Native Peoples of North America midterm
southeast cherokee circa 1800: political system
-households->town->4 districts (chiefdoms)-each w primary chief, lengthy town and district council meetings, many speakers (male and female), ritual beverage black drink -matrilineal inheritance of leadership- diff types of leaders: red= war/younger, and white= peace, older -towns w central plaza (sometimes mound) -wampum as record-keeping -conflict resolution: clan leaders restore balance -frequent warfare: often bw clans; motives: revenge deaths like NE and honor; male captives could be tortured, enslaved, or adopted like NE; women and children captured often enslaved
NAGPRA protects:
-human remains, funerary objects (associated and unassociated), sacred objects, and objects of cultural patrimony (owned by entire cultural group not individual) from existing collections -protects graves on federal or tribal lands -protects graves encountered in federal undertakings
quebec inuit: subsistence: food sources traded across ecology
-hunting techniques; ulu knife -key food sources traded by inuit groups: marine mammals, fish and birds, caribou(inland, seasonally)- smoked, boiled, fried; also eaten raw -food shortages (famines every 20-25 yrs)
arctic: transportation: sea, land (note other roles for dogs also)
-ice (inuit): dog sleds (since at least 4000 yrs ago) -water (unangan, inuit): kaya y 5000 yrs ago (one person), umiak (multi person)
northeast: native responses to colonialsim
-include warfare and alliance
consider how ongoing discussions about the peopling of the americas reflect: the significance of diverse perspectives on this topic
-incredible cultural, technological, and linguistic variation exists in indigenous peoples of the americas
haudenosaunee experiences and responses: by 1830
- US "indian removal" policies impact Oneida, Seneca, Cayuga -> members nations now have reservations in NY, WI, OK and reserves in both Ontario and Quebec, Canada
haudenosaunee experiences and responses: by 1799
- founding of new religion (to maintain elements of Haudenosaunee worldviews while adapting to new world order) = longhouse religion
Flaherty's Nanook of the North, 1922: self vs other-key quote pg 202
-"necessarily reductive" -"appropriation and identification" both ongoing
Haudenosaunee development of confederacy "League of the Iroquois": goals
-"replace war and weapons with words and wampum" (calloway, pg 45) in relationships within and among member nations
pro-removal politicians focus on common US misperceptions:
-"west is empty" (when wasn't) -"natives need to become farmers" (when many already were...especially in SE and NE) -"natives need to become more like euro-americans" (many, such as cherokee, already had)
Haudenosaunee: impacts of american revolution (1770s) on confederacy and lands: american perceptions of haudenosaunee ties to british
--> took lands --> majority moved up to canada
arctic language by AD 1500
-1 language family -8-10 languages
northeast colonial impacts: fur trade
-1500s-1600s intensifies -french and english, also dutch, portuguese, spanish
how did colonialism and western expansion lead to the collection of native american skeletal remains?
-1830 indian removal act and 1876 battle of little bighorn, 1889 first oklahoma "land rush" -fallen euro american soldiers sent back to families and buried right away, native americans often collected and shipped to museums -1988 over 40,000 native american remains were held by museums- over half the human remains even though it's a tiny amount of the population
cherokee experiences of removal
-1832 US supreme court decision supported cherokee sovereignty --> GA and national politicians ignored -1835 illegal treaty for removal (few cherokee signed) --> still enforced -1838 majority forced to OK -poorly planned, corruption --> limited supplies & health care, bad weather = "trail of tears" that only 75% survived -allotment policy enacted -> cherokee lost 90% of their OK lands, from 1890s-1940s -eastern cherokee gained recognition and reservation in north carolina in 1880s
inuit: key political gains, 1970s-2000s
-1975 James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement 1975 --> Nunavik land rights, political infrastructure -1980s major cultural revitalization -1990s reconciliation claim --> compensation to relocation survivors -2000s additional rights to coastal/offshore survivors
inuit: song/speech contests; cosmology/origin story; human-animal interconnections (e.g., "Sedna," human behavior, and hunting); shaman's roles
-2 dialects -song/speech contests for conflict resolution and entertainment -cosmology: sea women "Sedan" --> human/animal interconnection. if u do ur hunting in respectful way to animals, sedna will provide them for u. if not, she will take them away -shamans roles: individual and collective rituals, drum/dance circa 1900- collective ritual
inuit: settlement and housing
-3 housing forms --> stone lamps (for heat, cooking, light) -low population density, high mobility- often nuclear families in small camps
"Kennewick Man": NAGPRA claim by tribal nations
-4 eastern washington state tribal nations filed claim in 1996 -request repatriation of remains on religious grounds: to rebury the ancient one -archaeologists strongly oppose- want further study -army corps of engineers 1996 decision to repatriate
northeast: anthropological data
-500 years of explorer, trader, missionary reports -Systematic research by 1800 (Thomas Jefferson) -1840s, early anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan -By late 1800s-early 1900s, ethnographer JNB Hewitt (Aurora) + archaeologist Arthur C Parker (Seneca)
colonial impacts on native peoples: population loss
-78-90% across the Americas -primary cause: european "crowd" infectious diseases from greater animal domestication -intensified by violence (highly variable but common)
range of native responses to indian removal
-Armed resistance -Forming new groups (e.g., Seminoles- originally mostly from Creek group, joined other survivors of regional groups in florida, and freed african slaves) -Strategic accommodation (efforts to just adapt)
southeast deeper history: by 3000 (?debated) years ago, "eastern woodland" lifeway evident here (as in NE)
-Burial mounds (influence from "Hopewell," centered in Ohio River Valley) -Pottery-clear links to NE also -Farming continues → now including corn (maize) → large permanent settlements in many places → long distance trade well-evidenced
subarctic: deeper history: by 6000-7000s yrs ago: settlement
-By 7000-3000 yrs ago → Athapaskan-speaking groups of western Subarctic -By 7000 yrs ago → Algonquian-speaking groups of eastern and central Subarctic
Haudenosaunee development of confederacy "League of the Iroquois": key symbols of these goals and practices
-Calloway pg 48-54 "Chiefs' version" -deer antlers= sachem authority -bundle of arrows= collective strength -great tree, with roots of peace= shelter -eagle= power of vision to detect threats -white wampum belt= great peace -shared dish/bowl= member nations share hunting grounds
northeast: deeper history: most groups: farming + foraging (except coastal regions=foraging emphasis)
-Earliest peoples (16,000-10,000 yrs ago): food foraging/large game -By 10,000 to 3000 yrs ago: Some gradually shift from small foraging groups → larger settlements with early farming
subarctic: anthropological data (relatively limited)
-From 1500s: numerous explorer, trader reports -Ethnography: some from 1880s, but most after WWII -Archaeology: earlier in western, more recent in eastern, much more since 1970s
NE: Haudenosaunee, circa 1750: ceremonial cycle
-Green corn in early fall gives thanks to early harvest -Midwinter in january/february to celebrate new year-world renewal -Four sacred rituals performed (see pg 302-3) Demonstrate respect for game animals -Condolence ritual when leader died
southeat by AD 1500: transportation
-In many areas: on foot -In some also: dugout canoes -On S Florida coast: Catamarans
native american archaeologists
-Joe Watkins (Choctaw) (U Of Oklahoma): "Indigenous Archaeology" -Sonya Atalay (Anishinaabe) (UMass-Amherst)
southeast: envrionment
-Key features: Evergreen and deciduous forests Rivers, bayous, swamps Some forested hills Appalachian mountains -Mild climate with abundant rain
Haudenosaunee today: examples of political action (both w/in US and internationally through UN)
-Mohawk and casino debates -North American and international political action: Examples Condolence to US, 9/11 United Nations (e.g., Oren Lyons) -Influential figures within: Native/Indigenous Studies Public health (e.g., KSDPP) Anthropology
southeast by AD 1500: subsistence and economy
-Multiple crops of corn, beans, squash -Hunting and gathering -Some food storage: drying, smoking -Extensive trade: coastal/inland in SE, plus with NE, Plains and beyond Shell, shark's teeth Stone, copper Holly species-> "black drink" -Food production tools include: Digging sticks Gourd bird houses Bows and arrows (by 1700 years ago) Atlatls; blowguns; fishnets, hooks and lines Stone or wood mortar and pestle (for grinding corn, seeds, nuts)
Flaherty's Nanook of the North, 1922: contrast with shift to Inuit self representation, by 1990s
-Nanook Revisited (1990) as inuit response -2001 Atanarjuat, The Fast Runner- inuit produced, filmed in Nunavut
northeast colonial impacts: disease and violence
-Ohio River Valley: 1500s, major depopulation from disease Haudenosaunee (Iroquoian) groups also impacted: from 1500-1770 = 66% loss -Yet regional influence expanded, with role in fur trade -- 1701 agreement w french, "Covenant Chain" with Native groups and British
Haudenosaunee development of confederacy "League of the Iroquois": origin story
-Onondaga chief, Hayenwatha ("Hiawatha"), met Deganawidah or "Peacemaker" -Instead of warfare: words of condolence, "wiping of tears," exchange of wampum Took this Great Law of Peace to others → Elaborate culture of negotiation evolved
subarctic: deeper history: by 6000-7000s yrs ago: subsistence
-Paleo-indian: interior Alaska -Elsewhere, glaciers recede by 7000 yrs ago -> small, mobile bands of hunter-gatherers -central subsistence for all: caribou
NE: Haudenosaunee, circa 1750: special focus: warfare
-Unclear history: Culturally significant and avenge a killing → ongoing cycle -War captives: Some to many (men, women, children) adopted Adult males often tortured: to avenge a family member's death or ritual significance: world renewal
Haudenosaunee development of confederacy "League of the Iroquois": definitely some influence of US "founding fathers"
-acknowledged by US senate in 1988, but exact nature remains unclear -Social interaction common -imitation/dressing up -Haudenosaunee influence evident, but also interpreted through US lenses: Consensus..? Gender and power..? "One heart" of Haudenosaunee decisions = consider 7 generations past and future..?
northeast: native responses to colonialism: Haudenosaunee example
-allied confederacy of 5 tribal nations, extensive historical claims to use rights and influence over lands, shifts in alliance and conflict w french, british, regional Algonquian tribial nations --> -despite population losses, regional influence expanded, with role of trade -> 1701 agreement w french, "covenant chain" with native groups and british
example of past controversy: moundbuilders
-ancestors buried into them- settlers looking for gold but found human remains -they tried to say native americans weren't intelligent enough to build these mounds and that a mythical lost race did -1882: division of mound exploration founded within the Bureau of Ethnology w/inthe Smithsonian to figure out who built the mounds, human remains were sent to smithsonian -1894: conclusion that native americans built the mounds
northeast by AD 1500: key animal species hunted, plant species gathered
-animals: deer, rabbit, bear, fish, birds, beavers -plants: berries, nuts, fruits, wild onion, maple sap
Haudenosaunee development of confederacy "League of the Iroquois": fouding
-approximate date: AD 1370-1450 -response to "mourning war" (blood revenge/feuding) -purpose at "great league of peace"-peace among member groups
Flaherty's Nanook of the North, 1922: anthropological influences
-arctic mining industry --> filmmaking -manufactured to fit flaherty's vision and audience -"salvage" approach -goal to show: friendly, successful, adaptive arctic/inuit
patterns across culture areas: political systems
-arctic: band-like -subarctic: band-like -plateau: tribe-like -nw coast: chiefdom-like -plains: tribe-like -great basin: band-like -cali: tribe like, chiefdom like -sw: tribe like, chiefdom like -ne: tribe like, confederacies -se: chiefdom-like
patterns across culture areas: subsistence
-arctic: generalized foraging; sea mammals -subarctic: generalized foraging; large game animals -nw coast: specialized foraging; salmon -plateau: specialized foraging; salmon -great basin: generalized foraging; pinyon nuts -cali: generalized and specialized foraging; acorns -plains: foraging and horticulture; buffalo -sw: horticulture and generalized foraging; corn, beans, squash -ne: horticulture and generalized foraging; corn and beans -se: horticulture and generalized foraging; corn, beans, squash
patterns across culture areas: settlement and housing
-arctic: mobile -subarctic: mobile -plateau: semi-sedentary -nw coast: semi-sedentary -plains: mobile -great basin: mobile -cali: mobile, semi-sedentary -sw: semi-sedentary, sedentary -ne: semi-sedentary, sedentary -se: sedentary
material remains: artifact, ecofact, feature
-artifact: a portable object made, used, or modified by human activity -ecofact: environmental remains -feature: a non-portable artifact; a place built or modified by people
inuit: political systems
-bands (2-5 families) w male headman- lead by influence -key conflict resolution strategies: consult shaman--> harm to enemies, women's job to criticize the person who creates problems --> community ostracizes if they don't get in line, and song/speech contests
political systems
-bands (<50 people) and tribes (few hundred to few thousand): much of precolonial native north america, smaller scale groups, leadership by influence -chiefdoms (few thousand to tens of thousands): larger groups, greater stratification, leadership may feature coercion
arctic: deeper cultural history = times of earliest sites and later ancestral Inuit migrations
-biological and linguistic evidence fro recent, shared migration history of Inuit (North,East) and Unangan (West) people-early sites circa 14 kya= "paleoindian" -circa 10 kya, generalized "paleo-arctic" -ancestral inuit waves of eastward migration by 4 kya, displacing others by about 1 kya (north and east) -in west, Aleutian islands: sites by 9 kya, Unangan by 5 kya (western)
subarctic: french influence also key
-british defeat french, but french speaking populations remain prominent in region today -french, native marriages/families: Metis communities (rebellions against colonial powers, bc of race and language politics) -continuing language speakers
range of native responses in SE to indian removal act (passed and enacted by Jackson administration 1829-37)
-cherokee efforts to accommodate and join US -migrating early (e.g., some cherokee, 1791-1835) -staying behind (e.g., eastern cherokee, Mississippi choctaw) -filing court cases (e.g., cherokee against the state of georgia 1830s) -armed resistance (e.g., cherokees 1770s-1790s; seminoles 1817-1858)
northeast by AD 1500: clothing
-clothing primarily from deer hides/buckskin -Haudenosaunee examples: men: breech cloth + leggings + gustoweh hat women: skirt + tunic-type top, or dress all: moccasins -designs reflect personal and tribal nation identities
arctic: key shared environmental features across all arctic regions
-cold -coastlines -wind -limited precipitation
colonialism and settler colonialism
-colonialism: taking control of land + subjugating populations, for economic and/or political gain -settler colonialism: includes large numbers of settlers
inuit: social system: gender roles
-common for children to cross roles -womanhood: first menses; then get facial tattoos -manhood: first major hunting kill -men hunt, build houses, make tools, maintain dogs, key day to day leaders and primary ritual specialists/shamans -women help w hunting, distributing goods from hunt, gather plant species and bird eggs, taking care of households, raising children, providing clothing and bedding and boat overs and tent covers so they sew a lot
haudenosaunee experiences and responses: by 1783
-confederacy governance re-established at two sites (including what is now NY state and what is now Ontario, Canada)
consider how ongoing discussions about the peopling of the americas reflect: the partial and selective nature of anthropological/archaeological knowledge
-conflict of theology (natives) vs. science (europeans) explanations
southeast by AD 1500: other material culture
-containers: gourds, basketry (choctaw example), pottery (cherokee ex.) -wampum belts for records here too
arctic: inuit case study cosmoogy/origin stories --> key themes
-cosmology= cultural account of known world's origins-origin story -key themes: initially few animals, each with special powers; human/animal boundary unclear; living/dead also interconnected
definition of "culture area" concept, strengths and limitations
-definition: geographic region in which societies developed cultural similarities (concept developed late 1800s, refined through 1900s) -strengths: useful focus: how shared ecologies and/or histories lead to shared cultural features; diversity across n. america -limitations: downplays diversity w/in areas, movement/migration, interconnections across regions, change over time
human biology and culture interconnect
-diet, health, and disease -genetics --> population origins
precolonial population estimates
-difficult for many places/times bc disease often travelled ahead of europeans recording this info -estimation methods limited: range of estimates 2-10 million -one well regarded estimate: 7 million (thornton) -population density by AD 1500: factors that shape: # of people per square km; reflects climate, ecology, and resources -highest density: CA, SE, NW Coast, SW -lowest density: subarctic, arctic, great basin, plains
"Kennewick Man": what subsequent DNA analysis reveal, and what ultimately happened to the remains?
-dna analysis: closely related to regional natives (who filed original claim)- but only 1 of 5 regional nations (Colville) agreed to DNA testing -"odd" skull shape found among other earliest peoples (new lesson in skeletal evolution) -knowledge benefits from collaboration -in december 2016, obama signs bill requiring return of remains -regional tribal nations: reburied remains in feb 2017
subartic by AD 1500 continued low population density and: food storage
-drying/smoking -pemmican (pounded dried meat, berries, fat) -baskets: from birch bark, wood, animal skins
key sources of evidence for precolonial movements and cultural developments by native peoples
-ecological research -archaeological sites and artifacts -biological analysis of skeletal remains -ethnographic research about indigenous oral histories -linguistic studies of how languages relate -early european records -native records of events, agreements, etc.
NE: Haudenosaunee, circa 1750: economy and society
-economy: gender and division of labor: women own land, plant and harvest, gather, maintain households. men clear fields, hunt, trap and fish -colonial impacts of economy evident by this time- major involvement in colonial fur trade, use of guns
native american anthropologists
-ella deloria: (Yankton Dakota) (1888-1971): "Speaking of Indians" -Bea Medicine (Lakota): "Learning to Be an Anthropologist and Remaining "Native"" -Bernie Perley (Maliseet) (UW-Milwaukee): "Defying Maliseet Language Death"
inuit: social system: social relations
-emphasize sharing (reciprocity) and collaboration--> conflict resolution -facilitates survival -houses, hunting tools, kayaks= individuals owned -umiaks owned by groups
inuit: population loss by 1920s; health impacts
-est 60% loss from 1800-1920s -infectious diseases made it to their region including TB -mental health: substance abuse and suicide rates escalate
colonial impacts on native peoples: language loss
-estimated 50%
northeast colonial impacts: 1580s-1670s
-european colonies foudned -english: allied w/ iroquoian speakers -french: allied w/ algonquian speakers -dutch -military violence to gain land
northeast colonial impacts since early 1500s
-european fishing and whaling begin, atlantic coast
Haudenosaunee development of confederacy "League of the Iroquois": key practices
-extensive, structured discussion and negotiation to reach consensus -Council meetings in Onondaga area, at center → council leaders (sachems) from member nations -Key: thick skin (see Calloway, pg 52) -Layers of individual nations negotiating/discussing → pass to next → may pass back for further discussion → reach consensus -"One body, one head and one heart" (pg 51)
northeast deeper history: history of subsistence
-farming added to food foraging by 4000-3000 yrs ago -Corn (maize) from mesoamerica 1700 yrs ago -Corn central to regional diet by 1200 yrs ago -"The three sisters" (corn, beans, squash) emerges at least 700 years ago
northeast by AD 1500: subsistence
-farming plus food foraging (coastal areas more foraging) -key subsistence technologies: wooden hoes and digging sticks; bows and arrows, snares, nets, spears; fishing hooks, lines, nets
native nations criteria for "enrollment" as members
-federal recognition (566 native nations, still some that want to be formally recognized) -set own criteria for formal enrollment as member
"Kennewick Man": how facial modeling reflected/fueled controversy
-first facial model in 1998 looks like white actor Patrick Stewart -by 2006 facial remodel looks like younger Native american man on time magazine cover -by 2016 facial remodel looks like older native american man
subsistence
-foraging of 'wild'/uncultivated foods (generalized= many plants and animals, specialized= central focus on 1-2 plants/animals + others) -horticulture: domesticated/cultivated plants
"Kennewick Man": when found, why significant for arch./anth.
-found 1996 in washington state -dated as 9450 yrs old (later revised to 8500 yrs) -this date is biological evidence relevant to the peopling of americas
arctic: anthropological knowledge/data
-from 1500s (in east) and 1700s (in west) onward: explorer, trader reports -ethnography: since late 19th century -archaeology: especially since mid-20th century -biological anthro by 20th century -topics: technologies; colonial impacts and cultural change; health; now: climate change
inuit: key periods of intensifying colonial pressures since 1750
-from early 1600s-1750 -limited settlement pressure in arctic -but colonial industries disrupt access to traditional foods, lifeways -periods of intensified euro-canadian activity: 1750s, 1850s, 1900s, 1940s-60s -
inuit: founding of Nunavut, 1999
-full canadian territory with Inuit governance
arctic: ecological variation
-furthest north and east: ice, snow, and sea -west: ocean -many areas seasonal topsoil thaws in N and E also -hunting key subsistence mode
arctic: contrast purely geographic and culture area definitions
-geographic "arctic circle" international region above 'tree line" (ground frozen so trees can't grow) not the same as culture area
subarctic: political gains by and since 1970s, though 2017= CBC news articles
-global role models: balancing economic development with indigenous rights and interests ("social license" needed=consult and include local community input) -greater land management: moving form shared to exclusive management of key wildlife reserve-> likely impacts for non-indigenous fishing/hunting there?
how did people first arrive in the americas?
-great theories, limited evidence -evidence: geography, geology, archaeology -two possible routes: ice free corridor (in-land) and coastal route (boat)
southeast cherokee circa 1800: key annual rituals
-green corn ceremony (same as NE): held in late summer, goals: celebration, thanks (women present corn, like first woman Selu), activities: individuals settle debts, disputes -new moon/new fire ceremonies: held in october for collective renewal, renewal of sacred fire for the next year
subarctic: canada forms 1867 --> forward to cree since 1970s: JBNQA
-ground council of the crees established 1974 -james bay settlement (JBNQA), 1975 -1974 documentary, Cree Hunters of Mistassini- helped articulate initial cree claims
key anthropological priorities
-holistic: how cultural elements connect -evolutionary: culture as adaptive, changing -comparative: human cultures across times and places -fieldwork based (qualitative): extensive, first-hand observation -oriented by cultural relativism: evaluate cultures as adaptations to specific places and times -focus on linkages -focus on change
american colonialism in SE: "indian removal" : cherokee responses
-indian removal: developed and implemented by 1830 -film clip from class: cherokee sign 1791 "civilization" treaty which emphasizes possibility of native peoples being incorporated into US society as equal citizens -> contrasts w reality that unfolded instead -US 1791 treaty, alliance in War of 1812, agreed to "civilization" (farming?, private property, slaveholding, christianity, some land loss), -written form of cherokee language by late 1820s: high rates of adult literacy, newspaper (cherokee/english) -developed new centralized, state-style political system: cherokee nation (1827) -what happened instead: agreements violated ("civilization" did not lead to inclusion) -> "indian removal" policy by 1830
"Kennewick Man": initial forensic analysis by local archaeologist
-injury from stone point -tooth wear consistent w Native Americans dietary practices -"caucosoid" skull shape (outdated term/concept that fed into politicization of topic)
inuit: "reincarnation" themes (e.g., naming of children)
-interconnection of past/present/future
northeast by AD 1500: three language families
-iroquoian -algonquian -siouxan
NE: Haudenosaunee, circa 1750: meanings of this name for selves vs name called by others
-iroquois= "killer people" -Haudenosaunee= "people of the longhouse
"Kennewick Man": lawsuit by 8 anthropologists
-is NAGPRA relevant to such ancient remains -violates civil rights act, to deny access based on race -they won (on what grounds?- NAGPRA did not apply to this case, skull shape different from Native American)
subartic by AD 1500 continued low population density and: clothing
-key materials: skins and furs -decoration: paint, quillwork, moose hair -winter: warmth -summer: insect protection
southeast cherokee circa 1800: ideology and worldview
-key values: purity, harmony -balancing opposites (cultural categories): white vs red, war vs peace, male vs female, good vs evil- if mixed, dangerous, impure, or sacred-powerful -key symbols: sun and moon (sister and brother)-matrilineal principle
inuit: social system: kinship
-kinship: nuclear families most common, marriage first arranged by families, divorce and remarriage frequent
social systems
-kinship: relatedness (e.g., by blood, marriage) -inequality: stratified vs egalitarian
who were first people and where did they come from? what does current genetic evidence indicate?
-know a lot, fine-tuning -evidence: genetics, aDNA, skeletal morphology -all native americans originate from ice age asian populations (siberia) -genetic diversity of modern people arose out of "single" small (100s/1000s) founding population -long regional continuity of populations (genetic links bw modern people and people ~ 9000 yrs ago)
arctic: susbsistence: hunting on land and sea --> key technologies
-land: birds, polar bears, caribou, arctic hares and foxes -sea: seals, walrus, whales -freshwater fish: fish and shellfish -14+ kya: hunter w harpoon (barbed spear) and atlatl (spear thrower) -bow and arrow (evidence it originated in acrict around 4500 yrs ago)
understanding language families and languages as key cultural feature:
-languages encode and enact worldviews -language families: numerous languages that share vocab, grammer--> likely shared origins (estimated 62+ by AD 1500) -languages: forms of speech not intelligible to speakers of other languages (est. 400+ in native north america) -early recordings by missionaries and anthropologists -historical connections -migrations -diversity
subarctic: geographic area/land base
-largest culture area
Flaherty's Nanook of the North, 1922: more hidden from audience
-leading actor's death from TB in 1924 -flaherty's inuit son -massive economic and social impacts of colonialism -fueled forced relocation of quebec inuit
subarctic: deeper history: by 6000-7000s yrs ago: 2 major language families
-likely from circa 6000 yrs ago through AD 1500
subarctic: key features of climate
-long, cold winters (6 mos or longer) waterways frozen -short, warm summers: more vegetable foods here than arctic
subarctic: cultural continuities and changes by 1970s: examples from the film
-lumber, oil, hydroelectric power -james bay settlement (JBNQA) -1974 documentary, Cree Hunters of Mistassini- helped articulate initial cree claims
range of native responses: resistance examples
-maintain banned practices in secret -protest, activism -legal (litigation) -confrontation -> conflict (e.g. Oka Crisis, 1990; DAPL/standing rock 2016-17)
southeast: anthropological knowledge
-major -by 500 yrs of explorer, trader, missionary reports -massive, early population losses --> cultural destruction in many regions by 1800 -extensive archaeological research (primary focus: larger sites) -systematic ethnographic research relatively late, c. 1900
subarctic: key environmental features and diversity
-many areas: boreal forest -evergreen tree species prominent -numerous lakes, rivers, swamps -east: rocky terrain -east-central: hudon's bay -west: mountains -north west: high plateau
southeast cherokee circa 1800: social system
-matrilineal clans like NE -two spirit role debates: defiling or sacred? Gender, labor and power: -male hunting, warfare, cleared fields like NE -female farming, gathering, firewood, water, cooking, child care, owned fields, houses and furniture like ne. also some hunting, warfare by women -Menstrual isolation (debates- Blood outside of body violated categories so defiling, or because of there greater power??) -Sexuality, marriage and divorce- seems to be equal in terms of each gender role in control of their sexuality Slave war captives (esp. women and children)
NE: Haudenosaunee, circa 1750: social and political systems
-matrilineal kinship -three social classes -age based and other social groupings -gender and power: clear economic and political power for women, arranged marriage by senior women
colonial impacts on native peoples: economic --> inequality
-mining (gold, silver, etc) -trade of furs -other animal products (whale oil and buffalo skin) -agricultural products --> variations across time and space, frequent outcome= inequality
anthropology responds from 1970s onwards:
-more central focus on community concerns: land and resource claims, language and cultural preservation, health promotion -guided by professional code of ethics: avoid harm, informed consent, no deception
southeast by AD 1500: 4-5 major language families
-muskogean + others known form other regions to date -Siouxan -Iroquoian -Algonkin
contrast "Kennewick Man" with Kwaday Dan Ts'inchi
-name= "long ago person found" (in local indigenous language) -discovered by hunters 1999 (found in melting glacier) -dated at 300 to 550 yrs old -first nations people had a story about a man who stayed behind bc he was slowing group down when a storm was approaching-very meaningful to them -collaboration bw scientists and communities in this instance -regional first nations agreed to DNA testing --> 17 living descendants identified
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA)
-native activism --> became federal law in 1990 -affects: existing museum collections, unexcavated graves -repatriation: to restore or return control to the rightful place of origin, allegiance, or citizenship
range of native responses
-negotiation --> accommodation/acceptance -resistance -cultural and political revitalization
NE: Haudenosaunee, circa 1750: complex political system
-nested layers -bands: groups of family-matrilineal clan, leaders=clan council, limited power -towns (up to 2000 ppl): multiple clans, town council of clan leaders (often female) -tribes/nations of multiple towns, leaders tend to be male, greater power -confederacy of multiple nations (haudenosaunee): governing council male
what are key strengths and weaknesses of land bridge/ice-free corridor theory
-not viable bw approx. 26-14 kya- glacial runoff, proglacial lakes, katabatic winds, muskeg (mossy soil) -first viable route by 14 kya, really accessible after 13.5 kya -too young to be route of earliest settlers of americas bc of older sites -possible route of later migrants (especially any northward back migrants)
Flaherty's Nanook of the North, 1922: as "primal drama", first ever documentary film, but "illusion of authenticity"
-of human survival in nature -trained local actors, sought their input -altered elements to fit "primal drama" ---> illusion of authenticity -polar bear pants (not true in that specific area where filming) -no mention of time -family size (3 children unusual in this time frame) -harmonious, playful -masculinity
northeast by AD 1500: transportation
-often on foot -> winter snowshoes (recall: subarctic) -many regions: canoes (dugout and birch bark)
Haudenosaunee/iroquoian groups and lacrosse
-oldest sport in north america? -2013 documentary: the medicine game
key features of native americans
-original, pre-colonial inhabitants of this geographic region -historical experience of settler colonialism -current goals of cultural distinctiveness -adaptation= continuity and change
subarctic: fur trade
-overhunting severe in some regions by 1700s -cree dominate native fur trade until overhunting by late 1800s (use of guns) -for some: shift to year round settlements, reliance on imported foods -yet some species recover in 1900s-native cultural continuities also
arctic: clothing
-parkas by 500 yrs ago? -mukluks (boots) -snow goggles by 1000 yrs ago
"Kennewick Man": how entered into politicized topic of earliest north americans
-peopling of americas politicized topic by 1990s "europeans first peoples" (dubious scientific evidence) -caucosoid skull shape fed into it
what NAGPRA does not protect
-problem of protecting burials and sacred sites in areas of rapid development- private landowner, private funding Playa vista housing example: -Found enormous arch. site where houses were supposed to go- over 400 native burials, some as late at 1960s- site occupied by native americans for at least 5000 yrs -native groups agreed that it could be excavated but didn't know there were so many burials -some groups didn't see it as a victory, wanted to leave the burials untouched
colonial impacts on native peoples: interconnected cultural componenets
-recall muckle table 2.2 (major components of culture)--> examples of how land, language and population loss impacted
areas of collaboration bw native communities and archaeologists
-repatriation -preservation of archaeological sites -study of history and ancestral lifeway
key colonial forces in N. america, 1400s-1800s
-russian: 1740s-1860s in Arctic, subarctic, NW coast -spanish: 1490s-1820s in SE, SW, CA -british: 1500s-1770s in arctic, subarctic, NE, SE -french: 1524-1763 in subarctic, NE, SE, Plains -dutch: 1609-1667 NE -swedish: 1638-1665 NE
subarctic: Hudon's Bay company, from 1670
-scope expands 1700s--> 1830, all across subarctic -massive british influence -fur trade
northeast by AD 1500: other technologies
-shell beads for exchange, record keeping (earliest evidence 4500 yrs ago) -wampum belts developed by 1600s
southeast by AD 1500: "black drink" as key regional trade good
-since at least Cahokia through 1800s -Ritual, political, social uses at least since Cahokia (AD 1050) -SE regional trade items
arctic: housing: 3 housing forms
-sod houses (a lot partly built in earth) -snowhouses (igloos) -seasonal skin tents
southeast colonial impacts though american revolution (1770s): spanish (esp. de soto's campaign) + british and french
-spanish: de soto's campaign: 1539-43-seeking sites of wealth for spanish crown, violence (stealing, kidnapping, murder, rape), brought diseases -british: 1600s-1700s colonies -french: 1680s colonies -intensified regional slave trade (was practice for war captives by natives, whites got into so SE tribal nations had near victory in Yamasee war in 1710s against those involved in slave trading) -disease and disruption, massive population losses
NE: Haudenosaunee, circa 1750: 5 original (later 6) constituent tribal nations
-speak closely related languages Cayuga. Mohawk. Oneida. Onondaga. Seneca.
NE: Haudenosaunee, circa 1750: dreams (and role as temporary release from male gender roles)
-spiritual meaning -> call to action -one theory: psychological outlets for men
key topics in anthropological study of culture
-subsistence -settlement patterns -technology -communication -economic systems -social systems -political systems -ideology -arts -health and healing
northeast: native responses to colonialism: "pontiac's rebellion"
-successful, Ottawa-led military alliance of Great Lakes tribal nations -> british agree to limit eastward settlement expansion to Proclamation Line, 1760s -> agreement upheld by Americans after American Revolution in 1776. colonial powers then violate this agreement, in practice
northeast: environment: climate and ecology
-temperate climate w major ecologies including: extensive deciduous forests, river valleys, coastal regions, lakes, oceans
subartic by AD 1500 continued low population density and: housing
-three common types -skin tents -wigwams (birch bark, or grasses + skins) -western areas: semisubterranean houses
northeast: deeper history: "eastern woodland" by 3000 yrs ago
-three defining features: burial mounds, farming, pottery
the study of the human past: key elements
-through material remains -identify andn explain past human behavior -what, how, and why (e.g., how did people live in diff environments?) -change over time: human origins: 2.5 mya spread of AMH: 40 kya origins of agriculture: 10 kya rise of complex civilization: 5 kya
subartic by AD 1500 continued low population density and: transportation
-toboggans (some pulled by dogs) -snowshoes -eastern areas: birch and spruce canoes
subartic by AD 1500 continued low population density and: frequent trade
-trade from coastal <-> inland across region -also frequent trade w arctic peoples, regionally also, w nw coast, plains, ne
subarctic: disease, violence, and other colonial pressures
-trading posts --> disease (smallpox major impacts 1700s, other major diseases) -also violence bc of economic competition, settlers wanting land, and gold rushes -other pressures: churches, schools (residential schools by later 1800s), 1960s canadian education policies-education requirement
inuit: population recovery, cultural revitalization
-underway by 1960s-70s -languages in widespread use: syllabics -north of quebec: inuit-governed territory of Nunavut
culture as learned, shared ideas and practices
-used creatively for problem-solving ex. material culture, ideologies, language -therefore diverse, debated, changing -cultural diversity benefits the human species
native american criticism of anthropology: 1960s
-vine deloria jr "anthropologists and other friends" "custer died for your sins" -fueling popular stereotypes (boas and salvage ethnography- described lifeways of of the period prior to arrival of europeans, but were presenting them as the present) -deception --> publicizing restricted knowledge (e.g., religious rituals) -irrelevant to their own communities
Haudenosaunee: impacts of american revolution (1770s) on confederacy and lands: colonial population/settlement pressure increasing now
-violation of proclomation line (established by british, americans then agreed to maintain) -Military conflicts unfold: Tecumseh, Shawnee (Algonquian) leader of allied tribal nations, + British, 1810s → shifting gains and losses
subartic by AD 1500 continued low population density and: settlement and political organization
-western woods cree by 1750 example -most of year: small local bands (10-30 people) (several related families) -summer: larger regional bands (100-200 people)- group of local bands, key focus: lakeshores for fishing -leaders= headmen (influence decisions: movement, disputes), often limited power -again: common to shift band identitiies
NE: Haudenosaunee, circa 1750: origin story: key themes (matrilineality, origins of good and evil)
-why both good and evil: women comes from water, has 2 sons, one good and one evil- their actions created the known world -world situated on back of turtle -reincarnation: naming practices (see pg 300) -puberty: isolation for both girls and boys (vision quest males only)
NE: Haudenosaunee, circa 1750: two housing forms
-wigwams in some regions of NE -longhouses for Haudenosaunee: 6-10 nuclear families related on mother's side 30-60 people, owned by women, wood poles and bark cover, food storage racks and pits along sides
when did people first arrive in the americas?
-wild west, changes all the time -evidence: geochemistry, archaeology -good evidence for occupation by aboout 15 kya, but not universal acceptance of all sites of that age -with more work, may be possible to argue occupations dating 18-23 kya (although not universally accepted) -older than 24 kya seems unlikely
3 lessons learned from "Kennewick Man"
1.ethical practices in anthropology should include: -respecting universal human concerns re: treatment of dead, burials -not needlessly/carelessly fueling political discord -consistently using up-to-date concepts and terms 2. limits of NAGPRA in US 3. competing perspectives, interests and claims need not produce conflict -> can be reconciled
what are key strengths and weakness of coastal migration theory?
Assumptions (not a lot of evidence): -adequate boating tech -habitable land along ice-front in n. america -sea-based subsistence possible -evidence of coastal occupations Indirect supporting evidence: -linguistic: greatest centers of language diversity located along pacific coast, e.g., cali and oregon, columbia, ecuador, peru -genetic: higher degree of genetic diversity in s. american than n. america -numerous very old accepted sites (ex. monte verde) located in s. america
southeast deeper history: by 1100-500 yrs ago, "mississippian" pattern also develops in mississippi and related river valleys -> key features?
Mississippian features: -Population densities increase -Farming of corn + beans → intensifies -Pottery innovations -"Platform" mounds -Social stratification -Southeast ceremonial complex Ex. Cahokia as center of large chiefdom -Captivates interest as center of large chiefdom -Declined by AD 1400 -At height population: 3,000-30,000
early european explorations in N. america: when, who
Strong evidence of vikings (norse) AD 980-1350 -crossed into iceland, greenland, n. america -geological and arch. evidence -didn't impact the people they met (arctic and subarctic natives) Then columbus: four voyages -caribbean natives: Arawak groups -1493 letter Amerigo vespucci -Brazilian natives -1504-1505 pampphlet -him and columbus wrote good and bad images of natives
southeast culture area
about 50 groups recorded (many others not)
boas and his influence
all cultures are adaptations to their living conditions
archaeology
excavation and interpretation
southeast cherokee circa 1800: settlement
permanent towns
NE: Haudenosaunee, circa 1750: shamans + curing societies
(e.g., false face)- wear scary masks to scare away bad spirits bc they can't kill them
southeast deeper history: earliest peoples by 15,000 yrs ago
By 10,000-3000 yrs ago -From small, mobile groups → larger settlements -Food foraging plus early farming -Later: some earthworks/mounds
NE: Haudenosaunee, circa 1750: how sachems (term for leaders at any level) are appointed, can be removed
How become: -Inherit: female relatives appoint -Earn: warfare or other skills Can be removed from position if: -Commit crime (murder, sexual assault, theft) -Disrupt consensus
NE: Haudenosaunee, circa 1750: settlement: permanent towns
Permanent towns, moving every 10-15 years -Near rivers, often higher ground -Up to 2000 people; some seasonal change (smaller scale in winter)
southeast cherokee origin story
Three layers to cosmos: -Upper world (space of sky and above) -This world (created by scooping up mud)* -Underworld Origins of humans -> hunting, corn farming -Sons let animals out of cave, now they have to be hunted -Wife only one who knew how to grow corn and beans, sons killed her, corn and beans were in her bood, so now people have to put in a lot of effort to produce them (Selu)
southeast by AD 1500: housing
cherokee example: wood frames + grass, bark and clay -warmer season: rectangular (has openings) -cooler season: dome-shaped w no opening besides small doorway
material culture/technology
clothing, arts and crafts, tools, housing
languages
communication through symbols
morgan
cultural evolution, savage barbarism civilization idea
southeast cherokee circa 1800: subsistence
farming + hunting and gathering (often in mountains and near rivers)
subartic by AD 1500 continued low population density and: key hunted and gathered foods, technologies
hunted: caribou, bear, moose, muskoxen, birds -gathered: seasonal berries technologies: bows and arrows, nets; traps and snares, knives: bone and antler, copper and obsidian in some areas
self identification vs how others identify a person
identity vs heritage
southeast cherokee circa 1800: language family
iroquoian language
debate about "indian problem" in US
most agreement on removal
cultural relativism
one component of a society's culture should be explained in relation to other parts of that culture, rather than being evaluated on criteria imposed by others
ethnography
participant-observation, interviewing
southeast: contemporary issues
regional colonial histories -> key effects: -like NE: little reserved/protected lands; federal recognition limited -separations of "western" segments from smaller "eastern" groups who stayed behind (e.g., cherokee) -for some: population recovery (cherokee now largest tribal nation in US)
colonial impacts on native peoples: land loss
settler colonialism 1,2,3,5 --> 6-10
subarctic: deeper history: by 6000-7000s yrs ago: political systems (bands key)
small, mobile bands of hunter-gatherers
inuit: carving: mythic, everyday, cultural/historical, contemporary themes
stone, ivory, horn carvings --> everyday + mythic images --> growth in 20th century
ideologies
stories, mythologies, worldview, values, healing
which of the following topics currently has strongest evidence in anthropology?
who were the earliest people and where did they come from?