Native American Studies Final Review

the rise of Native voices and spirits against the destruction of the biosphere

"Idle No More!"—

A small remnant of a tribal nations original homeland, reserved by the US government by treaty for the exclusive use of the tribe(s), named in the treaty, after the US took the rest of their homeland

Definition of a reservation

yes

Did the Indian Claims Commission offer to pay tribes the present-day market value for lands that were taken in the 19th century?

Europeans believed lawfully to be able to take land if they left some for natives due to that natives had no fenced in land village or domesticated cattle

Differences in Cultural Values and Beliefs (Coursepack #20); understand the key differences that we underlined; differences in religion, economics and resource use

2/3 of the land was lost by 1934

How much reservation land was lost due to the Allotment Act?

Collier actually liked NAs and thought their culture should be protected and restored

How was John Collier different in attitude towards Indian culture than most of the previous B.I.A. personnel?

Semi-Sedentary/Semi-Nomadic in North Dakota-Mandan, Hidatsa, Arikara

Mobility modes; which three Plains tribes were NOT nomadic?

To be freed from the oppressive dominion of the royals, to own land and have access to natural resources, to become somewhat like the royals

Motivations of the peasant class for going to America

Yakama, Maine, Passamaquoddy, and Penobscot

Name two of the tribes whom the United States returned formerly-confiscated lands to between 1971 and 1980

Carlisle Indian Industrial School- Colonel Richard Pratt

Names of the first Indian boarding school and its founder

61 tribal nations

How many tribes were officially terminated by 1962?

25 schools located in 13 different states

How many off-reservation boarding schools were there in the U.S. by 1899?

Indian Claims Commission (1946): official purpose- to settle monetary debts the US owed to NAs for lands taken during the treaty period. Unofficial purpose- to convince NA with reservations to accept more money for the rest of their lands Voluntary Relocation Program (1952): purpose- to encourage Indians to leave their own to the American cities for "their own" economic benefit. To further assimilate NA into US society and culture. Termination Resolution (Act of Congress, 1953): purpose- to terminate the status of indian tribal sovereign nations and thus end US treaty obligations trust responsibilities, and the existence of indian reservations

3 new Indian programs (1946, 1952, 1953)-identify the programs, purposes

1. To take Indian lands for the expansion of the US 2. To keep Indians "out of the way" of the US expansion by confining them to reservations 3. To preserve peace and prevent Indian retaliation 4. To avoid the costs of war

3 purposes of U.S./Indian treaties

1. Alienated children from their families and tribes 2. Caused loss of language and culture 3. Created low self-esteem and negative self-images in the students 4. Gave the Indian students a distorted view of Euro-Americans (neg/pos distortions) 5. Provided the NA students with some basic literacy and some marketable industrial skills 6. Created some people who could not fit well into either the euro-american world or the word they came from 7. Gave some Indians a distrust and aversion towards euro-american formal education 8. Disrupted and degraded native American child raising traditions and nurturing processes

8 impacts of boarding schools on Native American people and tribes described in lecture

English, Dutch, and French went through 1-3. Spanish skipped directly to stage 3 1. "Friendly" and Reciprocal 2. Demographic Shift and Conflicts 3. Establishment of Dominion

Be able to identify the three stages of European/Native American interaction in the order in which they normally occurred (chronological sequence)

They thought that they could save the Indians by killing their culture and helping them to be reborn as Euro-americans

Boarding Schools and their Impacts on Native American People Motivations for the boarding school and allotment ideas

One year after Custer's defeat- much hostility against Indians, nationwide. It took 10 years because there was so much resistance to it from the anti-indian industrialists and politicians

Carl Schurz and Henry Dawes began designing the Allotment Act one year after what major event which created an increased anti-Indian sentiment in America? Why did it take ten years of very difficult compromise to get the law passed?

Epidemic Diseases (most significant), New Technology (trades), Loss of Homelands, Loss of Time, Warfare to New Extremes, Devaluation of Culture

Coursepack #23, Economic and Cultural Impact of Early Contact with Europeans; identify the 6 items in bold print- which item of impact was the most significant?

1. Ended the Allotment Act policies. 2. Created federal programs for indian economic assistance 3. Restored the right of Indian tribes to have tribal governments 4. Tribal acceptance of the IRA was optional. A constitutional form of government was imposed by the BIA, tribes were allowed to accept or deny it

Coursepack #43- the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934; know the four main points; What form of government was imposed on the tribes (if they agreed to accept it)?

higher/lower beings with greater/lesser rights and privileges. The idea that Christians should work toward either a nation governed by Christians or one governed by a conservative Christian understanding of biblical law.

Dominion Theology

Guardian Spirit/Human Caretaker

Each sweat lodge has a __ and a __.

Stealing: NA didn't understand English yet, they technically didn't have the authority to steal the land

European land acquisition: buying, stealing, or something else?

Disrupted the practices

How did the boarding schools effect Indian cultural continuity, including parenting and nurturing practices?

1. More natural resources needed for the Cold War against communism 2. Reservation lands have natural resources so the US seeks to acquire more of those lands 3. Many in Congress hope to escape from economic obligations to treaty tribes 4. Assimilating Indians more into the urban mainstream as another racial minority group rather than as members of sovereign nations seen as the best way to accomplish the above goals

Four U.S. government goals (policies) concerning Indians and their lands after WW II

Vision Quest, Sun Dance, Sweat Lodge, and Pipe Bundle Ceremonies

Four of the most important spiritual and ceremonial traditions on the Plains were and are

Allowed for many innovative, culturally-friendly alternative schools and programs to begin

How did that Act help with tribal cultural revival efforts, and with dealing with tribal health issues?

Shift from "Bossing Indians Around" to accountants and auditors

How did the Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975 change the role of the BIA?

Allowed for many innovative, culturally friendly alternative schools ad programs to begin

How did it improve educational opportunities for Native Americans?

Major adjustment to new ecosystems, new world in territory, poverty, economic dependency, sickness, more loss of lives

Identify a few impacts of the Removal on the tribes involved. What issues did they have to deal with and what sorts of adjustments did they have to make after they arrived there?

Smallpox, bubonic plague, cholera, measles, tuberculosis, many others

Identify a few of the epidemic diseases that were the most devastating to Native American tribes during the colonial era

Tourism, Businesses, Arts/Crafts, Large-scale Manufacturing, Natural Resources, Education, Government Jobs

Identify a few other economic development tools on present day reservations besides casinos

Peasants/serfs- vast majority (90%), few rights, no land, no wealth. Royals and Clergy- owned all of the land, ). Merchants/Tradesmen- small group that expanded greatly after contact with America.

Identify the 3 basic social classes in Europe at the time of first contact

Tribal nations united to work together for their common interests (lobbying congress, etc). Goals- to keep their remaining lands and their sovereignty, improve economic conditions and opportunities, including education and job training, promote healing

Identify the National Congress of American Indians- who are they and what do they do?

People were benevolent by trying to "save" the indian, by trying to make them more European, or helping be reborn, by killing their culture. People were paternalistic by treating the Indians like children, by sending them to boarding schools and making them do things they don't want to do, like cutting their hair, changing beliefs, etc

In what ways were the people behind these ideas both benevolent and paternalistic?

1907

In what year did the last remaining part of Indian Territory become the state of Oklahoma?

1924

In what year were all Native Americans granted U. S. citizenship?

Requires any tribal nation that wants to operate a high stakes casino to negotiate an agreement with the state in which they reside regarding the types of gaming that they can operate—which leads to stakes taking a cut of the profits.

Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988: What were the stated purposes of this Act, and what does the Act actually do to the tribes (esp., the threat to tribal sovereignty)?

A binding legal agreement between two or sovereign nations

Know the definitions for "treaty"

loss of homeland and resource base, tribes restricted to reservation lands, subjected to the authority of agents of the US government, economic dependency on the US government, missionaries had a "captive" audience and were given the authority to start boarding schools, the chiefs gradually lost authority and respect among their people, the effect of all the above was frequent periods of starvation, various hardships and health problems related to poverty, cultural devaluation, and loss of culture

Main impacts of treaties and reservations (Coursepack #33, especially bold print headings and key comments from lecture)

Dominion, natural resources, wealth for state and church

Main motivations of the royals of Europe for sending people to America

During the times those Euro/Us populations were spreading, Indian tribes formed together to fight. They had huge numbers in their fighting force.

Overview of Coursepack article #28, common elements of wars involving intertribal armies defending their world against the colonialists and the U.S.

To train NA children in the industrial arts, so they could be accepted in US society

Purpose of the boarding schools

66%

Reorganization Act of 1934: WWII and changes in Indian policy after oil was discovered in Oklahoma, what % of Indian allotments were "lost"?

youth-led organization, started by mostly college -educated, urban Indians, then spread to some reservations Goals: To get Americas immediate attention and spread awareness of NA issues/concerns. To fight for NA treaty rights, civil rights, and against racism and discrimination in cities as well as on the reservations. To protect tribal sovereignty and traditional cultures. To learn and teach their tribal cultures and history. To teach the true history of America

The American Indian Movement (AIM), know their goals and their significance

Ended the Termination and relocations policies by 1968. Some terminated tribes restored to federal recognition. Some stolen indian lands returned in the 70s and 80s Major change in BIA policy in 1975

What were some positive results from Indian activism in the 1960s and `70s?

Extracting industries (logging, mining, hydro-electric facilities) tribal operations or leased out

Trends and impacts of Native American natural resource management

False

True or False: all native men of the Plains always wore their hair in two braids

Increased assimilation to white culture, by Indians. Loss of Indian culture

Two reasons for "cowboy culture" among some Native Americans

Insure welfare of NA. Helped education and medical programs on reservations

U.S. Grant's Peace Policy of 1871 - recognize 2 things that it did

(interpretation of Christianity)

Understand the key concepts of "Dominion Theology"

(Aristotelian)

Understand the key concepts of the "Great Chain of Being."

Traditional subsistence, horticulture is overlooked

Unemployment on American Indian reservations averages around 50-60% (ranging from 2% to 90%) What do these statistics fail to take into account?

No Plan C

Was Jefferson opposed to using violence to remove Indian nations from their lands?

No, Many

Was there only one "Trail of Tears?"

1. Tribe must have been identified as AI from "historic" times to the present 2. A "substantial portion" of the tribe must live in a "specific (geographic) area" or in a distinctly AI community. 3. Tribe should have maintained some sort of tribal government/council with authority over its members from historic times to present 4. Tribe must have own membership criteria and governmental procedures 5. Tribal government must keep a list/roll of all current tribal members 6. Tribes members can't be members of more than one tribe 7. Tribe must not have been previously terminated by congress of disqualified for recognition by the BIA

What are the federal criteria for recognition of Native American tribes?

US Constitution Article 1 Section 8 and 10, Rulings by Supreme Court of treaties

What are the two main legal precedents which establish tribal sovereignty?

Spiritual and economic

What are the two primary types or categories of difference between traditional Native American cultures and European cultures?

Location must be near to accessible to major population, Large amount of start-up capital, Expertise, Political savvy

What conditions must exist for a tribal casino to be successful? About what percent of the Indian casinos actually are very successful?

Ended the Termination and Relocation policies (1968), Some terminated tribes restored to federal recognition, some stolen indian lands returned (70s and 80s), Major change in BIA policy (1975)

What did AIM accomplish through their radical media presence?

They are no longer recognized by the US government

What did it mean for a tribe to be "terminated" by the federal government?

Euros received: hides, clothing, jewelry, tools, canoes NA received: cloth, glass beads, iron, kettles

What did the Europeans get of value from the early stages of intercultural trade compared to the Indians?

The Trail of Broken Treaties

What did they call the march and gathering at Washington D.C. in 1972?

Health, Housing, Employment/Cash Income, and Education

What four areas of Indian life did the Merriam Commission study?

Someone who was under contract of another (upper class). "Slaves"

What is an indentured servant?

Original homeland: 22 million acres, remnants of homeland: 1.25 million acres (5.7% of original land base)

What percentage of their original homelands were the Salish and Kootenai tribes left with after the creation of the Flathead Indian Reservation?

God ordained social and natural hierarchies, God's will on earth will bring everything into proper subjection.

What sort of rights regarding the use of natural resources did the people who believed in that cosmology assume?

Indian territory is what is now Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska. Tribes were osage, kansa, pawnee, Omaha, oto, kiowa, and Missouri, so 7 tribes

What was "Indian Territory" and where was it located?; how many tribes were sent there between 1830 and 1889?

The Spanish believed they had a divine and royal mandate to reduce NA to submission. Spanish law required the conquistadors to read the NA the requerimento.. It required the NAs to acknowledge the church as the ruler and superior of the whole world Spanish skipped directly to step 3

What was Spain's "Requerimiento"? (Coursepack #22) How did the Spanish approach to acquiring dominion differ from the English?

Use of native language

What was often the first thing that the schools forbade and punished students for when they first arrived at the schools?

Rooted in dominion theology/ great chain of being. Premise: international legal right to claim lands previously unknown or unclaimed by any European nation goes to the nation (in this case, the Euro) which first discovered it

What was the basic premise behind the "Doctrine of Discovery" and how did it match Dominion Theology and the Great Chain of Being?

Actually wanted a return to traditional tribal governments. It reflected that they actually wanted to help the natives

What was the new agenda that Collier brought to the B.I.A., and how did that reflect the Merriam Report and treaty obligations?

Buffalo, over 100 different uses

What was the number 1 subsistence resource in the Plains region? How many different uses were there for this particular animal resource?

It forbids any state from depriving citizens of their rights and priviledges and defines citizenship.

What was the purpose of the Curtis Act of 1898?

Act of congress which authorized the removal by force of all of any NA from their homelands in the US to a designated "indian territory"

What was the purpose of the Indian Removal Act of 1830?

A: come and join us: NA welcome/tolerated in US if they abandon their cultures and assimilate to euro-American ways, especially abandon subsistence economies and enter into cash economy B: get out of our way: NA who want to remain culturally can go west, no room for subsistence economies in the US C: resistance is punishable by death: use force to remove Indians from their homelands

What were Jefferson's three different attitudes and policies towards Indians (Plans A, B, and C)?

1. NA leaders were not monarchs with authority over their people/homelands 2. Traditional NA Leaders had no authority to sell their Mother, the land, neither did they have such concept in their cultures 3. The majority of colonial era land deeds were presented to the NAs before they had acquired English literacy the deeds were interpreted for them 4. The vast majority of colonial land deeds are without merit and not "legal" from the NA perspective

What were the cultural misunderstandings between Europeans and Indians about land ownership and Native American leadership?

Nixon

Which U.S. president was the first to return some of the stolen lands to a Native American tribal nation?

The royals believed strongly, the peasents and merchants were oppressed

Which class of Europeans in that era believed most strongly in the Dominion Theology/Great Chain of Being cosmology? Which class of Europeans was also oppressed by that cosmology?

Peasants were the largest class, most immigrants.

Which class was the largest and from which class did most of the immigrants to America come?

Plan B

Which plan resembles our modern credit system to some degree?

Mandan, Hidatsa, Arikara (ND) and most tribes of the southern plains and south of the great lakes

Which tribes on the Plains practiced horticulture?

Each tribe has the right to set their own criteria for who can be an enrolled member/citizen

Who has the right to determine requirements for individual membership in Indian tribes?

Most profitable crop was cotton, 32% export revenue. Removal of the south because they wanted to expand the production

Why did the Removal process focus mostly on the tribal nations of the Deep South? What did the rapid expansion of the cotton industry have to do with it?

The mining interests did not want to have any potential gold or silver mines inaccessible due to being on reservations

Why did the U.S. senate reject all of the treaties with the Indian tribes of California in 1852?

Article 4 and 5

which 2 treaty articles had the most to do with creating economic dependency for Indians on reservations?

Plan A, Plan B was to peers

which plan did Jefferson express when talking directly to Indians?

Euro dependent on NA info, NA become more European and NA depend on European economy/systems

differences in dependency on each other's trade goods at the different stages

370 treaties were made total and all 370 were broken by the US

how many treaties were made and broken?

1: describes the geographic boundaries of indian land to be taken by the US 2: reserves a little of the indian land for the original "owners"- defines the boundaries of the reservation 3: preserves some indian subsistence rights 5: establishes native economic dependency on the US and US economic responsibility for the indian people based on economic promises that the US devised and made in this article

identify the main provisions of Articles 1,2,3, and 5 of the treaties

about 45,000

number of Native Americans who served in WWII

160 acre lots, lots were held in trust so that NAs couldn't sell, lease, of otherwise dispose of their allotments without government permission. Surplus lands- unclaimed lots. Blood quantum-Fraction of indian genes a person has

number of acres allotted to individuals; why were lots held "in trust" by the government; meanings of "surplus land", "blood quantum"

1. Indians must end common ownership of tribal land 2. There would be a 25 year patent on each lot held by the US 3. Each indian head of household was given 4 years to select an allotment or the government will select one for them. 4. All unclaimed lots could be declared surplus lands and assigned to non-indians. (This was the primary reason that congress passed the act) 5. Any Indians who would choose to abandon tribal ties and allegiances could become citizens of the US

refer to Coursepack #38, 2 parts: part 1, main points of the Allotment Act , and part 2, impacts of the Allotment Act

It took away the northern 2/3 of indian territory

what did the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 do to Indian Territory?

Economic obligations to treaty tribes. To encourage NAs to leave their reservations and relocate to the American citires for "their own" economic benefit- to further assimilate NAs into US society and culture

what motivations did those policies have in common?