NCE: Encyclopedia of Counseling

Cephalocaudal

"Head to foot" development

Therapeutic surrender

(in multiracial counseling) the client psychologically surrenders him/herself to a counselor from a different culture and becomes open w/ feelings and thoughts; client is able to trust the counselor and self-discloses

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior, the pre-conventional (level 1) contains the first stage (obedience and punishment orientation and second stage (self-interest orientation)), the conventional (level 2) contains the third stage (interpersonal accord and conformity) and fourth stage (authority and social-order maintaining orientation) the post-convential (level 3) contains the 5th stage (social contract orientation) and 6th stage (universal ethical principles)

multicultural counseling

A helping role and a process that uses modalities and defines goals consistent with the life experiences and cultural values of diverse clients

Jean Piaget

A structuralist who believes stage changes are qualitative; Sensorimotor - preoperational - concrete operational - formal operational; each stage is a way of making sense out of the world

Organicism

A theorist who views developmental changes as qualitative; used to describe psychologist such as Gesalt, Goldstein, who emphasizes a holistic model

Imprinting

An instinct in which a newborn will follow a moving object (Konrad Lorenz)

dualistic thinking

cognitive tendency to see situations and issues in polarized, absolute, black-and-white terms (William Perry)

Contextualism

Behavior must be assessed in the context of the culture in which the behavior occurs

Konrad Lorenz

Believed that aggression is an inborn tendency, and is part of our evolution and necessary for survival; primary work in imprinting as well

Maccoby and Jacklin

Found very few differences that could be attributed to genetics and biological factors. The superiority of males in the area of mathematics, however, was not significant until high school or perhaps college. Girls who excelled in science and math often identified with their fathers and were encouraged to value initiative and were given independence. Thus, the major impetus for sex-role differences may come from child-rearing patterns rather than bodily chemistry.

Which theorists would say that regardless of culture, humans have an instinct to fight?

Freud and Lorenz

Electra complex

Conflict during phallic stage in which girls supposedly love their fathers romantically and want to eliminate their mothers as rivals

Carl Rogers

Created non directive counseling, aka client-centered counseling and/or person-centered counseling; characterized by an existential or humanistic approach; uses reflection and rarely gives advice; uses empathy, congruence, genuineness, and demonstrates unconditional positive regard to create the "I-Thou" relationship

society vs culture

Culture is defined primarily via norms and values, whereas a society is a self-perpetuating independent group which occupies a definitive territory; all members of a given society may not share the same culture, whereas cultures operate within societies

Culture

Customs shared by a group which distinguish it from other groups; values shared by a group that are learned from others in the group; attitudes, beliefs, art, and language which characterize members of a group

Denial

Defense mechanism by which people refuse to accept reality.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Developing children progress through a predictable sequence of stages of moral reasoning (3 levels, 6 stages): preconventional (child responds to consequences, reward and punishment influence behavior), conventional (the individual wants to meet the standards of the family, society, and even the nation), and postconventional (individual is concerned with universal, ethical principles of justice, dignity, and equality of human rights))

What theorist uses the term "identity crisis?"

Erikson

William Glasser

Father of Reality Therapy; believes that dwelling on past failures can reinforce negative self-concept and only reflects on the past in terms of successful behaviors; feels that diagnostic labels give clients permission to act sick/irresponsible; his work was popularized in educational circles after he wrote "schools without failure"

Maturationists

Freud, Erikson, Gisell; The concept of the maturation hypothesis (also known as the maturation theory) suggests that behavior is guided exclusively via hereditary factors, but that certain behaviors will not manifest themselves until the necessary stimuli are present in the environment. In addition, the theory suggests that the individual's neural development must be at a certain level of maturity for the behavior to unfold. A counselor who believes in this concept strives to unleash inborn abilities, instincts, and drives. The client's childhood and the past are seen as important therapeutic topic

social learning theory

Generally related to the work of Albert Bandura; the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating, and by being rewarded or punished; this contradicts the "innate/instinct aggression theory" by emphasizing environment rather than genetics

In which Eriksonian stage does the midlife crisis occur?

Generativity versus stagnation

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Humanistic psychology; Postules that lower-order physiological and safety needs and higher-order needs, such as self-actualization; Survival --> Security --> safety --> love --> self-esteem --> self-actualization; self-actualization means the person becomes all he or she can be; interviewed the best people he could find who escaped "the psychology of the average"

Freud's Structural Theory of the Mind

Id, ego, and superego

Equilibration

In Piagetian nomenclature, the balance between assimilation and accommodation

Instincts

Innate behaviors that do not need to be practiced or learned; manifests itself in all normal members of a given species

Carol Gilligan's critique of Kohlberg's theory

Lawrence Kohlberg conducted many studies on moral reasoning. His research had a distinct male bias as not many of his subjects that he surveyed and interviewed were female. He seems to suggest that males often reason through moral issues at higher levels than females. Gilligan pointed out the male bias in Kohlberg's research and argued that females have different ways of reasoning through moral issues and this does not make them inferior to male reasoning but only points out that the females value different things when trying to reason through moral issues.

Research by Daniel Levinson

Levinson and his colleagues discovered that adult developmental transitions in white-collar and blue-collar men seemed to be relatively universal; 80% of the men in the study experienced moderate to severe midlife crises, and an age 30 crisis occurs in men when they feel it will soon be too late to make later changes

Psychometric

Mental testing or measurement

Erikson's Stages

Mistrust vs. Trust Shame vs. Autonomy Guilt vs. Initiative Inferiority vs. Industry Role confusion vs. Identity Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Despair vs. Integrity

Centration

Occurs in the preoperational stage and is characterized by focusing on a key feature of a given object while not noticing the rest of it (Piaget)

Negative reinforcement

Occurs when the removal of a stimulus increases the probability that an antecedent behavior will occur. Never forget: All reinforcers—positive and negative—increase the probability that a behavior will occur.

Ethology

Often associated with the work of Konrad Lorenz refers to the study of animals behavior in their natural environment

Freud Psychosexual Stages

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency (only non primarily psychosexual stage), and Genital

In Freudian theory, which stage is attachment a focus of?

Oral, first stage, and occurs while the child is still an infant

Assimilation

Piaget referred to this as the act of taking in new information

Zone of Proximal Development

Pioneered by Lev Vygotsky, describes the difference between a child's performance without a teacher versus that which he or she is capable of with an instructor.

the theory of "terminal drop" or "terminal decline"

Postulates that a dramatic decrease in intellectual functioning does occur in the geriatric population, but even according to this theory, it only occurs during the final five years of life; financial security and health are the best predictors of retirement adjustment

Gibson

Researched the matter of depth perception in children using the visual cliff; demonstrated that depth perception is an inborn trait.

John Bowlby

Saw bonding and attachment as having survival value, or what is often called adaptive significance; insisted that in order to lead a normal social life the child must bond with an adult before the age of 3. If the bond is severed at an early age, it is known as "object loss," and this is said to be the breeding ground for abnormal behavior, or what is often called psychopathology. ("B" = bonding).

Heritability

The portion of a trait that can be explained via genetic factors

Psychodiagnostic

The study of personality through interpretation of behavior or nonverbal cues; can be used to label diagnostically

Scapegoating

The tendency for individuals, when frustrated or unhappy, to displace aggression onto groups that are disliked, visible, and relatively powerless

Robert Kegan

Stated the client cam make a meaning in the face of a crisis and can find new direction ("holding environment"). His sic stages of development are 1) incorporative 2) impulsive 3) imperial 4) interpersonal 5) institutional 6) interindividual

Psychopharmacology

Studies the effects that drugs have on psychological functions

Positive reinforcement

The addition of a stimulus strengthens or increases a behavior

Frank Parsons

The father of vocational guidance, set up centers in the early 1900s to help individuals in search of work; the first pioneer to focus heavily on sociocultural issues in the US; wrote "Choosing a Vocation" in 1909

Fixation

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved; implies that the individual is unable to go from one developmental stage to the next

Some research suggests that very poor economic conditions correlate very highly with

aggression

foot-in-the-door technique

asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment; i.e. a counselor would first ask if they can come into the home when doing a home visit, then continue with larger requests (i.e. medical history)

Maturational viewpoint of development

This viewpoint utilizes the plant growth analogy, in which the mind is seen as being driven by instincts while the environment provides nourishment, thus placing limits on development. Counselors allow clients to work through early conflicts, acting nonjudgmental and creating a safe, therapeutic relationship

Heredity

assumes the normal person has 23 pairs of chromosomes, that characteristics are transmitted by chromosomes, and assumes genes composed of DNA hold a genetic code

Mores

beliefs regarding the rightness or wrongness of behavior; develop as a given group decides what is good and bad for the welfare of the people; people are generally punished for violating this, where as violating "folkways" results in embarrassment (not harm/punishment)

Assimilation-contrast theory

client perceives counselor's somewhat similar attitude/statement as even more similar (assimilation error) and dissimilar attitudes as even more dissimilar (contrast error).

The three factors which enhance interpersonal attraction are

close proximity, physical attraction, and similar beliefs

Harry Harlow

Well known for his work with maternal deprivation and isolation in rhesus monkeys (believed that attachment was an innate tendency and not one which is learned; Monkeys placed in isolation developed autistic abnormal behavior; When these monkeys were placed in cages with normally reared monkeys some remission of the dysfunctional behavior was noted)

Accommodation

What assimilation results in, which is a modification of the child's cognitive structures (schemas) to deal with the new information (Piaget)

active-directive model

Works best with people who respond well to an authority figure (like some traditional cultures); passivity on the part of the counselor would be viewed in a negative manner, the client would be disappointed if they didn't receive advice, and assigning homework would be appropriate

Daniel Levinson

Wrote Seasons of a Man's Life and Seasons of a Woman's Life; He viewed midlife crises as positive things, stating that those who do not face a midlife crisis could become stagnant later in life - avoiding the crises could lead to a lack of vitality later; early adult transition --> age 30 transition --> settling down --> midlife transition --> later adulthood

anal retentive personality

a person fixated in the anal stage who is neat, fussy, stingy, and stubborn

balance theory

a theory holding that people try to maintain balance among their beliefs, cognitions, and sentiments; a move from cognitive inconsistency (dissonance) to consistency and the tendency to achieve a balanced cognitive state

critical period

a time when an organism is susceptible to a specific developmental process; marks the importance of heredity and environment on development. In hu- mans, for example, language acquisition is thought to begin at around age 2 and ends at about age 14; makes imprinting possible and signifies a special time when a behavior must be learned or the behavior won't be learned at all

Fixed Action Pattern (FAP)

a type of innate behavior (instinct.) The FAP is a preprogrammed response to a particular stimulus (known as a releaser stimulus). FAP's include courtship behaviors and feeding of young. These are not learned behaviors, they are automatically performed without any prior experience.

Oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father; Occurs during the PHALLIC STAGE; the most "controversial" aspect of Freud's theory

learned helplessness

connotes a pattern in which a person is exposed to situations that he or she is truly powerless to change and then begins to believe he or she has no control over the environment. Such a person can become easily depressed. This concept is generally associated with the work of Martin E. P. Seligman, who experimentally induced learned helplessness in dogs via giving them electric shocks while placed in a harness. These dogs—unlike untrained dogs—did not even try to escape the painful shocks when the harnesses were removed.

Id

contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

Universal Culture

contains all humans all having the same biology and basic biological needs

Ethnocentrism

evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture; conveys the notion that one's own group is superior; opinion-based (not fact-based); promotes a sense of patriotism and national sovereignty, stability and pride, yet danger in the nuclear age

Albert Ellis

father of Rational Emotive Therapy, which focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotion (like, "if I fail the AP exam my life will come to an end"); does not agree with the frustration-aggression theory, and feels that many clients DO believe that frustration causes aggression, and this is due to the client's irrational thought process rather than some automatic response pattern; feels that irrational thinking at "point B" is at the core of emotional disturbance

Eric Berne

father of transactional analysis; NOT instrumental in the early years of social psychology

Ecological culture

implies cultural norms are the result of practical and survival behaviors related to the climate or the resources in a given physical or geological environment.

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic; includes the acquisition of a symbolic schema

Sensorimotor Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

person-centered therapy (Rogerian)

nonjudgmental; good model for multicultural/multiracial usage (unless a culture demands structure or authority)

Reversibility (Piaget)

one can undo an action, hence an object can return to its initial shape. A child masters this concept in the third stage, known as concrete operation or concrete operational thought.

Equilibration (Piaget)

organize their schemes (current cognitive structures) to achieve the best possible adaptation to their environment and "reach balance"; children change their "schemas" to accommodation novel or new information and to reach this balance

Projection

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

Displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

Stages of Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

sensorimotor (memorization hint: motor skills = 1st skills), preoperations, concrete operations (memorization hint: black/white thinking), formal operations (memorization hint: formal = final)

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived; "out of sight out of mind"; children need REPRESENTATIONAL THOUGHT in order to master this; occurs during the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)

cognitive dissonance theory (Leon Festinger)

the balance theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes; dissonance is often reduced using denial (for example: "I'd rather smoke three packs of cigarettes a day and enjoy myself than quit and live an extra year or two," would be an example of cognitive dissonance in action); this theory predicts that the person will look for things that are consistent with his/her behavior

C. G. Jung

the father of analytic psychology. The anima represents the female characteristics of the personality while the animus represents the male characteristics. (Two super memory devices are that men generally have muscles [ani"mus"] and ma means mother, who is female [ani"ma"].) Jung calls the anima and the animus "archetypes," which are inherited unconscious factors; said men operate on logic or the "Logos" principle and women are intuitive, operating on the "Eros" principle; used mandala drawings

Relativistic thinking

the idea that in many situations there is not necessarily one right or wrong answer, but an answer can exist relative to a specific situation

Ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain; can use defense mechanisms as unconscious strategies to protect ourselves

Superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations; the moralistic and idealistic portion of the personality

Egocentrism (Piaget)

the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

prognosis

the probability that one can recover from a condition; the probable outcome in a case

Conservation (Piaget)

the realization that properties of objects remain the same even when appearance changes (i.e. a tall skinny pitcher of water is emptied into a small, squatty pitcher - a child indicates that it now has less water); Occurs in the concrete operational stage along with counting (C, C, C)

culture norms

the set of values, ideas, and attitudes that are learned and shared among the members of a group; provides individuals with standards of conduct and expectations of how one should act

frustration-aggression theory

the theory that frustration - the perception that you are being prevented from attaining a goal - increases the probability of an aggressive response

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs; a relationship will endure if the rewards are greater than the costs

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation (quantitative changes); grew out of the philosophy of John Locke; a behavioristic view

modal personality

those character traits that occur with the highest frequency in a social group and are therefore the most representative of its culture

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Emory Bogardus' Scale

used to measure social distance empirically and describes different degrees of social contact or social distance; evaluated how an individual felt toward other ethnic groups

recommendations

when a counselor speaks of what he or she believes must transpire from a psychotherapeutic standpoint