The strings are struck using the wood of the bow

Tenuto

The tenuto marking indicates the note is to be held for its full value. It may have a slight emphasis and be separated from notes around it.

Accidental Rules

The term accidental usually refers to sharps, flats and naturals which appear throughout the music. Some general rules which apply to accidentals are set out below. Accidentals are placed to the left of a note and affect only that note at that register for the duration of one bar. If a note which has previously been altered by an accidental appears again at that register before the end of the bar, the accidental is not written again. If a note affected by an accidental in previous bars needs alteration in a subsequent bar, the accidental needs to be written again. The accidental is not repeated if the note is tied across the bar.

Bitonality

The term bitonality refers to the simultaneous use of two tonalities.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Col legno

The term col legno means to play using the wood of the bow.

Metre

The term metre (meter) describes the pattern of beats in a bar and the accents or stresses placed on them. Metres with beats that subdivide into groups of two are called simple metres while metres with beats that subdivide into groups of three are called compound metres.

Multimetric

The term multimetric is used to describe music that uses many different time signatures in succession (mixed metres).

Polyrhythmic

The term polyrhythm literally means many rhythms and can be used to describe music that has different rhythmic patterns in each part.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Sul ponticello

The term sul ponticello means to play with the bow close to the bridge. Notes produced in this way have an icy, cold timbre.

STRING TECHNIQUES: Sul tasto

The term sul tasto means to play with the bow over the fingerboard. Notes produced in this way have a softer, flute-like timbre.

Temperament

The term temperament refers to a system of tuning (or tempering) for the notes of a scale.

Time Signature Information

The time signature is a notational sign consisting of two numbers, one on top of the other, which appears to the right of the key signature, or in the absence of the key signature, to the right of the clef. The time signature appears in each stave of the music system at the beginning of a piece of music, although a new time signature can be introduced throughout the composition. When a time signature is read, the upper number is said followed by the lower number. When a time signature is written in text it can be expressed either as one number on top of another or as a fraction, however when it is written on a score it is not represented as a fraction.

Tonality Information

The tonal system evolved as a consequence of equal temperament tuning; replacing the system of church modes that were popular during the Renaissance period (1450 - 1600). From the later years of the Baroque period (1600 - 1750) and throughout the Classical (1750 - 1820) and Romantic (1820 - 1900) periods, tonal music became the universal language of composers of Western art music. The musical tones become the key and the central tone is called the tonic, keynote or do. The tonic chord or tonic triad is formed by adding notes of the third and fifth scale degrees to the tonic. The tonic chord or tonic note provides tonal music with a clear reference point to begin and ultimately return to, as well as the opportunity to provide contrast by exploring other keys (modulation). The composer will reinforce the tonic by using cadences that emphasise the tonic chord as the most important in the hierarchy of chords within a key. Tonal compositions usually have a key signature and begin and end in the tonic key.

Trills

The trill or shake is one of the oldest and most common ornaments, and in its basic form consists of a rapid alternation between the principal note and the note above. During the Baroque period (1600 - 1750), there were many special signs to indicate different trills that began on the note above the principal note, the note below or trills that ended in different ways. Up until the death of Beethoven, trills usually began on the note above the principal note while composers since Beethoven have used trills that started on the principal note. The final execution of the trill is generally left up to the performer. Trills are indicated on a score by the letters tr written above a note. Where the trill is to be continued, a wavy line indicates the length.

BRASS ARTICULATION: Turn

The turn is used to ornament or decorate a note and is similar, although not identical, to the turn used in Western art music. Turns can be indicated in a variety of ways including the tradition sideways "s" figure.

Upbeat

The upbeat is the last and weakest beat in the bar. A conductor will bring their arm UP on this beat in readiness for the downbeat that follows.

Metric Modulation Information

The use of a different metre to create a tempo change is a common device used by many composers. Changing time signatures from 4/4 to 2/2, accompanied with the direction of alla breve (meaning that the beat is now a minim instead of a crotchet), is a way of effectively doubling the tempo. Conversely, moving from a minim beat in 2/2 to a crotchet beat in 4/4 effectively halves the tempo. Such obvious and dramatic effects have been used by composers since the Renaissance (1450 -1600). The practice of changing tempos in a similar way but by much smaller degrees has been explored and refined by composers in the twentieth century, in particular he American composer Elliot Carter (b.1908), and has been termed metrical modulation (also known as tempo modulation). Instead of using one metre change with values such as a crotchet in 4/4 or a minim in 2/2, a metrical modulation occurs when a series of smaller changes is scored. This produces a smooth transition from one tempo to the next. Metrical modulation gives the composer strict control of tempo change instead of giving control to the performer by using general terms such as accelerando or ritardando. This desire for strict control of tempo and other expressive devices such as dynamics and articulation is typical of many twentieth century composers.

Whole Tone Scale

The whole tone scale divides an octave into steps of one tone. The character of this scale contrasts significantly from major and minor scales as it lacks the semitone step of leading note to tonic. This step gives major and minor scales direction and purpose, and its absence in the whole tone scale creates a lack of direction; an effect desired by many twentieth century composers such as Debussy and Messiaen. There are only two whole tone scales: one beginning on C and another beginning on C sharp (or D flat). Creating another whole tone scale on D uses the same note names as the scale on C. Similarly, creating a whole tone scale on D sharp uses the same note names as the scale beginning on C sharp.

Intonation

The word intonation refers to pitch and has a wide variety of meanings. It can refer to the natural rise and fall of the voice produced by different patterns of speech. It is also associated with the practice of chanting in church services which developed in the Middle Ages. More generally it refers to the pitches produced by an instrument and therefore is often associated with temperament. Synthesisers, for example, may have intonation tables which explain different systems of tuning or temperaments. The most common usage of the term is where it refers to the accuracy of the pitches produced by an instrument or voice. Accurate pitch is described as "in tune" while pitches that are flat (below the true pitch of a note) or sharp (above the true pitch of a note) are described as being "out of tune".

Ties on Chords of Four Notes

Tied chords of four notes usually have two ties up and two ties down.

Ties on Chords of Three Notes

Tied chords of three notes have the upper note tied above and the lower note tied below the note heads. If the Middle note is on or above the third line they are tied above. If the middle note is below the middle line the tie is down.

Ties on Chords of Two Notes

Tied chords of two notes have one tie up and one tie down regardless of their position on the stave.

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: al niente

To nothing

Tonality

Tonality in Western art music is the organisation of musical tones around a central tone.

Diminished Scale

Tone, Semitone, Tone, Semitone, Tone, Semitone, Tone, Semitone.

Transposition

Transposition is the reproduction of music at another pitch. This can occur within a piece of music and is usually a consequence of modulation. Entire pieces of music can also be transposed using a new key signature; usually for the purpose of accommodating the range of an instrument or voice. For a transposition to be correct, both the relationship of pitches to the tonic or key note and the rhythm must be identical to the original. An alternate clef can be used. Reproducing music at the same pitch and in the same key but using a different clef is not considered to be a transposition.

Tremolo

Tremolo (tremolando), from the Italian word meaning tremble, can refer to: - A rapid repetition of the same note - A rapid repetition of two or more notes - A rapid repetition of notes of the same pitch with alternating loud and soft volumes Tremolos can be measured (using exact note values) or unmeasured (notes played as fast as possible) and are played on either single or multiple notes.

Triad Inversions

Triads can be in one of three positions: Root position First Inversion Second Inversion

Primary Triad

Triads formed on the first (or tonic), fourth and fifth degrees of the major or minor scale are known as primary triads. Note: The triad on the fourth scale degree is not considered a primary triad in some systems of music analysis.

Secondary Triad

Triads not formed on the first, fourth and fifth scale degrees (the primary triads). Triads formed on the 2nd, 3rd, 6th and 7th are known as secondary triads.

Triple Metre

Triple metre has three beats in a bar; the first accented (strong), and the second and third unaccented (weak).

STRING TECHNIQUES: Triple stops

Triple stops refers to playing three strings at the same time. In some examples all three notes can be sounded together, or notes can be sounded in two groups.

Cross Rhythm

Two conflicting rhythms used at the same time. Also known as polyrhythm. Cross rhythms are also polyrhythmic and occur when two different pulses or beats are played simultaneously, creating a striking rhythmic effect. A commonly found example of this is two notes in one part being played in the same space as three notes in another. This practice is commonly called "two against three" and can be written as a ratio 2:3. An example is triplets played against groups of four semiquavers.

Tenor Clef

Used for cello, trombone, bassoon and double bass: middle C is the fourth line from the bottom.

Alto Clef

Used for viola and trombone to avoid excessive ledger lines: middle C is the center line.

Appoggiatura

Used mainly in music of the Classical Period, play the first note as half the value of the second note. From the Italian word meaning "to lean" or "supported", the appoggiatura is a grace note written as a small character whose stem is the opposite way to the principal note. The value of the appoggiatura is generally deducted from the principal note and it is played with the beat, effectively creating an accent on the appoggiatura rather than the principal note. The appoggiatura is often one note above or below the principal note and can be a chromatic note.

ITALIAN TEMPO TERMS: molto

Very - Allegro molto

TEMPO: Prestissimo, A or Schneller

Very fast, as quickly as possible

TEMPO: Grave

Very slowly and solemnly

STRING TECHNIQUES: Vibrato

Vibrato is commonly used for all bowed string instruments. It is created by the rocking action of the finger on the string. This creates tiny fluctuations in pitch which in turn produces a warm sound. Vibrato is widely used and there is no need to indicate it in a score. When vibrato is not required, the terms non vib. or senza vib. are used.

Vibrato

Vibrato is created by small, regular fluctuations of the pitch of a note and contributes warmth and richness to the sound. The range of these pitch fluctuations is usually small (less than a semitone), however in cases where the pitch fluctuations approach a semitone or more, the vibrato is described as "wide". Vibrato is now so widespread that it is seldom indicated in a score. Since the late 1900s, composers have occasionally instead called for performers to play without using vibrato.

Time Signature Bottom Number

What kind of note gets one beat

Chromatic Passing Notes

When a passing note is not diatonic it is called a chromatic passing note. If the movement is ascending, the passing note should be written with a sharp. If it is descending it should be written with a flat.

Interval Inversion Information

When a perfect interval is inverted, the new interval remains perfect. For Example, if you were to invert a perfect fourth you would subtract 4 from 9. 9 - 4 = 5 Then you would be left with a perfect fifth. The same happens when you subtract 5 from 9 9 - 5 = 4 Leaving you with a perfect fourth Intervals formed by inverting major intervals are minor, while intervals formed by inverting minor intervals are major. Major when inverted turns Minor Minor when inverted turns Major Intervals formed by inverting diminished intervals are augmented, while intervals formed by inverting augmented intervals are diminished. Diminished when inverted turns Augmented Augmented when inverted turns Diminished

Imitation

When a repetition or sequence is used in another instrument, part or voice the device is called imitation. Imitation may be brief and is not always exact. Compositions such as canons are constructed using strict imitation.

Dynamic Accent

When a symbol is placed on a note indicating that it is to be played louder than normal

Asymmetric Metre

When a time signature is used that does not allow a bar to be divided into beats with equal subdivisions (irregular beats) or uses different sized groups of beats, the metre is described as asymmetric (asymmetrical metre, irregular metre). Common examples of time signatures that create asymmetric metres are: 5/8 7/8 5/4 7/4.

Interval Inversions

When an interval is inverted, a new interval is created. The lower note of the original interval is raised one octave while the upper note of the original interval remains; becoming the lower note of the inverted interval. The size of the inverted interval is equal to the size of the original interval subtracted from nine. For Example, when the interval of a second is inverted, the interval created is a seventh. (9 - 2 = 7)

Onbeat

When musical notes coincide with the beats in a bar, the music is said to be onbeat (on-beat).

Dotted Notes with Beams

When notes are beamed together in pairs, the duration of one note is often increased by one half with the addition of a dot, while the duration of the other note is decreased by one half.

Regular Beats

When the beats in each bar have a consistent number of subdivisions they are called regular beats.

TRIAD INVERSIONS: Second Inversion

When the lowest note of a first inversion triad is raised an octave the triad is in second inversion. The figures that denote a second inversion triad are 6 and 4. Both figures are generally used. The chord name C/G symbolises a C triad with G as the lowest note.

TRIAD INVERSIONS: First Inversion

When the lowest note of a root position or fundamental triad is raised an octave, the triad is in first inversion. The chord name C/E symbolises a C triad with E as the lowest note. The figures that denote a first inversion triad are 6 and 3, however the 3 is usually omitted.

Tuplet Bracket

When the notes of the tuplet do not have a beam, a bracket is often used in place of a slur.

Definite Pitch

When the pitch of a note can be measured exactly it is said to have definite pitch.

Indefinite Pitch

When the pitch of a note is unable to be measured exactly it is said to be of indefinite pitch. Obvious differences in pitch produced by instruments of indefinite pitch are described in general terms such as high, medium or low. Congas for example are able to produce notes of different pitches and tom-toms on a drum kit are tuned to produce a high, medium or low pitch. These different pitches are notated on a percussion or neutral stave.

Mixed Metre

When the time signature changes throughout a piece. In most examples of Western music the time signature remains constant throughout the composition. When a succession of different time signatures exists, the composition is said to have mixed metres or to be multimetric. In modern Western music, mixed metres are often used to disguise any feeling of regularity in the beat. New time signatures are inserted when required at the beginning of a bar. When the time signature changes at the beginning of a system, a courtesy time signature can be shown at the end of the previous system as well as at the beginning of the new system.

Tonic Accent

Where a note is emphasised as it is higher in pitch than those around it

Tuplet

Where notes are found in groupings other than those usually encountered in the time signature, the group is referred to as a tuplet.

Compound Quadruple

Where there are four beats in a bar and each beat can be subdivided into three notes, the metre is described as compound quadruple. These time signatures are examples of compound quadruple time : 12/4 (four dotted minims in a bar) 12/8 (four dotted crotchets in a bar) 12/16 (four dotted quavers in a bar)

Simple Quadruple Metre

Where there are four simple beats in a bar, the metre is described as simple quadruple. These time signatures are examples of simple quadruple time : 4/2 (four minim beats in a bar) 4/4 (four crotchets in a bar) 4/8 (four quavers in a bar)

Offbeat

Where there are rests or ties and notes do not sound on the beat, the music is said to be offbeat (off-beat).

Compound Triple

Where there are three beats in a bar and each beat can be subdivided into three notes, the metre is described as compound triple. These time signatures are examples of compound triple time : 9/4 (three dotted minim beats in a bar) 9/8 (three dotted crotchets in a bar) 9/16 (three dotted quavers in a bar)

Simple Triple Metre

Where there are three simple beats in a bar, the metre is described as simple triple. These time signatures are examples of simple triple time : 3/2 (three minim beats in a bar) 3/4 (three crotchets in a bar) 3/8 (three quavers in a bar)

Compound Duple

Where there are two compound beats in a bar, the metre is described as compound duple. These time signatures are examples of compound duple time : 6/4 (two dotted minim beats in a bar) 6/8 (two dotted crotchets in a bar) 6/16 (two dotted quavers in a bar)

Simple Duple Metre

Where there are two simple beats in a bar, the metre is described as simple duple. These time signatures are examples of simple duple time : 2/2 (two minim beats in a bar) 2/4 (two crotchets in a bar) 2/8 (two quavers in a bar)

ITALIAN TEMPO TERMS: Con moto

With movement

STRING TECHNIQUES: Senza sordino (senza sord.)

With the removal of the mute, the sound is returned to normal.

Crotchet Rest

Worth 1 Beat

Crotchet or Quarter Note

Worth 1 Beat

Dotted Crotchet

Worth 1 and a 1/2 Beats (1+1/2)

Hemidemisemiquaver Rest

Worth 1/16 of a Beat

Hemidemisemiquaver or Sixty-Fourth Note

Worth 1/16 of a Beat

Quaver Rest

Worth 1/2 of a Beat

Quaver or Eighth Note

Worth 1/2 of a Beat

Semihemidemisemiquaver Rest

Worth 1/32 of a Beat

Semihemidemisemiquaver or One Hundred and Twenty-Eighth Note

Worth 1/32 of a Beat

Semiquaver Rest

Worth 1/4 of a Beat

Semiquaver or Sixteenth Note

Worth 1/4 of a Beat

Demisemiquaver Rest

Worth 1/8 of a Beat

Demisemiquaver or Thirty-Second Note

Worth 1/8 of a Beat

Minim Rest

Worth 2 Beats

Minim or Half note

Worth 2 Beats

Dotted Minum

Worth 3 Beats (2+1)

Semibreve Rest

Worth 4 Beats

Semibreve or Whole Note

Worth 4 Beats

Dotted Semibreve

Worth 6 Beats (4+2)

Breve Rest

Worth 8 Beats

Breve or Double-Whole Note

Worth 8 Beats

Dotted quaver

Worth ¾ Beats (1/2 + 1/4)

FRENCH TEMPO TERMS: un peu moins lent

a little less slowly

Hemiola

a shift in the rhythmic pulse from a division of 2 to a division of 3, or vice versa. Example : 6/8 time meter into 3/4 time meter.

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: tutta forza

as loud as possible

GERMAN DYNAMIC TERMS: verklingen lassen

dying away

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: mancando, smorzando

dying away

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: smorzando

dying away to nothing

GERMAN DYNAMIC TERMS: nachdrucklich

emphatic

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: calando

getting softer and slower

FRENCH DYNAMIC TERMS: augmentez progressivement

gradually getting louder

FRENCH DYNAMIC TERMS: lourd

heavily

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: pesante

heavily

GERMAN TEMPO TERMS: zurückhaltend

held back, slower

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: sotto voce

in an undertone

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: poco a poco

little by little

DYNAMICS SIGN: f TERM: forte

loud

FRENCH TEMPO TERMS: modéré

moderately

DYNAMICS SIGN: mf TERM: mezzo forte

moderately loud

DYNAMICS SIGN: mp TERM: mezzo piano

moderately soft

FRENCH DYNAMIC TERMS: sourdine

mute

GERMAN DYNAMIC TERMS: dämpfer

mute

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: strepitoso

noisy

GERMAN TEMPO TERMS: hauptzeitmass

original time, tempo

GERMAN TEMPO TERMS: drängend

pressing on, urging

GERMAN DYNAMIC TERMS: ruhig

quiet, calm

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: tranquillo

quiet, calm

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: tre corda

release the soft pedal

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: tre corda

release the soft pedal of the piano (literally "three strings" )

FRENCH DYNAMIC TERMS: cédez

relent, softer and slower

FRENCH TEMPO TERMS: cédez

relent, softer and slower

GERMAN TEMPO TERMS: verhalten

restrained

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: perdendosi

slower, dying away

FRENCH TEMPO TERMS: retenu

slower, held back

DYNAMICS SIGN: p TERM: piano

soft

FRENCH DYNAMIC TERMS: doux

soft, light

GERMAN DYNAMIC TERMS: kräftig

strongly, forceful

FRENCH DYNAMIC TERMS: voile

subdued

GERMAN DYNAMIC TERMS: zart

tenderly, delicately, softly

DYNAMICS SIGN: ff TERM: fortissimo

very loud

DYNAMICS SIGN: pp TERM: pianissimo

very soft

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: marcato

well marked

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: con forza

with force

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: con sordini

with the mute

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: con sordini, con sordino or con sord.

with the mute

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: una corda

with the soft pedal of the piano

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: una corda

with the soft pedal of the piano (literally "one string" )

FRENCH TEMPO TERMS: sans presser

without getting faster

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: senza sordini

without the mute

ITALIAN DYNAMIC TERMS: senza sordini, senza sordino or senza sord.

without the mute