NCSU Biology 181 Final Exam

Taxonomic Categories

"Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Soup" Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species/Specific Epithet

Density

# individuals/unit area -Write like 4 wolves/km^2

LDL vs. HDL (Cholesterol)

*"bad cholesterol" is low-density lipoprotein (LDL) *"good cholesterol" is high-density lipoprotein (HDL) -LDL and HDL denote the way cholesterol is bound in lipoproteins (the natural "carrier molecules" of the body) LDL: most (~70%) of cholesterol is carried as LDL... can build up on walls of arteries HDL: protects against heart attack, probably by carrying cholesterol back to liver where it's removed from body... may also actually remove excess cholesterol from plaque in arteries

Diaphragm

**relax/contract, inhale/exhale** Inspiration: diaphragm contracts and lowers, creating a partial vacuum inside lungs- air enters Expiration: diaphragm relaxes and rises, air forced out

1.) Animal Tissues

*Only sponges lack tissues - Have different cell types not organized into tissues - Sponges are called parazoans ("beside‐animals") • Allotheranimalshavetissues;theyarecalled eumetazoans ("truly‐among‐animals") - Diploblasts ("two sprouts"): Cnidarians, Ctenophorans • Ectoderm • Endoderm - Triploblasts ("three sprouts"): all others • Ectoderm • Mesoderm • Endoderm

Porifera

*sponges - No tissues, no symmetry - sessile (do not move) as adults - digest food that flows through cells from water

Archaeans

- Cell wall does not contain peptidoglycan - Cell membrane has lipids not found in other organisms - Genes are interrupted by introns (like eukaryotes, unlike eubacteria) -Live in many habitats (very abundant in plankton)

Eubacteria

- Common name: Bacteria - No introns in genome - Peptidoglycan in cell walls Gram-positive bacteria have a thicker peptidoglycan layer in their cell wall outside the cell membrane (Gram-Negative = thinner) - Basic shapes are cocci, bacilli, and spirilli - Diverse nutrition and respiration - Reproduce by binary fission, conjugation, transformation, and transduction

Niche

- Competition leads to species having an ecological niche: Role in the ecosystem (herbivore, carnivore, producer, etc.), its tolerance limits (soil pH, humidity, etc.), requirements for shelter, nesting sites, etc. -Habitat = address, Niche = occupation ~Niches can evolve overtime just like physical characteristics ~Niches belong to populations, not to individual organisms.

Discovery Based Science vs. Hypothesis Based Science

- Discovery based science is results that have been found from actually having carried out the experiment or investigation. -Hypothesis based science is an educated guess by a scientist of what will happen during an experiment or investigation. (Prove long before the discovery)

Variety in Temperature Regulation

- Invertebrates • behavior ‐ desert • flying • thorax ‐ maintains heat • social organization ‐ honey bees - Fish - ectotherms • countercurrent in swimming muscles - Amphibians ‐ produce little heat and lose it easily • behavior • mucus - regulates cooling - Reptiles ‐ ectotherms • behavior • shivering to create heat - Birds ‐ no sweat glands • panting to cool • prevent heat loss - feathers, and blood flow in legs ‐ countercurrent exchange - Marine mammals ‐ water cooler than body • layer of fat (blubber) • counter current exchange in fins

Causes of Mass Extinction

- Massive volcanic eruptions - Massive land formations - Falls in sea level - Asteroid or comet impact - Sustained global cooling (ice age) - Sustained global warming

Fungi Extracellular Digestion

- Means that fungi acquire their nutrients by absorption • Secrete digestive enzymes (exoenzymes) into surroundings • Absorb the organic molecules - Great surface area-to-volume ratio • Fungi can break down cellulose - Decompose wood, even jet fuel - Some fungi are carnivorous

Angiosperms

- Monocots‐ grasses, lilies, crops, onions, orchids, palms, etc. - Dicots‐ most common trees, shrubs, flowers, cacti - All angiosperms have seeds packaged in fruits which disperse them; flowers are the reproductive structures

Prokaryotic Reproduction

- Most can divide every 1-3 hours, some produce new generation in 20 mins! - Binary Fission (asexual reproduction) - Conjugation (transfer of plasmid- extra ring of DNA)

Autotrophs

- Primary producers are autotrophs (phototrophs or chemotrophs) -Phototrophs use light & CO2 (cyanobacteria, plants, and certain protists like algae) -Chemotrophs use inorganic chemicals & CO2 (certain prokaryotes)

Primary vs. Secondary Succession

- Primary succession: occurs in a newly formed, often lifeless area (begins with soil formation) such as a lava flow or area left from retreated glacier, is deposited. - Secondary succession occurs in a disturbed area, faster than primary b/c soil already exists. Examples include areas which have been cleared of existing vegetation (such as after tree-felling in a woodland) and destructive events such as fires.

Age Structure Pyramids

- Proportion of individuals in each age-group

Bacteria and Archaea (microbes)

- Smaller than the cells of eukaryotes • Ring of DNA—0.001 times as much as eukaryotes • More abundant than eukaryotes‐ diverse habitats and nutritional requirements • Important in medicine,industry, and quality of the environment • Bacteria can be pathogenic, but no archaea are known to cause disease in humans It is estimated that over 200 different species of microorganisms (bacteria, mainly) inhabit a healthy human body... (about 80 species in the mouth alone)

Thermoregulation Summary

- behavior - vasodilation and vasoconstriction - skeletal muscle activity - insulation And to COOL the body: - evaporation ‐ respiration, sweating, saliva, urine Homeotherms can produce heat (in addition to regulating heat loss) ‐shivering: muscle contraction ‐nonshivering heat production: occurs in a specialized adipose (fat) tissue: brown fat (common in hibernating and newborn mammals) ‐specialized cells that release heat by consuming metabolic fuels

Buffers

- bicarbonate from pancreas to neutralize stomach acid - enzymes from pancreas digest carbohydrates, fats, and proteins - bile from liver (production) and gallbladder (storage) to break up fats

Mollusks

- foot, soft body, mantle (skirtlike tissue that protects body- and may secrete a shell) - 3 Major Classes 1.) Gastropoda (Snails) 2.) Bivalvia (Clams) 3.) Cephalopoda (Octopus)

Gibberellins

- prod buds and seeds into breaking dormancy and resuming growth in spring, stimulate flower and fruit development -stimulate both cell division and cell elongation, especially in STEM (not stem tip) -make grapes grow larger and farther apart

Echinoderms

- radial symmetry, internal skeleton, gills, spiny skin, water vascular system for movement -(sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, etc.) The phylum contains about 7000 living species, making it the second-largest grouping of deuterostomes (a super phylum) ((chordates are the largest)), after the chordates (which include the vertebrates, such as birds, fishes, mammals, and reptiles). Echinoderms are also the largest phylum that has no freshwater or terrestrial (land-based) representatives.

Cnidarians

- sac body plan, radial symmetry, tentacles, nematocysts - corals, jellyfish, hyrda

Annelids

- segmented worms ‐earthworm, leech, tube worm‐ closed circulatory system

History of Earth in 24-hour or 12-month view, age of Earth

-->12 MONTH VIEW Formation of Earth- January 1; Bacteria appeared- March 26; Green algae- mid October; Mesozoic era began- December 14; Mammals adaptive radiation (after dinosaur extinction)- December 24; Genus Homo appears- 5pm December 31. -->24-HOUR VIEW Look at picture

Invertebrates

-99% of all animals! -8 phyla 1.) Porifera (Sponges) 2.) Cnidarians 3.) Echinoderms 4.) Chordates 5.) Flatworms 6.) Mollusks 7.) Annelids 8.) Anthropods

Postzygotic Isolating Mechanism

-A number of mechanisms which act after fertilisation preventing successful inter-population crossing are discussed below. 1.) Zygotic Mortality -Even if the sperm and the egg from the two separate species are able to fuse during fertilization, that does not mean the zygote will survive 2.)Hybrid Sterility -A hybrid has normal viability but is deficient in terms of reproduction or is sterile. This is demonstrated by the mule and in many other well known hybrids. 3.)Hybrid Breakdown -Hybrids are often not suited for their environment the way a pure species would be -Weak, low fitness, high mortality rates among offspring (Liger)

Flatworms

-Acoelomates -Platyhelminthes (flatworms): bilateral symmetry, organs, incomplete digestive system, ~ 1⁄2 are parasites (ex. tapeworms), others free‐living (ex. Planaria)

Modes of geographic speciation

-Allopatric vs. parapatric vs. sympatric speciation -Allopatric=Most common way cladogenesic occurs

Anagenesis

-Also known as "phyletic change", is speciation wherein the ancestor species wholly morphs into the new species, such that there are no remaining other populations of the ancestor species and the species can be considered extinct -Sequence of species, no increase in # of species.

Directional Selection

-An extreme phenotype is favored over other phenotypes, causing the allele frequency to shift over time in the direction of that phenotype. -Directional selection occurs most often under environmental changes and when populations migrate to new areas with different environmental pressures. Directional selection allows for fast changes in allele frequency, and plays a major role in speciation.

Fossil Record (Layers)

-As one looks farther up, at younger and younger rock layers, the fossilized plants and animals become more and more familiar until they are a lot like organisms that are around now. The organisms also tend to become more and more complex. -From this, Darwin concluded that organisms have not remained the same since earth's beginning, and that they have changed a lot, gradually becoming more and more complex. He also realized that as new species arise, other ones become extinct.

Ultimate vs. Proximate

-Behavior has ultimate and proximate cause ~Proximate: Immediate stimuli and mechanisms the explain how a behavior occurs ~Ultimate: Reasons why a behavior evolved, explains how the behavior contributes to survival and reproduction

Biogeochemical Cycles

-Biogeochemical Cycles= movement of nutrient elements/inorganic substances through biosphere by physical and biological processes ~Atmosphere, earth's soil and crust, bodies of water (moves through slowly) ~Producers, consumers, and detrivores (moves through quickly)

Controlled Experiment

-Both a control and a variable -Control: Used as a baseline measure, identical to variable group except does NOT receive treatment in question -Variable: What is altered, measured, or manipulated in an experiment

Major Minerals

-Calcium: bones, teeth, nerve/muscle function -Phosphorous: bones, teeth, ATP -Potassium: intercellular stuff, action potentials -Sulfur: part of amino acids -Sodium: extracellular stuff, action potentials -Chlorine: extracellular stuff, HCl -Magnesium: cofactor for ATP metabolism

Deforestation

-Caused by subsistence agriculture (food for family), logging, cattle ranches, fuel wood, and commercial farming -Soil erode, lakes and rivers decline, desertification occurs, soils left with few nutrients, so less biodiversity ~Cattle ranching in Brazil (7 football fields per hour!)

Habitat fragmentation

-Caused by the process which habitat loss results in large, continuous habitats into smaller, more isolated remnants ~Declines biodiversity and population density ~Muriqui Monkey in Brazil (Slash and Burn Farming!)

Coelom, Pseudocoelom, Acoelom

-Coelomates = most multicellular animals except flatworms & cnidarians -Pseudocoelom = fluid filled cavity of certain invertebrates (nematodes and rotifers), unlike a coelom not completely lined with mesodermal cells -Acoelom = no coelom (flatworms, sea anemones)

Resource Partitioning

-Competition may also lead to slight differentiation of niches, called resource partitioning -Resource partitioning reduces competition among coexisting species Very few species have their ecosystem to themselves. They must share the ecosystem with other species, and many, many species have fundamental niches which overlap. The competitive exclusion principle — derived from many hundreds of hours of observation of ecosystems — tells us that in a stable ecosystem, no two species are in direct competition with each other. So what happens when two or more species whose fundamental niches overlap occupy the same ecosystem? They work out an arrangement which we call "resource partitioning." This means that they jostle around until each species has reduced its niche size until there is no competition — in other words, they divide up the goodies so no one is consistently fighting over them.

Prayer Case Study - Why Not Good Science?

-Could not control all variables

Toxins

-DDT:Pesticide -PCBs:Coolants/Industry -Pesticides -Bioaccumulation (DDT) ~Spraying of pesticides in Mexico affected children (drawings article) ~Decreasing sperm count worldwide points to toxic chemicals

Fossil Record (Ancient Remains)

-Darwin and scientists today have discovered that the ancient organisms whose remains they find look like organisms alive today because they are the living organisms' ancestors or evolved from a common ancestor -Today, fossils are still being studied to find out more about life in the past and its relation to life in the present. They provide valuable information about evolution and how life formed. Unlike in Darwin's time, now scientists can date these fossils and remains to get a more exact picture of when different organisms evolved.

Extinct Species

-Dodo Bird, Mammoths (Mastodon), and Tasmanian Tiger - Humans are contributing greatly to extinctions in our current era -Red Wolf -Monk Seal >80 Bird Species in past year -Red-cockaded woodpecker -Passenger Pigeon -Carolina Parakeet

Natural Selection (A process, not goal-oriented)

-Environment, forces of nature that "select" individuals with traits that favor reproductive success --Process that causes evolutionary change is natural -Over long period of time, this process of natural selection leads to adaptation --A population's characteristic change --Better able to survive and/or reproduce=affects evolution of populations and species

Digestion by Gastric Juices

-Epithelium secretes HCl and enzyme pepsin from glands in gastric pits; HCl reduces pH to level suitable for activity of pepsin; pepsin begins chemical digestion of proteins -Epithelium also secretes mucus, which coats inner lining of stomach and protects it from corrosive action of gastric juices -gastric ulcers result when mucus layer breaks down, no longer protects from acid

Evolution

-Evolution is change in heritable traits of biological populations over successive generations. -Evolutionary processes give rise to diversity at every level of biological organisation, including the level of species, individual organisms, and at the level of molecular evolution.

Feces :)

-Feces=indigestible waste and cellulose, dead cells, dead bacteria, etc. -Diarrhea=colon not effective in reabsorbing water (due to infection, etc.) -Constipation=feces moves along too slowly, becomes too compacted (lack of exercise, lack of fiber)

Incomplete Digestive System

-Flatworms, Jellyfish, etc. -Sacklike digestive cavity: food enters and wastes leave through same opening

Competition Consequences

-Fundamental Niche: Full spectrum of resources potentially available to an organism -Realized Niche: Resources actually available to an organism ~Due to competition, most species occupy their realized niche The portion of an organism's fundamental niche — the part they use in a real ecosystem — is called their realized niche. It may be much smaller than the fundamental niche.

Genes

-Genes are the hereditary factors that produce traits.

Allopatric Speciation

-Geographical Isolation results in new species; gene flow between populations slows or stops -Examples can be highways (barriers to species such as turtles) -Geographic separation often leads to adaptive radiation (one group spreads out into new areas, undergoes new adaptations)

Primary Productivity - gross vs. net

-Gross primary productivity (GPP): amount of light energy that is converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis per unit time -Net primary productivity (NPP): GPP minus the energy used by primary producers for respiration (R) ~NPP=GPP-R ~Expressed as energy per unit time (J/m^2/yr) ~or biomass(weight) of vegetation added to the ecosystem per unit area per unit time (g/m^2/yr)

Guard Cells

-Guard cells are specialized cells in the epidermis of leaves, stems and other organs that are used to control gas exchange. -Guard cells of stomata swell and open in light, unless vacuoles have lost their water (drought)

Ruminants

-Herbivores -Capable of high fiber concentrated diet -Use microbial fermentation *Rumination=continuous chewing and swallowing/regurgitation ~Mouth bites and chews ~Esophagus connects

Adaptations for Feeding: Protists

-Heterotrophic: •Phagotrophs- ingestive feeding (paramecium) •Osmotrophs- absorptive feeding (amoeba) -Autotrophic - Mixotrophs- switch between autotroph and heterotroph depending on the environment -Saprobes -Parasites

Patterns of Speciation

-How microevolution (changes within species) results in macroevolution (changes in types of speciations) -Anagenesis vs cladogenesis (Most Common)

Human Impact

-Human activities contribute to declining biodiversity ~Endangered species go to extinction

Hypotheses

-Hypotheses must state a relationship in order to not just be a prediction -Hypotheses must also be falsifiable -The real strength of a hypothesis is not evidence in favor of it, but situations which could falsify it, not doing so!

The Biological Species Concept Cannot

-Identify whether geographically isolated populations belong to the same species -Classify species in extinct populations -Account for asexually reproducing organisms -Clearly define species when barriers to reproduction are incomplete

Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium

-In punctuated equilibrium, change comes in spurts. There is a period of very little change, and then one or a few huge changes occur, often through mutations in the genes of a few individuals. -Most likely a blending of the two

Social Behavior

-Interaction between two or more animals usually of the same species -Communication essential for social behavior ~Visual, Auditory, Chemical, Tactile - Competition in vertebrates often determines social systems ~Dominance Hierarchy ~Territories

Monophyletic Group

-Interchangeable with clade defined as one that includes the most recent common ancestor of a group of organisms, and all of its descendants

Competition (Intra/Inter)

-Intraspecific = interactions between members of the SAME species -Interspecific = associations between organisms of DIFFERENT species

Invasive Species

-Invasive and exotic species: moved to a new geographic location ~Often disrupt new community causing less biodiversity -Burmese Python in Florida -Asian carp in great lakes ~Escaped from fish farm in 1990's, now make up more than 90% of fish life in Mississippi Basin

Microevolution

-Is the change in allele frequencies that occur over time within a population. -This change is due to four different processes: mutation, selection (natural and artificial), gene flow, and genetic drift.

Global Warming

-Long term increase in Earth's average temperature -CO2, Methane, Nitrous Oxide ~Burning rain forests and using fossil fuels

Macroevolution

-Macroevolution is evolution on a grand scale — what we see when we look at the over-arching history of life: stability, change, lineages arising, and extinction. -Macroevolutionary studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of species, in contrast with microevolution,which refers to smaller evolutionary changes (typically described as changes in allele frequencies) within a species or population. *** (Mutation + Gene Flow + Genetic Drift + Natural Selection) + 3.8 Billion Years = Macroevolution ***Speciation bridges microevolution to macroevolution

Microevolution Continued

-Microevolution over time may lead to speciation or the appearance of novel structure, sometimes classified as macroevolution. Macro and microevolution describe fundamentally identical processes on different scales

Complete Digestive System

-Most invertebrates and all vertebrates -A tube with an opening at each ends ~one for eating and one for pooping

Mutations

-Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome and are caused by viruses, radiation, mutagenic chemicals, as well as errors that occur during meiosis or DNA replication. *** Each human has at least 100 new mutations in their DNA

Taxonomy

-Naming, describing, classifying organisms -The field of taxonomy, or classification, originated with Carolus von Linnaeus, in 1750s ‐Attempted to place each species into unchangeable categories, based on similarities and differences ‐Today, evolution is the underlying thought concept of taxonomy, not the immutability of species

Vitamins

-Needed in small quantities -Help regulate body functions ~Fat soluble • Excess accumulates in tissue, can be toxic (liver damage, etc.) ~Water soluble • Excess excreted • B vitamins • Pantothenic acid • Folate • Biotin • Vitamin C

Nonrandom Mating: (sexual selection- leads to sexual dimorphism)

-Nonrandom mating occurs when the probability that two individuals in a population will mate is not the same for all possible pairs of individuals. -When the probability is the same, then individuals are just as likely to mate with distant relatives as with close relatives -- this is random mating. -Nonrandom mating can take two forms: 1. Inbreeding - individuals are more likely to mate with close relatives (e.g. their neighbors) than with distant relatives. This is common. 2. Outbreeding - individuals are more likely to mate with distant relatives than with close relatives. This is less common. ***Inbreeding changes genotype frequencies, not allele frequencies: Homozygotes increase in frequency, heterozygotes decrease in frequency.

An Example of the Bottleneck Effect

-Northern elephant seals have reduced genetic variation most likely due to being hunted. Hunting reduced their population size to as few as 20 individuals at the end if the 19th century. Since then their population has rebounded to over 30,000 but the genes still carry the marks of their bottleneck. They have much less variation than a population of Southern Elephant seals that have not been hunted.

Eubacteria Shapes

-Often named according to shape -Different shapes: Can only move forward and reverse— toward or away from stimuli ‐Spherical= cocci ex: streptococci, staphylococci ‐Rod=bacilli ex: lactobacillus, Bacillus anthracis ‐Spiral=spirilli ex: rhodospirillum

Disruptive Selection

-Opposites, extremes are selected (often results in balanced polymorphism -In this case, the variance of the trait increases and the population is divided into two distinct groups.

Phylogenetic Tree vs. Cladogram

-Phylogenetic tree often gives specific time so more info than cladograms -Both cladograms and phylogenetic trees are "phylogenetic maps", showing evolutionary relationships

Tropical Forests

-Plants: closed canopy -Animals: high animal diversity -Temperature: 25°C (77°F); all near equator -Human Impact: population growth is destroying the forests

Coniferous Forest (Taiga/Boreal)

-Plants: cone-bearing trees, such as pine, spruce, fir, and hemlock -Animals: diverse mammals-- moose, brown bears, Siberian tigers, migratory and non-migratory birds, insects. -Temp. & Precip.: cold and long winters (up to -70°C/-94°F); 30-70cm (~11.8-28"), snow usually; summers may be hot -Human Impact: heavy logging.

Temperate Grasslands

-Plants: grasses -Animals: large grazers such as bison and wild horses. -Temp.& Precip.: cold winters (-10°C/14°F), hot summers (~30°C/86°F) -Human Impact: most has been converted to farmland in N. America and Eurasia.

Savanna/ Tropical Grassland

-Plants: grasses, scattered trees -Animals: large herbivorous animals; insects are dominant. -Temp. & Precip.: warm year-round (24°C/70°F); 3-50cm (1"-19.7"); dry season can be 8-9 months; most near equator -Human Impact: cattle-ranching & over hunting.

Chaparral

-Plants: high diversity, shrubs and small trees, lots of grasses -Animals: deer, goat, amphibians, small mammals, birds, reptiles, insects. -Temp. & Precip.: mostly mild (10-12°C/50's°F); summer between 30°-40°C/86°-104°F); 30-50cm (~11.8-19.7"); very dry, adapted to wildfires -Human Impact: heavily settled, agriculture & urbanization.

Tundra

-Plants: lichens, mosses, grasses, small trees and shrubs -Animals: musk ox, migratory caribou & reindeer, bears, wolves, foxes, migratory birds. -Temp. & Precip.: Long & cold winters (-30°C/-22°F), short summers (>10°C/50°F); 20-60cm (~7.9-24") -Human Impact: not significant, sparsely populated; but has become the focus of mineral and oil extraction.

Deserts

-Plants: low, scattered vegetation, lots of bare ground -Animals: snakes, lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, birds, seed-eating rodents; many nocturnal -Temp.& Precip.: 50 to -30°C (122 to -22°F); 30cm (11.8") -Human Impact: irrigated agriculture and urbanization have reduced the natural biodiversity of deserts.

Walls of Small Intestine

-Projections into the intestinal lumen increase the surface area available for absorption -Absorption: villi and microvilli Surface area= size of tennis court

Digestive System

-Purpose is to reduce food particles to molecules that can be absorbed into the blood -Mechanical=chewing -Chemical=HCl in stomach or enzymes

Hypotheses (3 formats)

-Question: Does the color of light affect plant growth? -Conditional Statement: The color of light may affect plant growth. -If . . . then Statement: If plant growth is related to the color of light, then some colors of light will produce greater growth than others

Stomata

-Regulate rate of transpiration by controlling the size of stomatal apertures -Stomata: openings on the underside (WHY?) of leaves that allow the exchange of gases, and evaporation of water from the plant Stomatal apertures will typically vary in response to changes in light intensity, saturation deficit of ambient water vapor and soil moisture availability. As stomatal aperture size changes, rates of photosynthesis and transpiration will vary because the pore size will provide a corresponding resistance to the diffusion of CO2 into and H2O out of the leaf

Functions of Liver

-Removes and destroys some toxins (e.g., alcohol) -Serves as large reservoir of blood; phagocytes here constantly remove cell debris, pathogens, damaged red blood cells -Produces bile, which aids in digestion of fats

Parapatric Speciation

-Reproductive isolation evolves in neighboring populations that share small zones of contact and exhibit modest gene exchange -Genetic divergence arises largely through natural selection -Often differences in mating habits due to different ecological conditions (nonrandom mating)

Plant Structure

-Roots: anchor, absorb nutrients, store food -Shoots: stems (support above ground), leaves (photosynthesis), flowers (reproduction)

Hypothesis Based Science (Scientific Method)

-Scientific Method: Series of steps used to answer questions logically -Hypothesis driven -Usually tested with a controlled experiment -Results should be repeatable

Angiosperm Reproduction

-Sepals enclose and protect flower bud -Petals advertise flower to pollinators -MALE: Stamen is a filament (stalk) with an anther on top... anther produces pollen through meiosis -FEMALE: Carpel: long style (neck) with stigma (pollen landing) on top and ovary chamber at bottom

Plant Hormones

-Small molecules that serve as chemical signals -Control of growth and responses to environment=plant behavior

Genetic Drift

-Small, random changes in allelic frequencies due to chance rather than selection. -When there are few copies of an allele, the effect of genetic drift is larger, and when there are many copies the effect is smaller -Both bottlenecks and founder effects provide perfect opportunities for genetic drift to take over, as they both involve small populations. a) Founder effect: new habitat, few individuals b) Bottlenecks: drastic population reduction ***Unlike bottlenecks, which persist as long as the effective population size remains low, a founder effect is an instant event

Animals (feeders)

-Suspension Feeders: filter/sift food particles from water (Picture) -Substrate Feeders: Live in the food source and eat as they burrow (Earthworms) -Fluid Feeders: Suck nutrient-rich fluids (parasites and pollinators) -Bulk Feeders: Eat large pieces of food using adaptions such as claws, teeth, pincers, fangs, etc. (snakes and anacondas)

Stabilizing Selection

-The "average" trait is selected -This is thought to be the most common mechanism of action for natural selection because most traits do not appear to change drastically over time. -A classic example of this is the human birth weight.

Bottleneck Effect

-The Bottleneck Effect occurs when there is a disaster of some sort that reduces a population to a small handful, which rarely represents the actual genetic makeup of the initial population. -This can have an extreme effect on the genetic diversity of the population ex = cheetahs that have no genetic diversity bc they were all killed once

Founder Effect

-The founder effect occurs when there is a lack of genetic variation due to a small mating population. The Founder Effect happens when there is a dramatic decrease in genetic diversity caused by the development of small colonies of individuals, from the original population, that remain isolated to other colonies. -Examples of this showing up in human populations is polydactyly(more than five fingers) among Amish communities or the Blue people of Kentucky -Another example is when Afrikaner population of Dutch settled in South Africa

Gene Flow

-The movement of genes through a population or between two populations through mating -Also called migration -If gene versions are carried to a population where those gene versions previously did not exist, gene flow can be a very important source of genetic variation.

Character Displacement (Allopatric or Sympatric?)

-The rationale for character displacement stems from the competitive exclusion principle. -Character displacement is the tendency for two species to diverge in characteristics and resource use -Likely to see character displacement in geographically overlapping areas (sympatric) ~Galapagos Finches ~Character Displacement is directional selection

Natural Selection

-The theory holding that competition exists within species, determining which species live to have offspring, and pass their traits on to those offspring. -Natural selection works on individuals yet populations evolve -natural selection selects for or against some traits. *** In measuring the effects of selection, an individual with higher fitness has greater reproductive success than those with lower fitness.

Postzygotic vs. Prezygotic

-There are many different isolating mechanisms, called prezygotic isolations, that prevent species from interbreeding with each other. If they do manage to produce offspring, there are more isolating mechanisms in place, called postzygotic isolations, that ensure the hybrid offspring are not selected for by natural selection. In the end, both types of isolations are designed to drive evolution and make sure that speciation is desired outcome

Transpiration

-Transpiration=loss of water from leaves of plant ~Pulls water and dissolved minerals upwards ~Due to cohesion of water molecules and adhesion of water to cellulose of xylem walls ~Transpiration causes evaporative cooling, which can lower the temperature of leaves by 10- 15° C (prevents denaturing of proteins) ~Rate of transpiration is greatest on sunny, warm, dry, windy days that increase evaporation of water

Trophic Levels and Food Webs

-Trophic Level: The Position of an organism on a food chain -The path along the chain can form either a one-way flow or a food "web". ~The more diverse the food web, the more stable the ecosystem

Binomial Nomenclature

-Using Linnaeus' binomial system of nomenclature, each species is assigned two-part name="scientific name" -Genus (capitalized) + specific epithet (lower case) = species name -Both always italicized or underlined

Wallace

-Wallace came to similar conclusions -Wallace and Darwin together presented their ideas on natural selection and adaptation in 1858 in London

Behavior

-What an animal does and how it does it and why it does it -Behavior ecology is the study of behavior environments from an evolutionary perspective -Natural Selection acts on behavior just like it would on physical traits -Ex: Cost/Benefit Analysis of behaviors ~If benefits are greater, behavior is adaptive

Allele

-a variant form of a gene. Some genes have a variety of different forms, which are located at the same position, or genetic locus, on a chromosome. Humans are called diploid organisms because they have two alleles at each genetic locus, with one allele inherited from each parent.

Sexual Selection

-certain traits make an individual more attractive to the opposite sex, and thus more likely to reproduce -first recognized by Darwin -typically, female choosing "best" male

Vertebrate Hearts

-contain muscular chambers called atria and ventricles - contraction of a chamber forces blood out - blood flows in one direction due to valves that prevent backflow -atria receive blood returning to the heart, contract to pump blood into the ventricles -ventricles are main pumping chamber of the heart, contract to pump blood away from the heart to body, lungs, or gills

Growth

-depends on biotic potential: fastest reproductive rate possible for a population under ideal conditions, differs from one species to another (results in exponential growth)

Phenotype

-depends on which genes are dominant and on the interaction between genes and environment. Compare genotype. The outward appearance of an organism; the expression of a genotype in the form of traits that can be seen and measured, such as hair or eye color.

Auxins

-development of vascular tissues, apical-basal polarity -tips of shoots: stimulates cell enlargement (vacuole fills with more water)

Imprinting

-form association with another individual or object during critical period early in life; long-lasting ~Konrad Lorenz and ducks

Each lung contains millions of alveoli

-gas exchange takes place across moist cellular membranes of alveoli, oxygen diffuses from air inside an alveolus into the blood in the capillaries (carbon dioxide diffuses the opposite direction) Cells in alveoli produce surfactant, which helps keep the water coating alveoli from sticking to itself... surfactant doesn't develop until 8th or 9th month pregnancy, thus premature infants...need ventilation

Abscisic Acid (ABA) (the "plant stress hormone")

-inhibits cell growth, promotes bud and fruit dormancy -applied to nursery stock to maintain dormancy -opposite effects of gibberellins (ratio of the two important) -involved in opening and closing of stomata (prevents water loss by closing)

Discovery Based Science

-is a scientific methodology which emphasizes analysis of large volumes of experimental data with the goal of finding new patterns or correlations, leading to hypothesis formation and other scientific methodologies -Collect and analyze data, not hypothesis driven. -Ex: Testing drugs to determine usefulness in various diseases

Cladogenesis (Most Common)

-is an evolutionary splitting event where a parent species splits into two distinct species, forming a clade. -Cluster of all species derived from a common ancestor (Darwin's Finches)

Observational Learning / Imitation (Important in Humans)

-learning by observing another's performance ~European birds opening milk bottles ~Young chimps watching mother pick grubs ~Bobo the clown

Balanced Polymorphism/Balancing Selection

-maintains diversity in a population, doesn't favor one form of a gene over another -can result in balanced polymorphism -opposite forms of a gene exist equally in a populationThis usually happens when the heterozygotes for the alleles under consideration have a higher adaptive value than the homozygote ***Sickle-cell anemia in regions where malaria is prevalent! ***The heterozygote is resistant to the malarial parasite which kills a large number of people each year

Insight Learning

-make new associations between previously learned items to solve a new problem ~Chimps join sticks and stack crates to reach bananas

Human Heart

-moves blood by rhythmic contractions, controlled by a specialized region of cardiac muscle in right atrium called the SA node (the "pacemaker" of the heart) -SA node signal spreads to AV node, causes ventricles to contract

Nutritional Requirements of Plants

-nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, plus others in trace amounts -From SOIL (or...?) In the ideal pH range, nutrients are more readily available to plants, and microbial populations in the soil increase. Microbes convert nitrogen and sulfur to forms that plants can use. -Water (hydrogen, oxygen) -CO2 (carbon) Cyanobacteria supply N to plants - results of nitrogen depletion Rich, fertile soil supplies nutrients and allows roots to absorb well Also: parasitic flowers-- may tap into vascular tissues of another plant, and have no leaves/roots of their own - world's largest flower (above), smells like rotting flesh, attracts beetles and flies which pollinate (often called "corpse flower")

Dispersion

-pattern of spacing within geographic boundaries of population ~clumped=most common

Biological Clocks:

-plants have circadian rhythms, cycles of activity with periods of about 24 hours -mark seasons by measuring the photoperiod, the relative lengths of night and day, using a plant pigment called phytochrome PHOTOPERIODISM short-day plants require long nights (chrysanthemums, poinsettias) -long-day plants require short nights (spinach, iris, cereal grains) -day-neutral plants do not depend on day length for flowering

Cytokinins

-promote cell division (roots especially, and all growing areas) -delays dormancy and aging (senescence) -often used commercially to prolong life of stored vegetables and cut flowers

Brassinosteroids

-promote cell elongation and cell division, differentiation of xylem -inhibit leaf abscission (opposite ethylene) -plants deficient in brassinosteroids suffer from dwarfism (because cells don't elongate) -act together with auxins and gibberellins especially

Epigenetics

-refers to heritable changes in gene expression (active versus inactive genes) that does not involve changes to the underlying DNA sequence; a change in phenotype without a change in genotype. -Epigenetic change is a regular and natural occurrence but can also be influenced by several factors including age, the environment/lifestyle, and disease state. -can turn a gene on or off, but NOT a mutation! ***Lick your rats example

Nematodes

-roundworms ~pseudocoelomates complete digestive system, bilateral, many are parasitic (ex. trichinella- causes trichinosis; heartworms in dogs), but most are free‐living (often small/microscopic) ~90% life on seafloor= nematodes!

Populations

-species= group of interbreeding organisms that produce fertile offspring and that do not ordinarily breed with members of other groups =genetic barrier exists between different species

Analogous Structures

-structures similar in different organisms because they evolved in a similar environment, rather than were inherited from a recent common ancestor. - --usually serve the same or similar purposes. An example is the streamlined torpedo body shape of porpoises and sharks. -another ex is the development of wings for flight on bats, birds, etc. -Convergent Evolution!

Adaptations for Feeding: Fungi

-substrate feeders, live in the food source. substrate= soil, rotting log, piece of bread, living tissue, etc. -absorptive feeding/ osmotrophs (absorb nutrients) -extracellular digestion (digest food before absorbing it) -secrete enzymes like animals -store surplus nutrients like animals Haustorium= the tip of the hyphae

Transport in Phloem

-sucrose is main solute in phloem -always moves down sucrose gradient, from "source to sink" (source=leaves; sink=roots, buds, stems, flowers, fruits)

Translocation

-sugar loading into phloem causes water to diffuse into phloem, pressure builds, and water and sugar flow -sugars move into a sink =pressure-flow model

Phylogeny

-the history of the evolution of a species or group, especially in reference to lines of descent and relationships among broad groups of organisms -Used to build classifications based on common ancestries -Summarized by a phylogenetic tree

Proteins

-those in animal meats and products are "complete" -->provide all 8 essential amino acids (body can't build, must be eaten). Vegans and vegetarians must be careful to obtain all of these

Ethylene (A Gas)

-triggers ripening of fruit... widely used commercially -produced by ripe fruit -triggers absscission, the dropping of leaves, fruits, and flowers Ethylene gas from apples can encourage ripening in avocados, bananas, cantaloupe, etc.

Tropisms

-tropisms are growth responses to or away from environmental stimuli... = plant behavior! -Three!

Obesity (Human Health Problem)

-weight 20% or more above appropriate weight for height -excess body fat -low levels of exercise ~28% women and 10% men in U.S. are obese -estimated 1 in 4 people in U.S. Obesity due to hormonal, metabolic, social factors... increased portion sizes, increased refined sugar -contributes to diabetes, colon cancer, breast cancer, and cardiovascular disease -genetic causes for obesity being researched- leptin hormone in mice, suppresses appetite

Classifications of Sexual Selection

1) Intrasexual: individuals of one sex compete - Precopulatory: dominance, territories, etc. - Postcopulatory: sperm competition - Post-zygotic: induced abortion or infanticide For example, intrasexual selection would operate on physical and behavioral features which helped to determine the outcome of aggressive encounters among males over territories, if possession of or the quality of a territory affected subsequent mating success 2) Intersexual/Mate Choice - For resources, protection, or aid to offspring - For genetic quality of offspring Intersexual Selection would influence the evolution of secondary sexual characteristics which determine the relative "attractiveness" of members of one sex to the other sex. Such items as courtship displays and male plumage in birds (e. g., the male peacock) ***Both result in Sexual Dimorphism

Nutrition

1. Fuel for all activities 2. Raw materials for molecules etc. 3. Supply essential nutrients (animal cannot make itself) -malnourished= lacking in one or more essential nutrients -undernourished= lack of sufficient calories (malnourishment more common- even seen in obese individuals)

Types of Learning

1. Habituation: learn not to respond to repeated stimulus 2. Associative learning/conditioning: association made between stimulus and response A) Classical conditioning: - PAVLOV, Russian digestive physiologist, Nobel Prize 1927 - hypothesized that dog salivating at anticipation of food is due to learning, not inborn response -Little Albert showed classical conditioning in humans with rat and baby B) Operant conditioning: associate voluntary activity with consequences that follow (Skinner box)

Five Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Make observations - question things! 2. Formulate a hypothesis 3. Design and perform a controlled experiment 4. Analyze Results 5. Draw conclusions (accept or reject hypothesis), present results

Three Modes of Natural Selection

1. Stabilizing 2. Directional 3. Disruptive

The Four Major Players in an Ecosystem

1.) Abiotic environment 2.) Primary producers (Autotrophs) 3.) Consumers (Heterotrophs) 4.) Decomposers and detritivores - heterotrophs - eat detritus (dead plants and animals, and waste products)

3 Domains

1.) Archaea -prokaryotes, hostile environments, closer relatives to eukaryotes 2.) Bacteria -prokaryotes, cyanobacteria 3.) Eukaryote. -Protists, Fungi, Plants, Animals The first two are all prokaryotic microorganisms, or single-celled microbes whose cells have no nucleus.

6 Kingdoms

1.) Bacteria 2.) Archaea -Both prokaryotes -Everything else is eukaryotic 3.) Protists - Bacteria, Archaea, and Protists (sometimes multicellular) are all unicellular 4.) Plantae 5.) Fungai 6.) Animalia

Subphylum Vertebrata (7 classes)

1.) Class Agnatha (jawless fishes) 2.) Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes) 3.) Class Osteichthyes (bony fishes) 4.) Amphibians: Most return to water to reproduce, external respiration 5.) Reptiles: Shelled amniotic egg 6.) Aves: Birds, First endothermic species in cladogram, Archaeopteryx is oldest known bird 7.) Mammals: Hair and Mammary Glands ~Protheria: egg laying platypus & anteater ~Metatheria: marsupials ~Eutheria: Placenta, most mammals

4 Major Types of Interspecific Interactions

1.) Competition 2.) Predation 3.) Parasitism 4.) Symbiosis ~Organisms may benefit, be harmed, or not be affected.

3 Modes of Moving (Locomotion)

1.) Crawling via pseudopodia 2.) Swimming via flagella 3.) Swimming via Cilia

Protists: 2 Modes of Feeding

1.) Ingestive:eating live or dead organisms or scavenging loose bits of organic debris 2.) Absorptive: taking nutrients directly from the environment

Types/Examples of Prezygotic Isolating Mechanisms

1.) Mechanical Isolation - Simply put, mechanical isolation is the incompatibility of sexual organs. They just do not fit together. -For instance, a plant that is structured so a bee can pollinate it will not be compatible with a flower that relies on hummingbirds to spread its pollen. 2.) Gametic Isolation -Gametic isolation ensures that only sperm of the same species can penetrate the egg of that species and no others. -This type of reproductive isolation is especially important for species that reproduce externally in the water. 3.) Temporal Isolation -"He works the night shift and she works the day shift" -Different species tend to have different breeding seasons 4.) Behavioral Isolation - Has to do with the behaviors of the individuals, and in particular the behaviors around mating time -For instance, the blue footed booby bird has a very elaborate mating "dance" the males must do to woo the female. The female can either then accept or reject the advances of the male. Other species of birds do not have the same mating dance and will be fully ignored by the female meaning they have no chance at reproducing with a female blue footed booby. 5.)Ecological/Habitat Isolation -Obviously, if individuals of two different species live nowhere near each other, there will be no opportunity to reproduce -even different species that live in the same area may not be compatible due to their preferred place of reproduction. There are some types of birds that prefer different types of trees, or even different parts of the same tree, to lay their eggs and make their nests.

4 Different Species Concept (most often used in our class?)

1.) Phylogenetic -Characteristics (Not very accurate) 2.)Biological *What we most often use in class* -A group of individuals whose members have the potential to interbreed with one another in nature to produce viable, fertile offspring but cannot successfully interbreed with members of other species 3.)Evolutionary -A species is derived from a single lineage that is distinct from other lineages and has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate; more theoretical - can be applied to formation of all species 4.) Ecological - Each species occupies an ecological niche -If two organisms are very similar, their needs will overlap, which will result in competition -Such competition individuals are very likely to be of the same species -useful for bacterial species

4 compartment stomach (Cows, deer, etc.)

1.) Rumen: Largest, filled with microbes 2.) Reticulum: Liquid, honeycomb structure, mix contents with rumen ~Rumen and Reticulum 85% capacity 3.) Omasum: Grinds and squeezes, many folds, removes liquid 4.) Abomasum: True stomach, enzymes & acids, acidic environment kills rumen's bacteria

Blood

2 Parts: Liquid and Cells Plasma: water mainly, also proteins, salts, hormones, gases, etc. *Red Blood Cells (RBC): transport oxygen (by hemoglobin), help transport CO2, most numerous cells in blood, life span ~120 days *White Blood Cells (WBC): fight infection *Platelets: aid blood clotting- not true cells, but fragments *RBC, WBC, and Platelets =produced in blood marrow Each second 2 million red blood cells are produced to replace those taken out of circulation

Intra-Uterine Position Effect (IUP)

2M females: - less attractive to males - more aggressive to other females - mark a new environment at a higher rate - longer and more irregular estrus cycles - reach puberty later

Predation

= consumption of prey species by predator species -beneficial only for predator -predator may conceal self to avoid notice by prey -or may attract prey

Cladogram

A branching diagram depicting the successive points of species divergence from common ancestral lines without regard to the degree of deviation. -Length of branches unimportant

Keystone Species

A keystone species is a plant or animal that plays a unique and crucial role in the way an ecosystem functions. Without keystone species, the ecosystem would be dramatically different or cease to exist altogether. All species in an ecosystem, or habitat, rely on each other. A classic keystone species is a small predator that prevents a particular herbivorous species from eliminating dominant plant species. Both top predators (e.g. wolves) as well as less conspicuous species (e.g. tropical figs and some microorganisms) often play essential roles in their community ~Sea otters & Urchins

Phylogenetic Tree

A phylogenetic tree or evolutionary tree is a branching diagram or "tree" showing the inferred evolutionary relationships among various biological species or other entities—their phylogeny—based upon similarities and differences in their physical or genetic characteristics.

Ring Species

A ring species is a situation in which two populations which do not interbreed are living in the same region and connected by a geographic ring of populations that can interbreed. Famous examples of ring species are the herring and lesser black-backed gulls in northern Europe and the Ensatina salamanders of California. A ring species can be best imagined like this: Consider a species that is geographically distributed in a straight line from east to west across America: it is possible that the forms in the east and west are so different that they could not interbreed. Now imagine taking the line and bending it into a circle, such that the end points (formerly in the east and west) come to overlap in space. If they do not interbreed then the geographic distribution of the species will be in the shape of a ring, and they will be 'ring species': the extreme forms do not interbreed in the region of overlap. A ring species has an almost continuous set of intermediates between two distinct species, and these intermediates happen to be arranged in a ring. At most points in the ring, there is only one species; but there are two where the end-points meet.

Lymphatic System

A secondary circulatory system, the lymphatic system, collects fluid and cells and returns them to the cardiovascular system *Don't get too focused on this

Punctuated Equilibrium

A theory of evolution, proposed by Niles Eldredge and Stephen J. Gould, which disagrees with phyletic gradualism and states that evolution is not gradual, but rather proceeds by means of bursts of change separated by long periods of relative stasis.

Gradualism Equilibrium

A theory of evolution, supported by Darwin, which states that evolution is a gradual process that proceeds slowly but constantly through a series of small changes.

Biome

A type of ecosystem that covers a large geographical region and has a similar climate; characterized by distinct type of vegetation and its availability of freshwater

Alternation of Generations

All plants have an alternation of generation life cycle: a diploid (full set chromosomes) sporophyte stage alternates with a haploid (half set chromosomes) gametophyte stage ‐sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis ‐gametophyte produces haploid gametes (no meiosis necessary)

Alternation of Generations

All plants have an alternation of generation life cycle: a diploid (full set chromosomes) sporophyte stage alternates with a haploid (half set chromosomes) gametophyte stage -sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis -gametophyte produces haploid gametes (no meiosis necessary) Evolution: "reduction of the gametophyte"... haploid to diploid dominance

Allele Frequencies

Allele frequencies are the frequencies of each allele, dominant (A) and recessive (a)

Communities

Almost all communities are disturbed at some point - Disturbance= event that changes a community, removes organisms from it, and alters resource availability. •Natural activity •Human activity - Intermediate disturbance hypothesis: moderate disturbances can create opportunities for greater species diversity.

Amniote

Amniotes are a clade of tetrapod vertebrates comprising the reptiles, birds and mammals which lay their eggs on land or retain the fertilized egg within the mother. They are distinguished from the anamniotes (fishes and amphibians) which typically lay their eggs in water. It has been suggested that shelled terrestrial eggs without extraembryonic membranes could still not have been bigger than about 1 cm (0.4 inch) in diameter because of diffusion problems, like the inability to get rid of carbon dioxide if the egg was larger. The only way for the eggs to increase in size would be to develop new internal structures specialized for respiration and waste products. As this happened, it would also affect how much the juveniles could grow before they reached adulthood

Amphibian Heart

Amphibians have 3 chambered heart (2 atria, 1 ventricle) Blood from lungs (pulmonary flow) returns to left atrium Blood from the body (systemic flow) returns to right atrium Both atria empty into ventricle, where some mixing occurs The advantage: high pressure in vessels that lead to both lungs and body

Defense Mechanisms of Prey - Aposematic Coloration

Aposematic coloration (or warning coloration) is a conspicuous pattern or coloration of animals that warns predators that they sting, bite, taste bad, or are otherwise to be avoided. An example: Predators learn to associate the yellow and black body of bees with danger.

Dinosaurs

Approximately 700 species of dinosaurs have been named. Recent estimates suggest that about 700 to 900 more dinosaur genera may remain to be discovered. Dinosaurs ate lizards, turtles, eggs, or early mammals. Some hunted other dinosaurs or scavenged dead animals. Most, however, ate plants

Chordates

Are animals possessing a notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, an endostyle, and a post-anal tail for at least some period of their life cycles. Taxonomically, the phylum includes the subphyla Vertebrata, including mammals, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds; subphyla Tunicata, including salps and sea squirts; and subphyla Cephalochordata, comprising the lancelets. Members of the phylum Chordata are bilaterally symmetric, deuterostome coelomates, and the vertebrate chordates display segmentation. ~96% of all chordate species belong to the subphylum vertebrata

Respiratory disorders- asthma, etc.,

Beethoven, Steve Martin, Jason Alexander, Sharon Stone, Martin Scorsese, Dennis Rodman, Charles Dickens, JFK, Woodrow Wilson... all had/have asthma ASTHMA: -disease of bronchi and bronchioles marked by wheezing, breathlessness, cough, mucus -airways unusually sensitive to irritants (allergens, smoke, dust, etc.) -when exposed to irritant, muscle of bronchioles spasms OR clogs with mucus-->reduces diameter, may be mild or severe Other respiratory disorders: Pneumonia: alveoli fill with thick fluid Emphysema: alveoli burst and fuse, surface area reduced Bronchitis: airways inflamed due to infection or irritant (especially long-term exposure to irritants such as cigarette smoke, air pollutants) Cystic fibrosis: genetic defect that causes excessive mucus production that clogs the airways

Bioaccumulation

Bioaccumulation refers to the accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, or other chemicals in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at which the substance is lost. Example: mercury and fish (tuna at the top of the food chain) Predatory fish (tuna, swordfish, shark and mackerel etc.) can have mercury concentrations in their bodies that are 10,000 times higher than those of their surrounding habitat!

Limiting Factors

Biotic potential is seldom reached in natural populations, due to limiting factors: density dependent or density independent

Bird and Mammal Heart

Birds and mammals (also crocodilians): four-chambered heart which acts as two separate pumps -after passing through body, blood pumped under high pressure to the lungs (video) -after returning from the lungs, it is pumped under high pressure to the body - high rate of oxygen-rich blood flow through body--> able to maintain high activity levels

Behavior Thermoregulation

Burrowing, huddling together, changing postures, seeking more comfortable position

Biochemical Evidence of Evolution

By studying the basic biochemistry shared by many organisms, we can begin to piece together how biochemical systems evolved near the root of the tree of life.

Defense Mechanisms of Prey - Cryptic Coloration

Camouflage (or cryptic coloration) is any color, pattern, shape, or behavior that enablesan animal to blend in with its surroundings. Both prey and predator benefit from camouflage. The fur of the snowshoe hare is white in winter (a camouflage in snow) and brown in summer (a camouflage against the exposed soil).

Species

Can breed and produce fertile offspring

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a combination of steroid and alcohol, found in all cell membranes, and transported in the blood... plays an important role in many biochemical activities (ex. production of bile in liver, metabolism of some vitamins, and the production of steroid hormones like estrogen and testosterone)

Commensalism

Commensalism: one benefits, other is unaffected - epiphytes on tropical trees - bird nesting in tree - shark and remora - barnacles and whales

Ecosystems

Community of living organisms in conduction with the abiotic components of their environment, interacts as system through flow of energy & cycling materials

The Human Digestive System

Consists of a muscular tube extending from mouth to anus, and its associated organs (e.g., salivary glands, gall bladder, liver, pancreas) • A complete system with many specialized organs • The whole digestive tract is about nine meters (30 feet) long • Lined with mucus-secreting epithelium • Movement is one way, from mouth to anus, the time for food to travel from one end to the other probably ranges from about 20 to 30 hours.

Life Table

Data on number of individuals alive in each particular age class (cohort)

Deductive Reasoning (Specific to General)

Deductive reasoning is a logical process in which a conclusion is based on the concordance of multiple premises that are generally assumed to be true. Deductive reasoning is sometimes referred to as top-down logic. Its counterpart, inductive reasoning, is sometimes referred to as bottom-up logic.

2.) Animal Symmetry & Cephalization

Degree of cephalization: having a definite head region, usually with feeding and sensory features

Demographic Transition

Demographic transition= movement from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates -growth rate is higher in developing countries (less industrialization and prosperity)- many in Africa and Southeast Asia -agrarian societies= children an asset -urbanized societies= children are consumers

Human Stomach

Dimensions vary; can be narrow tube when empty or expanded into a sac that can hold almost 0.5 gallon; accordion-like folds in muscle wall (rugae) allow expansion; sphincters at both ends control entry and exit of food

Doubling Time

Doubling time is time needed for a population to double in size

Small Intestine

Duodenum, Jejenum, Ileum ~25 ft long **-most chemical digestion and nutrient absorption here -Receives digested food called "chyme" from stomach -Receives secretions from liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

Ecological Succession

Ecological Succession: community development over time, gradual change in plant and animal life in an area, especially after a disturbance 1.) Pioneer community - initial colonizers of area, ~usually r species 2.) to climax community- most stable and diverse, characterize the region

Embryology

Embryos of many different kinds of animals: mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, etc. look very similar and it is often difficult to tell them apart. Many traits of one type of animal appear in the embryo of another type of animal. For example, fish embryos and human embryos both have gill slits. In fish they develop into gills, but in humans they disappear before birth. This shows that the animals are similar and that they develop similarly, implying that they are related, have common ancestors and that they started out the same, gradually evolving different traits, but that the basic plan for a creature's beginning remains the same.

Energy loss - 10% makes it to next level

Energy is transferred from sun through food chains -Food chains are limited by the inefficiency of energy transfer along the chain ***~10% energy transfer from one trophic level to the next*** The flow of energy in ecosystems is linear- energy cannot be reused by organisms -at each transfer, about 90% energy lost as heat and waste When one animal feeds off of another, there is a loss of heat (energy) in the process -Additional loss of energy occurs during respiration and movement of animals, and during photosynthesis in plants

Clade

Evolutionary trees depict clades. A clade is a group of organisms that includes an ancestor and all descendants of that ancestor. You can think of a clade as a branch on the tree of life. Some examples of clades are shown on the tree below. (Monophyletic -- used most frequently)

Extinction

Extinction: inability to change/adapt= disappearance of species Of all species that have existed on Earth, 99.9% are now extinct -five major mass extinctions (in which 20-90% species become extinct) have occurred since life began on Earth -70% of scientists believe we are in a sixth major mass extinction currently -Extinction often accelerates evolution for remaining species, allows a new species or to become dominant (ex. mammals following extinction of dinosaurs)

Evidence for Evolution

FACT!! -Mechanisms for how evolution occurs is strongly supported theory

Pteridophytes

Ferns - Seedless vascular plants have vascular tissues but do not make seeds

Fish Heart

Fish have a two-chambered heart with one atrium (A) and one ventricle (V) Gills contain capillaries for gas exchange, so the blood pressure is low after going through the gills. Low-pressure blood from the gills then goes directly to the body, which also has a large number of capillaries-->activity level of fish is limited due to the low rate of blood flow to the body

CARDIOVASCULAR/ CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Function: internal transport of gases, nutrients, and waste Circulatory System= blood, heart, blood vessels Only larger vertebrate animals have a circulatory system Cnidarians : gastrovascular cavity that exposes inner cells to water for nutrient and gas exchange Flatworms: gastrovascular cavity also-- small size and flattened shape for a higher surface-to-volume ratio for better absorption from the environment Pseudocoelomate animals (like roundworms): fluid contained within the body cavity functions to transport nutrients and wastes, but no heart or blood vessels

Genotype Frequencies

Genotype frequencies are the frequencies of the homozygous dominant (AA) heterozygous (Aa) and homozygous recessive (aa).

Gymnosperms & Angiosperms

Gymnosperms = conifers Angiosperms = flowers -Seed plants have vascular tissues and make seeds Hundreds of millions of years ago, gymnosperms were the only kind of plant life on Earth. Between 250 and 200 million years ago, angiosperms started to evolve. Now, angiosperms are more widely distributed and populous, and can be considered the dominant plant life on the planet

Heterotrophs

Heterotroph is an organism that cannot fix carbon and uses organic carbon for growth. Heterotrophs can be further divided based on how they obtain energy; if the heterotroph uses light for energy, then it is considered a photoheterotroph, while if the heterotroph uses chemical energy, it is considered a chemoheterotroph. Heterotrophs contrast with autotrophs, such as plants and algae, which can use energy from sunlight (photoautotrophs) or inorganic compounds (chemoautotrophs) to produce organic compounds such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from inorganic carbon dioxide. These reduced carbon compounds can be used as an energy source by the autotroph and provide the energy in food consumed by heterotrophs. Ninety-five percent or more of all types of living organisms are heterotrophic. Heterotrophs must make use of food that comes from other organisms in the form of fats, carbohydrates and proteins. These organisms feed on others (Consumers)

When is stomata open/closed?

If the leaf's internal concentration of CO2 increases, the stomata are signaled to close because respiration is releasing more CO2 than photosynthesis is using. There is no need to keep the stomata open and lose water if photosynthesis is not functioning. Alternatively, if the leaf's CO2 concentration is low, the stomata will stay open to continue fueling photosynthesis. High temperatures will also signal stomata to close. High temperatures will increase the water loss from the leaf. With less water available, guard cells can become flaccid and close. Another effect of high temperatures is that respiration rates rise above photosynthesis rates causing an increase of CO2 in the leaves; high internal CO2 will cause stomata to close as well. Remember that some plants may open their stomata under high temperatures so that transpiration will cool the leaves.

Competition Exclusion Principle

If two types of species compete directly for a limited resource, one species will eliminate the other for that resource. (applies to species in the same or very similar niches)

Ecological Importance of Protists

Important foundation in food chain (ex: plankton!) • Phytoplankton produce vast amount of O2 • Decomposition • Symbiotic relationships - Mutualistic (ex. termite guts) - Parasitic, cause diseases (ex. malaria) • Medicinal and industrial uses

Independent & Dependent Variable

In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher, and the dependent variable is the response that is measured. An independent variable is the presumed cause, whereas the dependent variable is the presumed effect. -Can be more than one dependent variable but only one independent variable per experiment

Archaeans Continued

In ocean at all depths! Many are "extremophiles": Methanogens—produce methane,poisoned by O2 (sewage treatment!) Thermophiles—live in extreme temps (hot springs, ocean hydrothermal vents) Halophiles—live in high saline (like Great Salt Lake in Utah) (=10x salinity of ocean)

Predator and prey species coevolve

In the contest between predator and prey, some prey may have unique heritable characteristics that enable them to more successfully elude predators. Similarly, some predators may have characteristics that enable them to more successfully capture prey. The natural selection of characteristics that promote the most successful predators and the most elusive prey leads to coevolution of predator and prey

Inductive Reasoning (General to Specific)

Inductive reasoning is a logical process in which multiple premises, all believed true or found true most of the time, are combined to obtain a specific conclusion. Inductive reasoning is often used in applications that involve prediction, forecasting, or behavior. - The first part of the scientific method is inductive, the rest is deductive.

Insect Respiratory System

Insects have tracheae: tubes that go all through their body, reinforced with chitin to keep them open -at tip of trachea, small amount of liquid allows diffusion of gases into and out of cells Trachea open to the outside of the body at spiracles-- let oxygen in and carbon dioxide out

Innate Behavior

Instinct, genetically programmed ~All behavior has genetic basis

Darwin

It was Darwin's genius both to show how all this evidence favored the evolution of species from a common ancestor and to offer a plausible mechanism by which life might evolve . . . Natural Selection

Lamarck

Lamarck was struck by the similarities of many of the animals he studied, and was impressed too by the burgeoning fossil record. It led him to argue that life was not fixed. When environments changed, organisms had to change their behavior to survive. If they began to use an organ more than they had in the past, it would increase in its lifetime. If a giraffe stretched its neck for leaves, for example, make it longer. Its offspring would inherit the longer neck, and continued stretching would make it longer still over several generations. Meanwhile organs that organisms stopped using would shrink.

Ecological Footprint

Land and water used by a nation for consumption and wastes of its population -USA has a greater footprint than its ecological capacity (actual resource base of a nation) -overpopulation AND overconsumption...richest countries (20% of world) use 86% of world resources

Transpiration Overview

Leaves are the main "food manufacturing" organs of plants. They make food from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of light during a process called photosynthesis. As stomata open in the presence of sunlight, carbon dioxide will diffuse into the leaf as it is converted to sugars through photosynthesis inside the leaf. At the same time, water vapor will exit the leaf along a diffusive gradient through the stomata to the surrounding atmosphere through the process of transpiration When the stomata are open water is lost by evaporation and must be replaced via the transpiration stream with water taken up by the roots. Plants must balance the amount of CO2 absorbed from the air with the water loss through the stomatal pores, and this is achieved by both active and passive control of guard cell turgor and stomatal pore size

Life History Strategies

Life-history strategies, based on a species' reproductive traits and the carrying capacity of their environment r- strategists vs. k-strategists

Water Cycle

Limiting factor in terrestrial ecosystems 97% water is in oceans 2% in glaciers 1% in lakes, rivers, & groundwater Negligible amount in atmosphere

Carrying Capacity

Limiting factors determine the carrying capacity (K ) of an environment = maximum # individuals a particular environment can support indefinitely (# can vary over time)

Logistic Growth

Limiting factors determine the carrying capacity (K ) of an environment = maximum # individuals a particular environment can support indefinitely (# can vary over time)

Limits on Aquatic and Terrestrial Primary Productivity

Limits on Aquatic Primary Productivity -Light (depth of light penetration) -Nutrients (phosphorous, nitrogen, iron) Limits on Terrestrial Primary Productivity -Temperature -Moisture

Artificial Selection

Long before Darwin and Wallace, farmers and breeders were using the idea of selection to cause major changes in the features of their plants and animals over the course of decades. Farmers and breeders allowed only the plants and animals with desirable characteristics to reproduce, causing the evolution of farm stock. This process is called artificial selection because people (instead of nature) select which organisms get to reproduce.

Carbon Cycle

Main facts to know: -Release CO2: ~respiration ~burning fossil fuels ~ deforestation ~volcanic eruptions ~decomposition -Take in CO2: ~photosynthesis ~oceans When an animal or a plant dies, 1 of 2 things happens to the carbon in it: -it's respired by decomposers (and released to the atmosphere) or -it's buried intact and ultimately forms coal, oil, or natural gas (fossil fuels)

Fungi

Many fungi cause animal and plant diseases (pathogenic) May also be parasitic on animals

Mimicry - Batesian and Mullerian, Examples

Mimicry occurs when two or more species resemble one another in appearance. There are two kinds of mimicry: 1.) Müllerian mimicry occurs when several animals, all with some special defense mechanism, share the same coloration. Müllerian mimicry is an effective strategy because a single pattern, shared among several animals, is more easily learned by a predator than would be a different pattern for every animal. Thus, bees, yellow jackets, and wasps all have yellow and black body markings. 2.) Batesian mimicry occurs when an animal without any special defense mechanism mimics the coloration of an animal that does possess a defense. For example, some defenseless flies have yellow and black markings but are avoided by predators because they resemble the warning coloration of bees.

Learned Behavior

Modified in response to environment ~All behavior is modified by environment

Plants

Mosses (nonvascular) Vascular (have specialized tissues, allow height) Seedless‐ ferns, horsetails Seed‐bearing‐ pollen Gymnosperms‐ evergreens/conifers Angiosperms‐ flowering plants‐ most diverse and familiar

Gills

Most aquatic animals, including fish- also in some amphibians -greatly increase the surface area for gas exchange. Water flows over gills in one direction while blood flows in the opposite direction through gill capillaries -This countercurrent flow maximizes oxygen transfer

Cooperation

Most behaviors are selfish (benefit the individual regardless of cost to others) Some behaviors, however, help others •Cooperative behavior: ex. huntin -they contribute to direct fitness: reproductive success measured by number of viable of

Reptile Heart

Most reptiles: ventricle is partially divided - reduces mixing of oxygenated and unoxygenated blood in the ventricle

Mutualism

Mutualism:both species benefit - fungi and roots of plants (mycorrhizae) - flowering plants and pollinators - ants and bullhorn acacia trees: the plants would not have evolved hollow thorns or nectar pores unless their evolution had been affected by the ants, and the ants would not have evolved herbivore defense behaviors unless their evolution had been affected by the plants.

Sympatric Speciation

New species evolve in same areas as parental species (more common in plants) -change in chromosome #; often abrupt genetic changes that lead to reproductive isolation of a group -change in ecology

Monogastric

Non-Ruminants One simple stomach (carnivores and omnivores)

Bryophytes

Nonvascular plants - Do not have vascular tissues to conduct water and provide support

Obligative vs. Facultative Aerobe and Anaerobes

Obligative aerobes must use oxygen Obligative anaerobes poised by oxygen Facultative aerobe can use oxygen but not necessary Aerotolerant anaerobes can tolerate oxygen but do not use it

Prezygotic Isolating Mechanisms

One major type is called prezygotic isolation and it happens before fertilization occurs between gametes. Basically, prezygotic isolation keeps different species from sexually reproducing. If individuals cannot reproduce, they are considered to be different species and diverge on the tree of life.

Darwin's Theory (Variation and Competition)

Organisms over-reproduce: 1. Individuals vary, some variations are heritable 2. Resources are limited 3. Organisms with most favorable traits for a given environment have the most reproductive success, and those traits are passed on to next generation -The theory of evolution is known as "descent with modification," through variation and natural selection

Temperate Deciduous Forest

Plants: diverse plants; broadleaf deciduous trees dominant Animals: diverse Temp. & Precip.: winter ~0°C/32°F, 75-200 cm (28-60") rainfall; four distinct seasons Human Impact: heavily settled, logging, land clearing, agriculture, & urbanization destroyed all original forests; have gradually returned to their former range.

Population Growth

Population Growth (r )= the change in the number of individuals in the population (∆N) per unit time (∆t) ∆N/∆t = (births - deaths) + (immigrants - emigrants) ∆N/∆t = the per capita growth rate, r If r is positive, the population is growing, If r is negative, the population is declining If r is 0, then there is zero population growth (ZPG) Exponential growth= rmax

Consumers

Primary consumers are herbivores Secondary consumers are carnivores Tertiary consumers feed only on secondary consumers Omnivores eat both plant and animal matter

Ecological Pyramids

Producers= first trophic level, always the lowest level of a pyramid -Pyramid of Energy ~10% energy goes up to next level ~NEVER inverted!! -Pyramid of Biomass ~The energy transferred between levels can also be though of as approximating to a transfer in biomass ~rarely, but may be inverted -Pyramid of Numbers ~May be normal (aquatic and grassland ecosystems), partially inverted (forest ecosystems), or entirely inverted (parasitic food chain)

Prokaryotes

Prokaryotes can be: Saprobes: decomposers that absorb nutrients from dead organisms Parasites: absorb nutrients from the body of living host

2-Loop Circulation

Pulmonary: right ventricle to lungs through pulmonary arteries; returns with O2 to left atrium through pulmonary veins Systemic: left ventricle to body through aorta; returns without O2 to right atrium through vena cava

Reptile- negative pressure (how?)

Reptile lungs are much more efficient than those of amphibians - much greater surface area - inflated and deflated by the bellows-like expansion and contraction of the rib cage (due to muscles in rib cage) =negative pressure breathing

Bacteria and Humans

SOME DISEASES CAUSED BY (Parasitic )BACTERIA : Syphillis, Chlamydias (STDs) Meningitis Tooth decay‐ dental plaque Tetanus Rocky mountain spotted fever Anthrax Tuberculosis Cholera Leprosy Small pox Lyme's disease Ulcers (stomach) ... and Biological Weapons!!!

Populations

Same species, same place, same time -Natural selection works on individuals, yet populations evolve

Herbivores (plant eaters) and plants also coevolve:

Secondary compounds are toxic chemicals produced in plants that discourage would-be herbivores. Tannins, commonly found in oaks, and nicotine, found in tobacco, are secondary compounds that are toxic to herbivores.

Some Bacteria Can Live in Unusual Environments

Some bacteria can form endospores when exposed to harsh environments (allows them to "go dormant") - Will survive boiling water - Only die at 120°C (248 °F) Adapt quickly to their environment through natural selection

Respiratory System Evolution

Some more primitive organisms can "breathe" through their skin (Hydra, flatworms, etc.) =cutaneous respiration -must be small and flat to get enough surface area -skin needs to be moist (water and/or mucus), or exchange is too slow Lungless salamander, and Bornean flat-headed frog (discovered 2007); breathe entirely through skin and lining of mouth

Ecology

Study of interactions of organisms with each other and their environment

Cohesion Tension Theory

Sun's energy indirectly powers transpiration •Water is cohesive (water molecules are attracted to each other and thus "stick together" due to hydrogen bonding) •Tension exerted on water by evaporation at leaf's surface pulls a continuous stream of water from the soil into the root

Disruptive Selection Example

Suppose there is a population of rabbits. The color of the rabbits is governed by two incompletely dominant traits: black fur, represented by "B", and white fur, represented by "b". A rabbit in this population with a genotype of "BB" would have a phenotype of black fur, a genotype of "Bb" would have grey fur (a display of both black and white), and a genotype of "bb" would have white fur. If this population of rabbits occurred in an environment that had areas of black rocks as well as areas of white rocks, the rabbits with black fur would be able to hide from predators amongst the black rocks, and the rabbits with white fur likewise amongst the white rocks. The rabbits with grey fur, however, would stand out in all areas of the habitat, and would thereby suffer greater predation

Survivorship Curves

Survivorship: the proportion of offspring produced that survive on average to a particular age -Life Tables are used to plot Survivorship : -probability that a given individual in a population will survive to a particular age

Symbiosis

Symbiosis = close, generally long-term associations between two or more species any of several living arrangements between members of two different species, including mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. Both positive (beneficial) and negative (unfavourable to harmful) associations are therefore included, and the members are called symbionts.

Amphibian Respiration

Terrestrial vertebrates use a pair of LUNGS to exchange gases... internal, to keep surfaces moist First seen in lobe-finned fish (lungfish have functioning gills AND lungs) **POSITIVE PRESSURE BREATHING Frog: lungs are pair of thin-walled sacs connected to the mouth through an opening, the glottis - frog inflates its lungs by filling its mouth with air then closing its mouth -closing the internal openings to its nostrils -opening its glottis -raising the floor of its mouth thus forcing air into lungs

Plant Transport

The algal ancestors of plants were aquatic As plants became terrestrial, the plant body had to change The new problem: how to transport materials between roots and shoots - vascular tissues that transport sap throughout the plant body

Sexual Dimorphism

The differences in appearance between males and females of the same species, such as in colour, shape, size, and structure, that are caused by the inheritance of one or the other sexual pattern in the genetic material. The differences may be extreme, as in the adaptations for sexual selection seen in the exotic plumes and colours of the male bird-of-paradise

Eutrophication

The enrichment of an ecosystem with chemical nutrients, typically compounds containing nitrogen, phosphorus, or both. Due to the nutrient enrichment, resulting in increased plant and/or algal growth... decomposers multiply, use up most of oxygen -water quality declines, lake may eventually be filled in by plants and soil Eutrophication can be a natural process in lakes, occurring as they age through geological time. However, human use (fertilizers and pollution) has accelerated it.

Genotype

The genotype is the genetic makeup of a cell, an organism, or an individual usually with reference to a specific characteristic under consideration.

Single Loop Circulation

The main difference between a single circulatory system and double circulatory system is that in the case of the single circulatory system, blood passes through the heart only once on each circuit around the whole of the body circulatory system of the animal. Conversely, in the case of the double circulatory system, blood passes through the heart twice on a single circuit around the blood system through the whole animal. The limitations of a single circulatory system are blood flow rate and blood pressure fall when blood leaves a fish's gills, which is fine, but not adequate for proper kidney function in mammals.

Characteristics of Life (Sparky the Candle?)

The seven characteristics of life include: responsiveness to the environment; growth and change; ability to reproduce; have a metabolism and breathe; maintain homeostasis; being made of cells; passing traits onto offspring

Coevolution

The term coevolution is used to describe cases where two (or more) species reciprocally affect each other's evolution. So for example, an evolutionary change in the morphology of a plant, might affect the morphology of an herbivore that eats the plant, which in turn might affect the evolution of the plant, which might affect the evolution of the herbivore...and so on. Coevolution is likely to happen when different species have close ecological interactions with one another. These ecological relationships include: Predator/prey and parasite/host Competitive species Mutualistic species ***Bullhorn acacia

Mammalian Lungs

The two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart. Their principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. A large surface area is needed for this exchange of gases which is accomplished by the mosaic of specialized cells that form millions of tiny, exceptionally thin-walled air sacs called alveoli. Though similar in appearance, the two are not identical. Both are separated into lobes by fissures, with three lobes on the right and two on the left. The medial border of the right lung is nearly vertical, while the left lung contains a cardiac notch. The cardiac notch is a concave impression molded to accommodate the shape of the heart.

Blood types- universal donor, recipient

There are four types of blood. They are classified as: Type A -The A antigen, you have type A blood. The liquid portion of your blood (plasma) has antibodies that attack type B blood. Type B -The B antigen, you have type B blood. Your plasma has antibodies that attack type A blood. Type AB -Both the A and B antigens, you have type AB blood. Your plasma does not have antibodies against type A or type B blood. Type O -Neither the A nor B antigen, you have type O blood. Your plasma has antibodies that attack both type A and type B blood.-O negative is the universal donor -AB positive is the universal recipient

Effect of Smoking

Tobacco smoke irritates lining of bronchi, removes cilia that function to remove mucus--> coughing (resp. sys. trying to clear mucus) With no cilia or macrophages, dust/dirt and other toxins can settle in lungs Tumors occur= lung cancer, can spread (metastasis) -42% of people diagnosed with lung cancer die within the year -five-year survival rate ~ 14% (low)

In coelomates . . .

Two major types of circulatory systems 1.) Open: arthropods, most mollusks- blood is pumped from heart through blood vessels but then leaves the vessels and enters body cavities, where the organs are bathed in blood - blood flows slowly, no pressure after leaving vessels - inefficient for distributing materials, especially oxygen, in large organisms -hemolymph 2.) Closed : all vertebrates, annelids, and cephalopod mollusks - blood remains within blood vessels, pressure is high, and blood is therefore pumped faster

Mammalian Respiratory System

UPPER: Nasal cavities- filter, warm and moisten air Pharynx- air and food passage Glottis- opening to larynx Larynx- sound; Adam's apple, voice box, vocal cords LOWER: Trachea- air passage, Bronchi- paired tubes into lungs Bronchioles- branched tubes Lungs- contain alveoli and blood vessels Alveoli- The oxygen exchange in the lungs takes place across the membranes of small balloon-like structures called alveoli attached to the branches of the bronchial passages

Cyanobacteria

Used to be known as "blue‐green algae" - Only 80 species known, but they are among the most abundant organisms on Earth - Dominate aquatic environments, serving as food for these ecosystems - Plant‐like and photosynthetic - A few species live in association with fungi, forming lichen

Valves

Valves allow blood to flow toward the heart even against the force of gravity (legs especially) Varicose veins: valves don't function correctly, blood remains in vein, can pool and be painful

Terrestrial Biomes

Vertical Stratification: 1. Canopy layer 2. Low tree layer 3. Shrub understory 4. Ground layer 5. Forest floor (litter layer) 6. Root Layer

Water Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin C deficiency (Scurvy)

Fat Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin D deficiency (rickets)

Random facts about vitamins

Vitamins- 13- organic nutrients, need to be in diet, used in metabolic reactions Minerals- inorganic nutrients required for many body functions RDA (recommended daily allowance)= minimum needed to prevent deficiencies

Paraphyletic Group

a group that includes the most recent common ancestor, but not all of its descendants

Three main regions of Large Intestine

a) Cecum—expanded chamber, receives chyme from small intestine (still used in most herbivores, many bacteria- in carnivores, reduced to appendix) b) Colon—longest portion; has characteristic series of muscular pouches; water is reabsorbed here; bacterial activity may produce hydrogen sulfide (produces odor of feces), flatus (gas) due to bacterial action on undigested plant polysaccharides c) Rectum—chamber at end of tract; usually empty, except when peristaltic contractions force feces into it from colon; triggers defecation reflex, excretion through the anus

Functions of Human Stomach

a) Temporary storage of ingested food b) Mixing of ingested food (mechanical digestion) c) Digestion of proteins using acids and enzymes (chemical digestion) d) Absorption of some substances (e.g., alcohol, aspirin) e) Controlling passage of food into small intestine (stays in stomach ~4 hours)

Large Intestine

about 5 ft long, 3x wider than small intestine 1. Functions—holds and compacts undigested material; absorbs water and vitamins produced by resident intestinal bacteria.

Atherosclerosis

accumulation of cholesterol beneath inner lining of arteries... called plaque, interferes with flow of blood -both genetic and environmental causes (smoking, weight gain, saturated fats)

Learning

an example of a complex behavior -information gained from experience is incorporated into nervous system, used to make changes in response

Decomposers

are organisms that break down dead or decaying organisms, and in doing so, carry out the natural process of decomposition. Like herbivores and predators, decomposers are heterotrophic, meaning that they use organic substrates to get their energy, carbon and nutrients for growth and development.

Heart Attack

cardiac muscle tires or dies, due to blocked coronary arteries (vessels that supply the heart itself with blood)

Angioplasty

clogged vessels are opened by inflating a balloon, and/or inserting an expandable metal stent

Physiological Thermoregulation

countercurrent heat exchange • Arteries and veins in appendages are closely associated • Hot arterial blood passes heat to returning venous blood • No heat is lost • Similar mechanism in flippers of marine mammals • Blood flow can be controlled so that heat is lost - goes to alternate veins close to the surface

Polyphyletic Group

defined as one that does not include the common ancestor of all members of the group

Capillaries

diameter so small that red blood cells travel single file -total length of capillaries in one person is over 50,000 miles -Capillaries are specialized for exchange of substances with the interstitial fluid -no cell in the body is more than 100 micrometers from a capillary (the thickness of four sheets of paper) -interstitial fluid surrounds and bathes the cells, continually being replaced by fresh fluid from blood in the circulatory system

Linnaeus' system

each level more inclusive (specific) than one below it

Arthropods

external exoskeleton made of chitin, segmented body, jointed appendages- most successful group of animals ~See picture for subphyla

Reinforcement Schedules in Operant Conditioning

frequency with which rewards are offered - each reward schedule has predictable effects on rate of response •Fixed: fixed number of responses or amount of time to receive reward ex: dog barks three times for bite of food ex: cows to barn 10 minutes prior to milking time •Variable: number of responses or amount of time required for reward varies randomly ex: humans? Checking phone for emails •Extinction: response rate declines when reinforcement withheld

Respiratory System

function: oxygen into blood, carbon dioxide out of blood (cells require oxygen as part of aerobic respiration, to generate ATP/energy)

Vestigial Structures

genetically determined structures or attributes that have apparently lost most or all of their ancestral function in a given species, but have been retained through evolution. ex = appendix in humans

Blood Vessels

heart -> arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> venules -> veins -> heart Arteries: carry blood away from heart to capillaries Capillaries: extremely narrow, permit exchange of material with tissues Veins: return blood from capillaries to heart Blood vessels are composed of smooth muscle tissue Arteries: thick, elastic layer to allow stretching and absorb pressure Veins: blood pressure low, so valves help prevent backflow

Estuary

high nutrients (cyanobacteria convert atmospheric N into usable form for plants), nurseries for fish and birds

Gallbladder

is muscular sac that stores bile produced by liver; bile produced in liver may flow directly into small intestine through common hepatic duct (as during mealtimes), or may back up through cystic duct to be stored in gallbladder

Artificial Selection

is the process by which humans breed other animals and plants for particular traits.

Biodiversity

is the variety of different types of life found on earth. It is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation (number of species) within an area, biome, or planet.

Bird Respiration

most efficient of all land vertebrates, one way flow through lungs negative pressure, pathway through air sacs and lungs Birds do not have a diaphragm; instead, air is moved in and out of the respiratory system through pressure changes in the air sacs. Muscles in the chest cause the sternum to be pushed outward. This creates a negative pressure in the air sacs, causing air to enter the respiratory system. Bird lungs do not expand or contract like the lungs of mammals. In mammalian lungs, the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs in microscopic sacs in the lungs, called 'alveoli.' In the avian lung, the gas exchange occurs in the walls of microscopic tubules, called 'air capillaries.'

Phosphorous Cycle

needed for nucleic acids, ATP, bones, teeth, etc. - sedimentary (not atmospheric) cycle -from soil into plants, returned to soil by decomposers -can erode into ocean, remain unavailable for millions of years

Parasitism

one species benefits, other is harmed - if parasite causes disease and/or death to the host =pathogen ~Many microbial pathogens as well- bacteria, fungi, protists, viruses - tapeworm, heartworm (endoparasite); tick, flea (ectoparasite) - social parasite (cowbird)

3.Thigmotropism:

response to contact with solid object -used in climbing vines and other plants for support while growing toward the sunlight

2. Gravitropism:

response to gravity -roots grow down (positive gravitropism) -shoots grow up (negative gravitropism) auxins responsible

1. Phototropism:

response to light -caused by auxin movement away from light, and stimulation of cells NOT exposed to light

Stroke

small cranial artery bursts or is blocked -lack of oxygen causes a portion of the brain to die, resulting in paralysis or death

Homologous Structures

structures (body parts/anatomy) which are similar in different species because the species have common descent. They may or may not perform the same function. -example is the forelimb structure shared by cats and whales.

Biogeography

study of how species are scattered across the planet, and how they got that way

Systematics

study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships

Comparative Anatomy

the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species. -closely related to evolutionary biology and phylogeny (the evolution of species). Comparative anatomy has long served as evidence for evolution; it indicates that various organisms share a common ancestor.

Phloem

the vascular tissue in plants that conducts sugars and other metabolic products downward from the leaves.

Marine Benthic

unusual fish (and red-lipped worms!), hydrothermal vents (heat and nutrients alter seafloor conditions)

Xylem

vascular tissue that transports water and dissolved minerals upward from the roots -heartwood="dead" xylem, no longer conducts water -sapwood="live" xylem, still conduct water (but still made of dead xylem cells!)

How old is Earth?

~4.5 billion years old

Nitrogen Cycle

~80% dry air= nitrogen Nitrogen important for organisms: BACTERIA essential to nitrogen cycle: break atmospheric nitrogen down into forms usable by plants (ammonia--> nitrites-->nitrates), but also return nitrogen to atmosphere

Predator and prey species coevolution examples?

~Population cycles result from predator/prey interactions

Temperature

‐ has a fundamental influence on biochemistry and physiology in animals, affecting the rate of reactions and the characteristics of molecules Animals can either: • regulate their body temperatures (so they aren't affected by temperature or can live under a wide range of conditions) • not regulate their temperature (and accept metabolic consequences or live under small range of conditions)

Protists

‐unicellular, complex, 10x larger than most bacteria ‐most are aquatic ‐can form colonies ‐colonial photosynthetic protists=algae ‐reproduce both sexually and asexually ‐animal‐like, plant‐like and fungus‐like groups

Fungi Usefulness to Humans

‐yeasts (unicellular fungi)... wine, beer, bread ‐edible mushrooms ‐soy sauce (fungus ferments soybeans) ‐many different candies ‐antibiotics ‐blue cheeses ‐pesticides, weed killers

3.) Animal Body Cavity

• Afluid‐filled spaces parroting the digestive tract from the outer body wall. - Coelom • Derived from mesoderm, so only triploblastic animals can have it • Cushions internal organs • Allows internal organs to grow and move independently of each other - Known as coelomate

Protists Disease Examples

• African sleeping sickness • Chagas disease • Giardia • Amoebic dysentery • Toxoplasmosis • Malaria • Red tide

Body-Mass Index

• An indicator of obesity-related health risk • BMI = Weight (lbs) X 700 ----------------------------- Height (inches)^2 • BMI greater than or equal to 27 indicates health risk

Carbohydrates

• Body's main energy source • Foods high in complex carbohydrates are usually high in fiber; promote colon health • Simple sugars lack fiber as well as minerals and vitamins of whole foods; intake should be minimized

E. coli Bacteria in Large Intestine

• Break down remaining nutrients • Synthesize vitamins (vitamin K)

Fungi

• Cell walls contain chitin • Multicellular,exceptforyeasts • Heterotrophic • Mainbodyofmulticellularfungi composed of hyphae • Sexualandasexualreproduction** • DIVERSE‐70,000speciesknown (2‐5 million more undiscovered)

Swallowing

• Complex reflex • Tongue forces food (voluntary action) into pharynx, common chamber for food and air • Epiglottis closes off trachea; breathing temporarily ceases Food moves into esophagus... muscular tube, about 0.8in diameter - moved by wavelike contractions (involuntary) called peristalsis then through esophageal sphincter into stomach

Ecological Importance of Fungi

• Decomposition of dead plants, animals, and microbes (important for recycling nutrients) • Symbionts - Mycorrhizae • Live in close association with plant roots • Help to feed land plants - Fungal‐animal symbiosis • Help animals digest tough materials - Lichens: green algae (or cyanobacteria) living within hyphae; More than 13,500 species have been described ‐can survive on rock, in poor soils, etc. ~30% of fungi are parasitic on plants or animals

Digestion begins . . .

• Digestion begins in the mouth - The teeth break up food, saliva moistens it • And salivary enzymes begin the digestion of starch - The tongue pushes the bolus of food into the pharynx

Endotherms vs. Ectotherms (Homeotherms vs. Heterotherms)

• Ectotherms have a body temperature the same as their environment • Endotherms use heat from metabolism to maintain their body temperature within a narrow range (=HOMEOSTASIS)

Importance of Plants to Humans

• Food source - Wheat, grains, fruits, vegetables • Medicine - Aspirin, cancer treatments, stimulants • Industry - Agriculture, wood products, cotton

Animals

• Heterotrophs/ consumers: feed by ingestion • Currently 34 phyla • Mobile at some point in life • Have a basic body plan based on: - 1) Number of tissue types found in embryos - 2) The type of body symmetry and degree of cephalization - 3) The presence or absence of a fluid-filled cavity - 4) The way in which early development proceeds

Human Population Growth

• Human population growth does not currently show density effects that typically characterize natural populations. • In natural populations, per capita population growth rate decreases with population size, whereas global human population growth rate has a positive relationship. • Human population growth rate has been growing more than exponentially. • Limited resources eventually will cause human population growth to slow, but global human carrying capacity is not known.

Other tricks to reduce heat loss:

• Insulation‐e.g.,fur,feathers • Marine mammals: have high body temperature, and water conducts heat faster than air... therefore have blubber (insulating fat

Aquatic Biomes

• Lakes & Ponds (Lentic): bodies of standing freshwater • Streams & Rivers (Lotic): constantly moving ~At edges of both lentic and lotic habitat, wetlands often form • Wetlands: shallow; soil is saturated with water marshes, bogs, swamps • Estuaries: where rivers meet the ocean; shallow & sunlit; lots of nutrients • Intertidal zones: along the shore; rocky, sandy, or muddy beach exposed at low tide, covered at high tide • Oceanic pelagic: open blue water; 70% of biosphere • Coral reefs: diverse group of Cnidarians form corals— house fish, invertebrates, plant-life; high water clarity • Marine benthic: sea floor; most receives no sunlight

Five Overall Tasks of a Complete Digestive System

• Mechanical processing and motility - physical manipulation that breaks up, mixes & propels food •Secretion - Release of digestive enzymes & other substances from lining of tract and accessory organs •Digestion - chemical breakdown of food into molecules small enough to be absorbed •Absorption - Passage of digested nutrients & fluid across the tube wall and into body fluids •Elimination - Expulsion of undigested, unabsorbed residues from the end of the gut

Fats/Lipids

• Most can be synthesized by the body • Essential fatty acids must be obtained from food • Fats should be about 30% of diet • Excess saturated fats can raise cholesterol level and contribute to heart disease

Major Components of the Human Digestive System

• Mouth (oral cavity) • Pharynx (throat) • Esophagus • Gut - Stomach - Small intestine (~12-24 hours from mouth through small intestine) - Large intestine - Rectum - Anus

Bird Digestive Systems

• Mouth or beak - Can not chew food • Esophagus - Connects mouth to crop • Crop - Stores and softens food, is a dilation of the esophagus • Stomach • Gizzard - Crushes food • Contains grit and gravel - Mixes food with digestive juices • Liver • Small and Large Intestine • Vent - Removes solid and liquid waste

Saliva

• Produced by salivary glands at back of mouth and under tongue • Almost half a gallon (1.5 L) of saliva produced each day • Saliva includes - Amylase (enzyme) - start digestion of carbohydrates - Bicarbonate (buffer) - Mucins (bind food into bolus) - Water (99% of saliva)

4.) Development (of bilateral animals)

• Protostomes - Mouth develops first - arthropods (insects, spiders, crustaceans) - mollusks - annelids (segmented worms) • Deuterostomes - Anus develops first - chordates - echinoderms

Thermoregulation

• Regulation of body temperature • Can be behavioral or physiological

Accessory Organs of Human Digestive System

• Salivary glands - Secrete saliva (with carbohydrate digesting enzymes, buffers & mucus to moisten food) • Liver - Secretes bile for emulsifying fat, also roles in fat, carbohydrate & protein metabolism • Gallbladder - Stores & concentrates bile from liver • Pancreas - 1) Secretes digestive enzymes that break down all major food molecules, 2)secretes buffers against HCL from stomach, 3)secretes insulin to control glucose metabolism

Homeostasis

• The steady‐state physiological condition of the body • Internal fluctuations are small . . . homeostasis maintains a fairly constant body temperature despite the swings in the environment

Protists Usefulness to Humans

• Toothpaste • Food (ice cream, sushi) • Cleaners, plastics, paints • Treatments for high blood pressure, arthritis

Altruism

•Altruism: individual reduces their own fitness while increasing the fitness of another individual (risks life/health to help another) 1) Reciprocal Altruism: altruist expects a future benefit from initial sacrifice ***must be small #s individuals, together for extended time period2) 2) Inclusive fitness: sum of an individual's direct fitness and indirect fitness (number of offspring of relatives) ~Cheetah brothers stick together

Respiratory System Principles

•Movement of an oxygen-containing medium so it contacts a moist membrane overlying blood vessels •Diffusion of oxygen from the medium into the blood •Transport of oxygen to the tissues and cells of the body •Diffusion of oxygen from the blood into cells •Carbon dioxide follows a reverse path

Importance of Sleep

•Sleep research with humans, rats, and birds: - slow wave sleep (SWS), deep slumber= strengthens memories or connections already in progress - rapid eye movement (REM)= associate and connect memories to each other •Naps improve memory in monkeys •Dreaming- almost all mammals and birds, especially young •Zebra finch doesn't show having learned complete song until after a full night's sleep