Native Americans - Midterm

Northwest Ordinance

1787: US would observe the "utmost good faith" in dealings with Indian people and that their lands would not be invaded/taken except in "just and lawful wars authorized by congress" Laid out blueprint for national expansion - divided into districts, then become territories, then states.

Indian Trade + Intercourse Act

1790: Only licensed traders were permitted to operate in Indian country, no transfers of Indian land were valid without congressional approval The Act regulates commerce between Americans and Native Americans. The most notable provisions of the Act regulate the inalienability of aboriginal title in the United States, a continuing source of litigation for almost 200 years. [N]o sale of lands made by any Indians, or any nation or tribe of Indians within the United States, shall be valid to any person or persons, or to any state, whether having the right of pre-emption to such lands or not, unless the same shall be made and duly executed at some public treaty, held under the authority of the United States.

Seguoyah

1821 he completed his independent creation of a Cherokee syllabary, making reading and writing in Cherokee possible. After seeing its worth, the people of the Cherokee Nation rapidly began to use his syllabary and officially adopted it in 1825. Their literacy rate quickly surpassed that of surrounding European-American settlers. --> Newspaper: Cherokee Phoenix

Cherokee Nation v Georgia

1831: The Cherokee Nation sought a federal injunction against laws passed by the state of Georgia depriving them of rights within its boundaries, but the Supreme Court did not hear the case on its merits. It ruled that it had no original jurisdiction in the matter, as the Cherokees were a dependent nation, with a relationship to the United States like that of a "ward to its guardian."

Treaty of Fort Laramie

1851: US clashing with Sioux (Lakotas) - US wants to create safe passage for white immigrants and reduce conflict btw settlers and tribes. Call Northern Plains tribes together, ask them to respect tribal boundries. Fighting breaks out just a few years later - conflict btw US and Sioux leads to open warfare

"Digger" Indians

Digger Indians is a somewhat derogatory general term applied to several tribes or groups of Native Americans who lived in the Great Basin area of the United States. It referred to those who dug roots for food and was often applied to various groups of the Paiute Indians who lived in eastern and central California, western and southern Nevada, eastern Oregon, southern Idaho, southern Utah, and northwestern Arizona. The term has occasionally been applied to members or groups of other tribes who dug roots for subsistence.

Nez Perce

Indigenous people of the Plateau, who live in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, which is on the Columbia River Plateau. Helped Lewis & Clark. The Nez Perce War, fought between June-October 1877, stemmed from the refusal of several bands of the Nez Perce, dubbed "non-treaty Indians", to give up their ancestral lands in the Pacific Northwest and move to an Indian reservation in Idaho. This forced removal was in violation of the 1855 Treaty of Walla Walla, which granted the tribe 7.5 million acres in their ancestral lands and the right to hunt and fish in lands ceded to the government. After the first armed engagements in June, the Nez Perce embarked on an arduous trek north initially to seek help with the Crow tribe. After the Crows' refusal of aid, they sought sanctuary with the Lakota led by Sitting Bull, who had fled to Canada in May 1877 to avoid capture following the 1876 Battle of the Little Bighorn. A majority of the surviving Nez Perce represented by Chief Joseph of the Wallowa band of Nez Perce, surrendered to Brigadier Generals Oliver Otis Howard and Nelson A. Miles 40 miles away from the Canadian border.

Lalawethika

Later Tenskwatawa Brother of Tecumseh Fell into trace/had vision in 1805 Master of Life chose him - avoid Americans (children of the evil spirit) Be Indians Hundreds flock to Prophetstown

Chief Joseph

Leader of the Wal-lam-wat-kain (Wallowa) band of Nez Perce, a Native American tribe indigenous to the Wallowa Valley in northeastern Oregon, in the interior Pacific Northwest region of the United States. He led his band during the most tumultuous period in their contemporary history when they were forcibly removed from their ancestral lands in the Wallowa Valley by the United States federal government and forced to move northeast, onto the significantly reduced reservation in Lapwai, Idaho Territory. A series of events that culminated in episodes of violence led those Nez Perce who resisted removal, including Joseph's band and an allied band of the Palouse tribe, to take flight to attempt to reach political asylum, ultimately with the Lakota led by Sitting Bull, who had sought refuge in Canada. They were pursued eastward by the U.S. Army in a campaign led by General Oliver O. Howard. This 1,170-mile (1,900 km) fighting retreat by the Nez Perce in 1877 became known as the Nez Perce War. The skill with which the Nez Perce fought and the manner in which they conducted themselves in the face of incredible adversity led to widespread admiration among their military adversaries and the American public.

Indian Removal Act

The Indian Removal Act was passed by Congress on May 28, 1830, during the presidency of Andrew Jackson. The law authorized the president to negotiate with southern Indian tribes for their removal to federal territory west of the Mississippi River in exchange for their ancestral homelands. The act enjoyed strong support from the non-Indian peoples of the South, who were eager to gain access to lands inhabited by the southeastern tribes. Christian missionaries protested against the law's passage.

Proclamation Line of 1763

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was issued October 7, 1763, by King George III following Great Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America after the end of the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War, which forbade all settlement past a line drawn along the Appalachian Mountains. The Royal Proclamation may have played a role in the separation of the United States from Great Britain as colonists at the time wanted to continue in the economically beneficial cultural practice of taking land for one's own livelihood as part of the drive west.

Sioux

The Sioux comprise three major divisions based on Siouan dialect and subculture: the Santee, the Yankton-Yanktonai, and the Lakota.

Treaty of New Echota

The Treaty of New Echota (7 Stat. 488) was a treaty signed on December 29, 1835, in New Echota, Georgia by officials of the United States government and representatives of a minority Cherokee political faction, the Treaty Party. The treaty established terms under which the entire Cherokee Nation ceded its territory in the southeast and agreed to move west to the Indian Territory. Although the treaty was not approved by the Cherokee National Council nor signed by Principal Chief John Ross, it was amended and ratified by the U.S. Senate in March 1836, and became the legal basis for the forcible removal known as the Trail of Tears.

Sand Creek Massacre

1858: Gold discovered in Colorado --> thousands of settlers --> tension escalates (made worse by fears CW/loss of soldiers would --> Indian uprisings) 1864: Black Kettle's band of Cheyennes and some Southern Araphos camped at Sand Creek (under "protection of US government" - land set aside for them) with a white flag flying. Colonel Chivington and US army attacked the village - about 150 - 270 killed (mostly women and children; most men out hunting). Soldiers mutilated bodies and put body parts on display in the Denver parade celebration. Aftermath: Congressional hearing. Increased tension as news spread across Plains and Indians retaliated. Increased power of Dog Soldiers. Governor probably ordered it for economic reasons (didn't want to lose garrison of troops).

Long Walk

1864: The Navajos began 'Long Walk' to imprisonment. In a forced removal, the U.S. Army drove the Navajo at gunpoint as they walked from their homeland in Arizona and New Mexico, to Fort Sumner, 400 miles away at Bosque Redondo. Context: US attacks on Indians (ie Sand Creek Massacre) bc of fears loss of soldiers to CW would lead to Indian uprisings --> increased conflict in the Plains. US also hoped Navajo would serve as buffer between New Mexicans and Comanche. Death toll: ~2,000 in Bosque Redono reservation. After: Manuelito, traveled to Washington to plead for Navajo to be allowed home. Allowed to return after 4 years and given 15000 head of sheep and goat in return for a promise to stay on the reservation and become farmers and ranchers.

Second Treaty of Fort Laramie

1868: Peace Commission goes North to deal with Sioux US agrees to abandon Bozeman Trail (also have a railroad beyond it and don't need it anymore) Still tension, and Sioux leadership passing to younger generation (Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull), advocate uncompromising resistance

Oliphant v Suquamish

1978: United States Supreme Court case regarding the criminal jurisdiction of Tribal courts over non-Indians. In 1990 the U.S. Supreme Court extended the Oliphant decision to hold that tribes also lacked criminal jurisdiction over Indians who weren't members of the tribe exercising jurisdiction in Duro v. Reina. Within six months, however, Congress abrogated the decision, by amending the Indian Civil Rights Act to affirm that tribes had inherent criminal jurisdiction over nonmember Indians. In 2004, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of this legislation in United States v. Lara.

William Harrison

9th President As a general, attacks Prophet's village while Tecumseh is in the south - claims victory (propaganda failure for Tecumseh) in 1811

War of 1812

A military conflict that lasted from June 18, 1812 to February 18, 1815, fought between the United States of America and Great Britain, its North American colonies, and its North American Indian allies. Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but Europeans often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the war's end in early 1815 the key issues had been resolved and peace came with no boundary changes. The big losers in the war were the Indians. As a proportion of their population, they had suffered the heaviest casualties. Worse, they were left without any reliable European allies in North America.... The crushing defeats at the Thames and Horseshoe Bend left them at the mercy of the Americans, hastening their confinement to reservations and the decline of their traditional way of life. Notwithstanding the sympathy and support from commanders, the policymakers in London reneged in assisting the Indians, as making peace was a higher priority for the politicians. At the peace conference the British demanded an independent Indian state in the Midwest, but by late 1814 the Indian confederation had disintegrated and the British had to abandon the demand. The withdrawal of British protection gave the Americans a free hand, which resulted in the removal of most of the tribes to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma).

Trail of Tears

Between 1830 and 1850, the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muskogee, Creek, Seminole and Cherokee people (including European Americans and African American freedmen and slaves who lived among them) were forcibly removed from their traditional lands in the Southeastern United States, and relocated farther west. The Native Americans were forced to march to their destinations by state and local militias. The Cherokee Nation removal in 1838 (the last forced removal east of the Mississippi) was brought on by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia in 1828, resulting in the Georgia Gold Rush. Approximately 2,000-6,000 of the 16,543 relocated Cherokee perished along the way. The Cherokee Trail of Tears resulted from the enforcement of the Treaty of New Echota, an agreement signed under the provisions of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which exchanged Native American land in the East for lands west of the Mississippi River, but which was never accepted by the elected tribal leadership or a majority of the Cherokee people.

Major Ridge

Cherokee leader, a member of the tribal council, and a lawmaker. As a warrior, he fought in the Cherokee-American wars against American frontiersmen. Later, Major Ridge led the Cherokee in alliances with General Andrew Jackson and the United States in the Creek and Seminole Wars. Ridge became a wealthy planter, slave owner and ferryman. Under increasing pressure for removal from the federal government, Ridge and others of the Treaty Party signed the controversial Treaty of New Echota of 1835. They believed removal was inevitable and tried to protect Cherokee rights. It required the Cherokee to cede their remaining lands in the Southeast to the US and relocate to the Indian Territory. Opponents protested to the US government and negotiated a new treaty the following year, but were still forced to accept removal.

Quanah Parker

Comanche/English-American from the Comanche band Quahadi ("Antelope-eaters"). Strictly related also to the Nokoni band ("Wanderers" or "Travellers") (his mother's people), he emerged as a dominant figure of the Comanche, particularly after the Comanches' final defeat. He was one of the last Comanche chiefs. The U.S. appointed Quanah principal chief of the entire nation once the people had gathered on the reservation and later introduced general elections. Quanah was a Comanche chief, a leader in the Native American Church, and the last leader of the powerful Quahadi band before they surrendered their battle of the Great Plains and went to a reservation in Indian Territory. He was the son of Comanche chief Peta Nocona and Cynthia Ann Parker, an English-American, who had been kidnapped at the age of about nine and assimilated into the tribe.

Elias Boudinot

Educated at a missionary school in Connecticut, he became one of several leaders who believed that acculturation was critical to Cherokee survival; he was influential in the period of removal to Indian Territory. In 1828 Boudinot became the editor of the Cherokee Phoenix, the first Native American newspaper. It published in Cherokee and English, to showcase Cherokee achievements as well as to build unity within the Nation while under United States pressure for Indian Removal. Boudinot's marriage was controversial and opposed by many townspeople. The Cherokee National Council had passed a law in 1825 enabling the descendants of Cherokee fathers and white mothers to be full citizens of the Cherokee. Boudinot believed that removal was inevitable. He and other treaty supporters signed the Treaty of New Echota in 1835, but it was not signed by John Ross, the Principal Chief, and was opposed by most of the tribe. The following year the tribe was forced to cede most of its lands in the Southeast, and remove to the West.

Edward Jenner

English physician and scientist who was the pioneer of smallpox vaccine, the world's first vaccine. He is often called "the father of immunology", and his work is said to have "saved more lives than the work of any other human".

Battle of Fallen Timbers

Final battle of the Northwest Indian War, a struggle between Native American tribes affiliated with the Western Confederacy, including support from the British led by Captain Alexander McKillop, against the United States for control of the Northwest Territory (an area north of the Ohio River, east of the Mississippi River, and southwest of the Great Lakes). Indian troops retreated to Fort Miami (British), but doors were closed to them. Defeat --> Treaty of Greenville, cedes Ohio land to US (Tecumseh refuses to sign)

Tenskwatawa

Formerly Lalawethika Brother of Tecumseh Fell into trace/had vision in 1805 Master of Life chose him - avoid Americans (children of the evil spirit) Be Indians Hundreds flock to Prophetstown

Battle of Horseshoe Bend

Fought during the War of 1812 in the Mississippi Territory, now central Alabama. On March 27, 1814, United States forces and Indian allies (including Major Ridge) under Major General Andrew Jackson defeated the Red Sticks, a part of the Creek Indian tribe who opposed American expansion, effectively ending the Creek War.

John Schemerhorn

In 1832 President Andrew Jackson appointed him one of a Commission to remove the Cherokee and Chickasaw Indians beyond the Mississippi River (later to be known as the Trail of Tears). While Indian Commissioner, he acquired large tracts of land in Highland, Grayson, Bath and Wythe Counties, Virginia, in all about 400,000 acres (1,600 km²).

5 Civilized Tribes

It refers to five Native American nations—the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek (Muscogee), and Seminole. These are the first five tribes that Anglo-European settlers generally considered to be "civilized" according to their own world view, because these five tribes adopted attributes of the colonists' culture, for example, Christianity, centralized governments, literacy, market participation, written constitutions, intermarriage with white Americans, and plantation slavery practices.

Lewis & Clark

Jefferson sends Lewis & Clark to explore - also prepare Indians for trade and get info on them.

Ledger art

Ledger art is a term for Plains Indian narrative drawing or painting on paper or cloth. Ledger art flourished primarily from the 1860s to the 1920s. A revival of ledger art began in the 1960s and 1970s.

Sakakawea

Lemhi Shoshone woman who helped the Lewis and Clark Expedition achieve each of its chartered mission objectives exploring the Louisiana Purchase. With the expedition, between 1804 and 1806, she traveled thousands of miles from North Dakota to the Pacific Ocean, established cultural contacts with Native American populations, and researched natural history. By August 1805, the corps had located a Shoshone tribe and was attempting to trade for horses to cross the Rocky Mountains. They used Sacagawea to interpret and discovered that the tribe's chief, Cameahwait, was her brother.

Three Affiliated Tribes

Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nation, also known as the Three Affiliated Tribes, are a Native American group comprising a union of the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara peoples, whose native lands ranged across the Missouri River basin in the Dakotas. As a result of hardship, losses from infectious disease and forced relocations, these three peoples came together in the late 19th century. As of 1870 the nation is based at the Fort Berthold Reservation in western North Dakota.

Manifest Destiny

Manifest Destiny is a term for the attitude prevalent during the 19th century period of American expansion that the United States not only could, but was destined to, stretch from coast to coast. This attitude helped fuel western settlement, Native American removal and war with Mexico.

Joseph Brant

Mohawk military and political leader, based in present-day New York, who was closely associated with Great Britain during and after the American Revolution. RW shattered Iroquis confederacy - some for Crown, some for revolution. Many lost homes during it.

Red Jacket

Native American Seneca orator and chief of the Wolf clan. He negotiated on behalf of his nation with the new United States after the American Revolutionary War, when the Seneca as British allies were forced to cede much land, and signed the Treaty of Canandaigua (1794). He helped secure some Seneca territory in New York state, although most of the people had migrated to Canada for resettlement after the Paris Treaty.

Scott Momandy

Native American author of Kiowa descent. His work House Made of Dawn was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1969. Momaday received the National Medal of Arts in 2007 for his work that celebrated and preserved Native American oral and art tradition. He holds 20 honorary degrees from colleges and universities, and is a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Tecumseh

Native American leader of the Shawnee and a large tribal confederacy (known as Tecumseh's Confederacy) which opposed the United States during Tecumseh's War and became an ally of Britain in the War of 1812.

Indian Peace Commission

On July 20, 1867, Congress established the Indian Peace Commission to negotiate peace with Plains Indian tribes who were warring with the United States. Predicated on "we've screwed up" (SC massacre --> Plains warfare) --> Treaty of Medicine Lodge with S. Cheyenne, S, Arapho, Kiowa, Comanche, Plains Apache Kept waiting by Cheyenne - holding Medicine Arrow Ceremony - arrive in full gear w/ Dog Soldiers - think Treaty is called b/c they've defeated US Two tricks: 1. Reservation will happen in the future. 2. Give up land, but can keep hunting buffalo as long as there's enough (US knows they're pursuing a policy of exterminating buffalo, Indians thinks it means forever - also in treaty of Fort Laramie) Says it'll be the last time they have to give up land. No rations arrive - Indians finally rise up. Custer administers punishment - escalates until 1874 in Palo Duro

Blackfeet

On their return trip from the Pacific Coast, Lewis and three of his men encountered a group of young Blackfoot warriors with a large herd of horses, and it was clear to Meriwether Lewis that they were not far from much larger groups of warriors. Lewis explained to them that the United States government wanted peace with all Indian nations,and that the US leaders had successfully formed alliances with other Indian nations. The group camped together that night, and at dawn there was a scuffle as it was discovered that the Blackfoot were trying to steal guns and run off with their horses while the Americans slept. In the ensuing struggle, one warrior was fatally stabbed and another shot by Lewis and presumed killed. This is probably a false account; Lewis probably initiated it somehow.

John Ross

Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation from 1828-1866, serving longer in this position than any other person. Described as the Moses of his people, Ross influenced the Indian nation through such tumultuous events as the relocation to Indian Territory and the American Civil War. John Ross was the son of a Cherokee mother and a Scottish father. During the War of 1812, he served as adjutant of a Cherokee regiment under the command of Andrew Jackson. Ross first went to Washington, D.C. in 1816 as part of a Cherokee delegation to negotiate issues of national boundaries, land ownership and white encroachment. As the only delegate fluent in English, Ross became the principal negotiator, despite his relative youth. When he returned to the Cherokee Nation in 1817, he was elected to the National Council. He became council president in the following year. The majority of the council were men like Ross, who were wealthy, educated, English-speaking and of mixed blood. The issue of removal split the Cherokee Nation politically. Ross, backed by the majority, tried repeatedly to stop white political powers from forcing the tribe to move. They became known as the National Party. Neither Ross nor the council approved it, but the Federal government regarded the treaty as valid. It would send the Army to move those who did not depart by 1838 in an action known ever after as the "Trail of Tears." About one-fourth of the Cherokee forced to move died along the trail. Ross tried unsuccessfully to restore political unity after the arrival in Indian Territory. Unknown people assassinated the leaders of the Treaty Party, except for Stand Watie, who escaped and became Ross's most implacable foe. Soon, the issue of slavery refueled the old division. The Treaty Party morphed into the "Southern Party," while the National Party largely became the "Union Party." Ross initially counseled neutrality, believing that joining in the "white man's war" would be disastrous for the tribe. After Union Forces abandoned their forts in Indian Territory, Ross reversed himself and signed a treaty with the Confederacy. He later fled to Union-held Kansas and Stand Watie became the de facto chief. The Confederates lost the war, Watie became the last Confederate general to surrender, and Ross returned to his post as principal chief. Confronted with negotiating the Reconstruction Treaty with the United States, he made yet another trip to Washington, where he died on August 1, 1866.

Stand Watie

Prior to removal of the Cherokee to Indian Territory in the late 1830s, Watie and his older brother Elias Boudinot were among leaders who signed the Treaty of New Echota in 1835. The majority of the tribe opposed their action. In 1839 the brothers were attacked in an assassination attempt, as were other relatives active in the Treaty Party. All but Stand Watie were killed. During the American Civil War and soon after, Watie served as Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation (1862-1866). By then, the majority of the tribe supported the Confederacy. A minority supported the Union and refused to ratify his election. The former chief John Ross, a Union supporter, was captured in 1862 by Union forces. He commanded the Confederate Indian cavalry of the Army of the Trans-Mississippi, made up mostly of Cherokee, Muskogee and Seminole, and was the final Confederate general in the field to cease hostilities at war's end. Watie led the Southern Cherokee delegation to Washington after the war to sue for peace, hoping to have tribal divisions recognized. The US government negotiated only with the leaders who had sided with the Union, and named John Ross as principal chief in 1866 under a new treaty.

Louisiana Purchase

Purchased in 1803 from France for $15 million. Doubles size of US overnight - land between Mississippi and Rocky Mountains. Jefferson sends Lewis & Clark to explore - also prepare Indians for trade and get info on them.

John Ridge

Son of Major Ridge. Went to the Foreign Mission School in Connecticut. He met Sarah Bird Northup, of a Yankee New England family, and they married in 1824. Soon after their return to New Echota in 1825, Ridge was chosen for the Cherokee National Council and became a leader in the tribe. In the 1830s, he was part of the Treaty Party with his father Major Ridge and cousins Elias Boudinot and Stand Watie. Believing that Indian Removal was inevitable, they supported making a treaty with the United States government to protect Cherokee rights. The Ridges and Boudinot were both signatories to the Treaty of New Echota of 1835, by which they ceded Cherokee lands east of the Mississippi in exchange for lands in Indian Territory. The land cession was opposed by the majority of the tribe and the Principal Chief John Ross, but the treaty was ratified by the US Senate. In 1839, after removal to Indian Territory, opponents assassinated the Ridges, Boudinot, and other Treaty Party members for their roles in the land cession and to eliminate them as political rivals. Stand Watie survived an attack.

Battle of the Thames

Tecumseh dies fighting Harrison's army in 1813 (British distracted by Napoleon) Kills last hope of Indian unity east of the Mississippi

Gold Rush

The California Gold Rush (1848-1855) was a period in American history which began on January 24, 1848, when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California. The news of gold brought—mostly by sailing ships and covered wagons—some 300,000 gold-seekers (called "forty-niners", as in "1849") to California. In 1849, a state constitution, governorship, and legislature were established, and as part of the Compromise of 1850, California officially became a US state. A radical decrease in the native population that had begun during the Spanish/Mexican era was exacerbated by the major American/European population influx and lawless conditions of the Gold Rush. Much of the reduction was due to disease, but some new arrivals openly advocated genocide against Native Americans. Peter Burnett, California's first governor, declared that California was a battleground between the races and that there were only two options towards California Indians, extinction or removal. The State of California directly paid out $25,000 in bounties for Indian scalps with varying prices for adult male, adult female, and child sizes. It also provided the basis for the enslavement and trafficking of Native American labor, particularly that of young women and children, which was carried on as a legal business enterprise. Miners, loggers, and settlers formed vigilante groups and local militias to hunt the Natives, regularly raiding villages to supply the demand.

Georgia Compact

The Compact of 1802 was a compact made by U.S. president Thomas Jefferson in 1802 to the state of Georgia. In it, the United States paid Georgia 1.25 million U.S. dollars for its central and western lands (the Yazoo lands, now Alabama and Mississippi, respectively), and promised that the U.S. government would extinguish American Indian land titles in Georgia.

Doctrine of Discovery

The Discovery doctrine is a concept of public international law expounded by the United States Supreme Court in a series of decisions, most notably Johnson v. M'Intosh in 1823. Chief Justice John Marshall justified the way in which colonial powers laid claim to lands belonging to foreign sovereign nations during the Age of Discovery. Under it, title to lands lay with the government whose subjects travelled to and occupied a territory whose inhabitants were not subjects of a European Christian monarch. The doctrine has been primarily used to support decisions invalidating or ignoring aboriginal possession of land in favor of colonial or post-colonial governments.

Treaty of Guadeloupe-Hidalgo

The peace treaty signed on February 2, 1848, in the Villa de Guadalupe Hidalgo (now a neighborhood of Mexico City) between the United States and Mexico that ended the Mexican-American War (1846-48). The treaty called for the US to pay $15 million to Mexico and to pay off the claims of American citizens against Mexico up to $3.25 million. It gave the United States the Rio Grande as a boundary for Texas, and gave the US ownership of California and a large area comprising roughly half of New Mexico, most of Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Wyoming and Colorado. Mexicans in those annexed areas had the choice of relocating to within Mexico's new boundaries or receiving American citizenship with full civil rights.

Mato Tope

The second chief of the Mandan tribe to be known to whites as "Four Bears", a name he earned after charging the Assiniboine tribe during battle with the strength of four bears. Four Bears lived in the first half of the 19th century on the upper Missouri River in what is now North Dakota. Four Bears was a favorite subject of artists, painted by George Catlin and Karl Bodmer. Among his people he was a brave warrior, famous for killing a Cheyenne chief in hand-to-hand combat. He became friends with artist Karl Bodmer in 1833, and became chief in the year 1836. The 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic wiped out most of his tribe, leaving 27 (or by some accounts 100 to 150) survivors out of a former population of around 2,000. He died on July 30, 1837 after suffering from smallpox, brought to his tribe by whites.

Mandan

They are enrolled in the Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation. The Mandan were first plagued by smallpox in the 16th century and had been hit by similar epidemics every few decades. Between 1837 and 1838, another smallpox epidemic swept the region. In June 1837, an American Fur Company steamboat traveled westward up the Missouri River from St. Louis. Its passengers and traders aboard infected the Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara tribes. There were approximately 1,600 Mandan living in the two villages at that time. The disease effectively destroyed the Mandan settlements. Almost all the tribal members, including the chief, Four Bears, died. Estimates of the number of survivors vary from only 27 individuals to up to 150, with some sources placing the number at 125. The survivors banded together with the nearby Hidatsa in 1845 and created Like-a-Fishhook Village.

Andrew Jackson

Throughout his eight years in office, Jackson made about 70 treaties with Native American tribes both in the South and the Northwest. Jackson's presidency marked a new era in Indian-Anglo American relations initiating a policy of Indian removal. In his December 8, 1829, First Annual Message to Congress, Jackson advocated land west of the Mississippi River be set aside for Indian tribes. On May 26, 1830 Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which Jackson signed into law. The Act authorized the President to negotiate treaties to buy tribal lands in the east in exchange for lands further west, outside of existing U.S. state borders. The passage of the bill was Jackson's first legislative triumph and marked the Democratic party's emergence into American political society. The passage of the act was especially popular in the South where population growth and the discovery of gold on Cherokee land had increased pressure on tribal lands. The state of Georgia became involved in a contentious jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokees, culminating in the 1832 U.S. Supreme Court decision (Worcester v. Georgia). In that decision, U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice John Marshall, in writing for the court, ruled that Georgia could not impose its laws upon Cherokee tribal lands.

Arikara

Today they are enrolled with the Mandan and the Hidatsa as the federally recognized tribe known as the Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation. In the late 18th century, the tribe suffered a high rate of fatalities from smallpox epidemics, which reduced their population from an estimated 30,000 to 6,000, disrupting their social structure.[8] Due to their reduced numbers, the Arikara started to live closer to the Mandan and Hidatsa tribes in the same area for mutual protection. They migrated gradually from present-day Nebraska and South Dakota into North Dakota in response to pressure from other tribes, especially the Sioux, and European-American settlers.

Thomas Jefferson

US has duty to "civilize" Indians

Worchester v Georgia

United States Supreme Court vacated the conviction of Samuel Worcester (missionary) and held that the Georgia criminal statute that prohibited non-Native Americans from being present on Native American lands without a license from the state was unconstitutional. The opinion is most famous for its dicta, which laid out the relationship between tribes and the state and federal governments, stating that the federal government was the sole authority to deal with Indian nations. It is considered to have built the foundations of the doctrine of tribal sovereignty in the United States. Chief Justice John Marshall laid out in this opinion that the relationship between the Indian Nations and the United States is that of nations. He argued that the United States, in the character of the federal government, inherited the rights of Great Britain as they were held by that nation. Those rights, he stated, include the sole right to deal with the Indian nations in North America, to the exclusion of any other European power. This did not include the rights of possession to their land or political dominion over their laws. He acknowledged that the exercise of conquest and purchase can give political dominion, but those are in the hands of the federal government and not in the hands of the individual states. The court ruled that the individual states had no authority in American Indian affairs. Jackson still enforced Georgia's removal of the Cherokee.