Nigeria

Biafra

- 1967 - 1970 -In 1967 the East tried to secede after ethnic and political tensions. This led to civil war, and the east (Biafra) lost in 1970. -Igbo secessionist state -Wanted to separate because they believed they could never gain political power because they were the minority to the northerners - the majority -Three year civil war, over a million deaths -Yakubu Gowon, a middle belt christian came to power to lead a Nigerian unity government to stop the secession

Federal Character

-Federal character calls for ethnic quotas in government hiring practices, and was introduced into the public service and formally codified by the 1979 constitution. The armed forces have long recognized these quotas. -Deals with the informal norm in Nigeria where the power / presidency of the country rotates between the north and the south (ethnic rotation)

Nigerian Judiciary

-Federal, State, and local court system, headed by the Federal court of appeal and the supreme court, which consists of 15 appointed associate justices and the chief justice. -States may establish a system of Islamic Law (Shari'a) for cases involving only Muslims in customary disputes (divorce, property, etc). Most Nigerian states feature such courts, which share a Federal Court of Appeal in Abuja. This is a parallel court system -Shari'a law courts started in 1999 in the northern state of Zamafra. 11 other states have implemented this law since. Allows for stoning, cutting off hands, etc. -Non-Muslim states may also set up customary courts, based on local traditional jurisprudence. -Secular courts remain supreme jurisdiction if conflict arises between customary and secular courts. -Has customary (sharia) law system and a secular court system -Courts had autonomy but then military rule led to this third branch of government to lose its autonomy and merit as generally good with merit -Decrees by (old) Buhari, Babangida, and Abacha disallowed judicial review. -In 1993 Supreme court gave Military executive powers to act beyond judicial review. -With return to civilian government in 1999, the Courts have started to gain back its credibility. The supreme court has made a few landmark judgments to help this -All courts are bound to the supreme court

Nigerian Constitution

-First Constitution in 1914 -Since 1914, 9 constitutions. 5 colonial, 4 after. -Latest in 1999 -Military and Civilian leaders often have not felt the need to obey the constitution, and therefore have often wrote new ones once in power. -1999: authored by military, and was not approved until after the elections occurred -1999: Enormous powers in the federal government and in the hands of the president -1999: Powers of the state and local governments are delineated by the federal constitution and most of them receive their entire budget from the center -Federal Character maintained by ethnic quotas - Quotas vs. Affirmative Action

June 1998

-General Abacha dies -Succeeded by General Abdulsalami Abubakar - Middle Belt Muslim form the same town as Babangida -Abubakar releases most political prisoners. -Abubakar installs new transition program -Abubakar allows parties to from unhindered.

Vision 2010

-General Abacha's Economic reform policy -Policy made with Larger Nigerian businesses and multinational corporations. -Restore democratic rule, restructure and professionalize the military, reduce population growth rate, rebuild education, meaningful privatization, diversify exports pat oil, support rights, central bank autonomy.

July 1975

-General Murtala Muhammad (northerner), leads coup and deposes Gowan

Northern People's Congress (NPC)

-In 1954, of the three separated regions of Nigeria, the Northern Region came under control of the NPC dominated by Hausa-Fulani elites.

northernization

-In the early 1960s when the Northerners dominated the First Republic, and they set out to redistribute resources to their benefit.

Middle Belt

-Includes minority groups, both Muslim and christian.

1960

-Independence! -Nigeria adapts parliamentary Westminster model, consists of three regions. -Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, a northerner becomes first Prime Minister.

shari'a

-Islamic law derived mostly from the Qur'an and the examples set by the Prophet Muhammad in the Sunnah.

warrant chiefs

-Leaders employed by the British colonial regime in Nigeria. A system in which "chiefs" were selected by the British to oversee certain legal maters and assist the colonial enterprise in governance and law enforcement in local areas. -Ruled by warrant of the British Crown - Weakened the previous practices of accountability and participation

acephalous societies

-Literally "headless" societies. -A number of traditional Nigerian societies, such as the Igbo in the precolonial period, lacked executive ruler ship as we have come to conceive of it. Instead, the villages and clans were governed bu committee consensus.

jihad

-Literally "struggle" -Often used to mean armed struggle against unbelievers, it can also mean to fight against socio-political corruption or a spiritual struggle for self-improvement.

Third Republic

-Major executive decisions were often made by decrees, subject to review by a council of high ranking military officials. During Abacha's time, this turned into a rubber stamp body. -Military politics had a highly personalistic character, and because of this, patron-client-relationships flourished. -military pattern of organization, with one man at the top, and ranks (echelons) of subordinates below in a pyramid of top down relationships spread through Nigerian cultures, and subcultures. -Military was weakened due to these power structures -Under Bababgida and Abacha military was a predetory apparatus instead of a unit for national security -Short lived annulled election

House of representatives

-Members are based off of state population

December 1983

-Military Coup led by the northerner Muhammadu Buhari

June 12, 1993

-Moshood Abiola wins presidential elections -Babangida annuls the election 11 days after

MEND

-Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta -Threatens to drive out oil interests.

February 1976

-Murtala Muhammad assassinated in a failed coup -Led by Middle Belt minorities -The Yorubian Olusegun Obasanjo assumes power

NEEDS

-National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy -President Obasanjo's economic policy -An extension and adaptation of Vision 2010

Nigerian Party System

-Nearly 50 parties have been registered by the Nigerian electoral commission since 2002. -The largest are the People's Democratic Party (PDP), and the all Nigerian People's Party (ANPP), the Action Congress of Nigeria (ACN), and Congress for Progressive Change (CPC). -PDP won the presidency, majorities in both houses of the national assembly, as well as a majority of governorship, state assemblies, and local governments.

September 1978

-New constitution completed adopting the U.S presidential model -Federation with 19 states

Niger Delta

-Niger Delta where da oil are (south)

Nigeria Ethnic Groups

-Nigeria has more than 250 ethnic groups -Largest ethnic groups: Hausa Fulani, Yoruba, Igbo -Minority ethnic zones: Northeast, Middle Belt, Delta. -29% Hausa and Fulani -21% Yoruba -18% Igbo / Ibo -14% Other -8% Ijaw -4% Kanuri -3.5% Ibibio -2.5% Tiv

Colonialsim

-The British allowed traditional structures to persist as subordinates (Warrant Chiefs) -British used repressive statistics to play off ethnic resistance -Brits created an authoritarian democratic culture that has rolled over into the Nigerian political system. -uneven development - south had better benefits of economy and democracy. -Divided nation into three regions -National unitary was gone after British left leaving competition for political power.

August 2002

-The National Assembly begins impeachment proceedings against Obasanjo over budgetary issues. -Obasanjo apologies in November

ECOWAS - Economic Community of West African States

-The West African regional organization, including 15 member countries from Cape Verde in the west to Nigeria and Niger in the east.

National Assembly

-The legislature of Nigeria, consisting of the Senate and House of Representatives. -Constitutionally controls the "Purse" --President takes this power.

National Party of Nigeria (NPN)

-The president of the second republic was under control of Shehu Shagari and the NPN -1979-1983 -Drawn largely from the First Republic's northern dominated NPC -Massive fraud and violence

international financial institutions (IFI)

-The term generally refers to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), but can also include other international lending institutions.

Major General Muhammadu Bahari

-Took over after the NPN and Shehu Shagari -Military power Coup -Failed to revive the poor economy -Out of power 1985

Nigeria Political System

-Federal Republic -Has a informal "rotating" power shift from north to the south since Obasanjo in 1999

Nigerian Southwest

-The "West" -Yoruba -Second largest ethnic group -40% Christian -40%Muslim -20% Yoruban -Action Group (AG)

The Fourth Republic

- 1999 to Present -The Obasanjo, Yar'Adua, and Jonathan administrations -U.S presidential model -strong executive with checks and balances -bicameral -independent judicial branch with judicial review. -Obasanjo was a compromise candidate -In Obasanjo's first six months in office he had initiatives to reform the armed forces, revitalize the economy, address public welfare, and improve the standards of governance. He also sought to root out misconduct and inefficiency in the public sector. -Created the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) to help investigate and root out public officials. ::2003 -Many Yoruba felt cheated out of power by northern elites (annulled election of 1993 // Abiola's) -Northerners had more trust in Obasanjo because he has handed over power in 1979 -^^This is why the Yorubans did not like him- they led the impeachment effort in 2002 -Yar'Adua gained control of PDP, however he struggled later in is term, and power shifted back to Obasanjo, this helped Obasanjo support Goodluck Jonathan -unitary government in a federal disguise, the powerful government is surrounded by weak and economically insolvent states. -history of military rule has created a powerful executive -corruption and patronage system sill override Nigeria's best interests.

autocracy

- A government in which one or a few rulers has absolute power, thus, a dictatorship.

July 1966

-"Counter" coup led by general Yakubu Gowan (middle belt) -Has aid from northern groups

"National Question"

-"How is the country to be governed given its great diversity?" -What should be the institutional form of the government? -How can all sections of the country work in harmony and none feel excluded or dominated by others?

Precolonial period

-1800-1900 -Had centralized states -Trade State -1808 the Fulani fought a holy war (Jihad) which helped to establish Islam. -Before British Colonialism,there was a chance that many of the ruling tribes would have shifted to more stable and functioning governments, such as democracy, instead of hydrocephalus societies.

The First Republic

-1960-1966 -Parliamentary (Westminster model), prime minister chosen directly from the legislative. -Decentralized (power in the three main regions - Northern, Eastern, Western) -Northerner dominated -Northerners benefited less from British Imperialism and therefore sought to fix the imbalance -Split the western Yoruba region into two areas -Northerners became so powerful they did not need Igbo (NCNC) allies anymore -military seized power in 1966 toi end fighting in the western region (around the Yoruba) and to stop corruption and northern abuses. -Largely Igbo military (southeast) led the coup -New unitary system replaced the federal parliamentary democracy

Nigeria Religion

-50% Muslim -48% Christian --19%other christian --15% Protestant --13% Catholic -1.3% Other -Briefing Paper -50%Muslim -40% Christian -10% Other / Traditional

legitimacy

-A belief by the powerful groups and the broad citizenry that a state exercises rightful authority. In the contemporary world, a state is said to possess legitimacy when it enjoys consent of the governed, which usually involves procedures and the attempt to achieve a satisfactory level of development and equitable distribution or resources. -The 250 ethnic groups, and 2 major religious traditions have clashed and fought over political and economic resources. This has led to low levels of legitimacy. -Legitimacy has been hard to establish due to the recent Independence of the country (1960) -Fragmentation among ethnic groups has led to difficultly in establishing legitimacy -Contradictory past - British rule of law versus the Military Rule has hindered legitimacy -Corruption has hindered legitimacy as well

Nigerian Legislature

-A bicameral civilian legislature was elected in April 2011. The 109 senators are elected on the basis of equal representation: three form each state, and one from the FCT. The 360 members of the House of Representatives are elected from single member districts. -Policy making: based on top down directives. Military officials have created the loyalty pyramid, and loyalty pyramids influence policy

accountability

-A government's responsibility to it's population, usually by periodic popular elections, transparent fiscal practices, and by parliament's having the power to dismiss the government by passing a motion of no confidence. In a political system characterized by accountability, the major actions taken by the government must be known and understood by the citizenry. -The 250 ethnic groups, and 2 major religious traditions have clashed and fought over political and economic resources. This has led to low accountability as the government has a hard time to meet basic needs of the citizens.

Yakubu Gowon,

-A middle belt christianer that came to power to lead a Nigerian unity government to stop the secession of Biafra

state corporatism

-A political system in which the state requires all members of a particular economic sector to join an officially designated interest group. Such interest groups thus attain public status, and they participate in national policy making. The result is that the state has great control over the groups, and groups have great control over their members.

unfinished state

-A state characterized by instabilities and uncertainties that may render it susceptible to collapse as a coherent entity.

authoritarian

-A system of rule in which power depends not on popular legitimacy but on the coercive force of the political authorities. Hence, there are few personal and group freedoms. It is also characterized by near absolute power in the executive branch and few, if any, legislative and judicial controls. -Nigeria has struggled between authoritarian governance and democracy.

August 1993

-Ernest Shonekan is installed as "interim civilian president" due to the annulled election in June - Installed by Babangida until elections could be held later in the year

indirect rule

-A term used to describe the British style of colonialism in Nigeria and India in which local traditional rulers and political structures were used to help support the colonial governing structure. -The colony and protectorate of Nigeria was formally established in 1914, comprised initially of the northern and southern regions. The northern region was administratively organized by a system of "indirect rule," in which British colonial administrators worked through Muslim emirates. -Under British Rule, centralized monarchies were allowed to exist and function as subordinates to the British governors and administration.

Boko Haram

-A terrorist group that predominantly resides in the north eastern part of Nigeria. -Ultimate goal of creating a Nigerian Islamic state -This group drives out some foreign oil investments, and forces oil operations to shut down due to attacks on oil rigs. In response, the government has had to give up some of it's legitimacy by implementing amnesty programs and government action to help stop the group.

APC

-All Progressive Congress -Multi party group that is one of the first groups to merge

balance of payments

-An indicator of international flow of funds that shows the excess or deficit in total payments of all kinds between or among countries. Included in the calculation are exports and imports, grants, and international debt payments. -Issues with balence of payments in 1985 led to the SAP program

clientalism

-An informal aspect of policy-making in which a powerful patron (for example, a traditional local boss, government agency, or dominant party) offers resources such as land, contracts, protection, or jobs in return for the support and services (such as labor or votes) of lower-status and less powerful clients; corruption, preferential treatment, and inequality are characteristic of clientelist politics. -Page 253

interventionist

-An interventionist state acts vigorously to shape the performance of major sectors of the economy

November 1993

-Another coup! -Defense minister General Sani Abacha seizes power. -2 years later he announces a 3 year transition to civilian rule, he manipulates the system to get himself elected in 1998

1967-1970

-Biafra civil war

August 1985

-Buhari overthrown by Gerneral Ibrahim B. Babangida, a Middle Belt Muslim, in a coup -Babangida promises a return to democracy by 1990, however he delayed this date five time, and then was removed from office.

Umaru Musa Yar'Adua

-Came into power after Obasanjo tried to create the state of emergency -Reversed some of Obasanjos policies -Had a legitimacy gap from the 2007 polls, stayed in power only from a supreme court decision -Solidified control of the PDP -Was sick in 2009, he collapsed and was rushed to a Saudi Arabia Hospital, died in May 2010. National Assembly appointed Goodluck Jonathan- was sworn in as president.

General Olusegun Obasanjo

-Ceded power to the elected civilian government in 1979, which became known as the second republic. -Retired, but later reemerged as the a civilian president in 1999 -General Abuakar fulfilled his promise and handed over the government to Obasanjo and the PDP in may 1999 -In his first term, Olusegun Obasanjo, a Yoruba, handed political power over to a northerner. This helped come top power later because he was viewed as a man the people could trust. Also, he was former military and people thought this experience would help him to control the country. -In second term, he reformed the state and economy -started by retiring former military personnel from past governments - retired 90 military officers who were possible coup plotters -Civil society and media grew greatly -Raised minimum wage 10x -debt forgiveness campaign was not successful -national assembly tried to impeach him 3 times -Anti corruption measures -Hampered PDP "Big men" who had grown rich from their complicity with the Babangida and Abacha regimes -Renominated in 2003 by the PDP, won after malpractices -Called a national Political Reform Conference in 2005, failed to remove the two term limit in the president -In 2006 a term extension was also failed. -Tried to create a state of emergency, failed, handed power over to Yar'Adua in 2007 -Has tried to limit and reform the bureaucracy and its ministers -Privatizing Parastatals was a key part of Obasanjo's reforms. Telecommunications and power was put up for sale and sold part of the oil industry in 1999. Privatize part or all on the NNPC

People's Democratic Party (PDP)

-Civilian government came to power under Olusegun Obasanjo in may 1999. -Run by a collection of powerful politicians from Nigeria's early governments -Rich from complicity with Abacha and Babangida -Used corruption and fraud to influence and win the 2003 election -Obasanjo named himself chairman for life after the failure to extend his third term, this allows him to eject anyone from the party

January 1966

-Civilian government disposed in a coup. -General Aguiyi Ironsi an Igbo becomes head of state.

2000

-Communal conflicts erupt over localized issues -Lagos, Benue, Kaduna and Kana

Second Republic

-Constitution in effect 1979 -U.S presidential model -President chosen by the electorate due to the idea that a popularly elected president would symbolize national unity -ended by 1983 coup.

Nigeria Regime History

-Democratic government took office in May 1999, after sixteen years of military rule. (The most recent national elections were held in 2011).

rents

-Economic gains that do not compensate those who produced them and do not contribute to productivity, typically associated with government earnings that do not get channeled back into either investments or policies that benefit the public good. Pursuit of economic rents (or "rent seeking") is profit seeking that takes the form of nonproductive economic activity.

October 1979

-Elections are held! -Majority in both houses won by NPN -National Party of Nigeria, led by northern Hausa Fulani groups -Alhaji Shehu Shagari is elected as Nigeria's first executive president.

Nigeria Language

-Enlighten / English (official) -Hausa -Yoruba -Igho / Ibo -*Fulani* -100-200 other indigenous languages -Most people speak the language of their ethnic group

Senate

-Equal state representation -Three senators from each 36 states plus one senator from Abuja

Nigeria Administrative Structure

-Nigeria is a federation of thirty-six states, plus the Federation Capital Territory (FCT) in Abuja. -The three tiers of government are federal, state, and local. Actual power is centralized under the presidency and the governors. -774 local governmental units that have the power to enact their own laws. -Moderates some decisive cultural pluralism -State and local governments rely heavily on federal money as their state income's. This is an avenue for prebendalism, the state will dole out their money without much responsibility. -Nigerians do not really pay taxes because of the governments AFIKness to support and provide the country with its needs. Because of this the government does not have any revenues to support the citizens, or gain more legitimacy.

National Convention of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC)

-Nigeria's first political party.... splinterd

African Union

-Obasanjo -Like the EU -Promotes greater political integration across the continent -Promoted NEPAD

May 2006

-Obasanjo's attempt to amend the constitution and allow himself a third term in office is denied by the national assembly.

1999

-Olusegun Obansanjo and the PDP sweep the presidential and National Assembly elections -this adds to their majority control of the state and government seats -The federation now consists of 36 states

Hausa & Fulani

-One of Nigeria's 6 defined "zones" -Nigeria's Largest ethnic group -Northwest / core north -British colonialism fostered political competition among the British collective Identities and ethnic groups

Nigerian Bureaucracy

-Over one million members -Salaries of bureaucrats consume half of government expenditures -Often appointed via patronage, ethnic grouping, and regional origin.

April-May 2007

-PDP takes majority of election victories after a compromised process. -Umaru Musa Yar'Adua becomes president. -Promises reform -Spends first year trying to solidify his power

prebendalism

-Patterns of political behavior that rest on the justification that official state offices should be utilized for the personal benefit of officeholders as well as of their support group clients. -The corrupt use of high level positions to gain personal wealth -Patron Client Relationships -Extreme Clientalism -Distributing of public offices and state rents to your own ethnic group. The official purpose of the office becomes secondary to one's own personal benefit. -An established pattern of political behavior that justifies the use of public office for the personal and chosen shared benefit -Clients compromise a specific set of elites to which he is linked, typically by ethnic or religious ties. Therefore in prebendalism there is the officeholder and the client and this leads to the pyramid system with the "Big Men" at the top, and other lower clients below. -Deepens sectional cleavages and wastes public resources -Lowers desire for positive economic activity.

Oga // Big Man

-Prebendal style of corrupt clientelist networks

July - September 1994

-Pro-democracy strike by the major oil union, NUPEG. -Cuts Nigeria's oil by 25%

structural adjustment program (SAP)

-Programs established by the World Bank intended to alter and reform the economic structures of highly indebted Third World countries as a condition for receiving international loans. SAP's often involve the necessity for privatization, trade liberalization, and fiscal restraint, which typically requires the dismantling of social welfare systems. -1985 Babangida -World bank and IMF (they were IFI) -Privatization is central to Nigeria's SAP program

civil society

-Refers to the space occupied by volunarty associations outside the state, for example, professional associations (lawyers, doctors, teachers), trade unions, student and women's groups, religious bodies, and other voluntary association groups.

Nigerian Economy

-Reniter State based off of oil revenue -Lots of debt due to over-relience on oil and corruption -had to turn to international organizations to help manage it's huge debt (1980s) -World bank and International monetary fund helped to develop an economic structural adjustment program,

General Ibrahim Babangida

-Seized power 1985 -pledged democratic transition however it stalled and lost power 1993

privatization

-Selling state owned assets to private owners and investors, intended to generate revenue, reduce wasteful spending, and improve efficiency. -Key to, and a part of Nigeria's SAP program.

Igbo

-Southeast -Third Largest Ethnic group -primarily Christian -British colonialism fostered political competition among the British collective Identities and ethnic groups

Yoruba

-Southwest -Second largest ethnic group -40 percent Muslim -50 percent christian -10 traditional Yoruba beliefs. -British colonialism fostered political competition among the British collective Identities and ethnic groups

General Notes

-Started out as a tribal nation and area -Fulani brought Islam -British Colonialism -Colonialism led to competition and divide between the big three -northern Ruled First -then the Igbo killed them -then tensions happened -then east tried to secede in Biafra war

parastatals

-State owned industries or businesses. Sometimes the government will own and manage the company outright, or only own a majority share of its stock but allow members of the private sector to run it. -Semi public institutions -Lower costs than private companies -Accelerate economic development by controlling the commanding heights of the economy -Is good for sovereignty because if ensures important programs in governmental hands

Spring 2002

-Supreme court passes several landmark judgments -Overturns PDP based electoral law -overturns ruling on the control of gas and natural resources -Court opens door for more parties to be registered.

December 2008

-Supreme court upholds President Yar'Adua's election with a 4-3 decision

Nigerian Southeast

-The "East" -Igbo -Third largest ethnic group -Predominately Christian -National Convention of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC)

Nigerian Northwest

-The "North" -Hausa Fulani -Largest Ethnic group -Predominately Muslim -Northern People's congress (NPC)

Nigeria Executive

-U.S style presidential system, (under Good luck Jonathan) -President and Cabinet -Directly elected, 4 year term, 2 term limit -2 round / majority model -Candidate must win majority of votes cast and as least 25% of votes cast in 2/3 of Nigeria's states -If no candidate wins a majority in the first round, second round pits top two popular vote winners -Has these requirements because : 1999 constitutional requirement; so a purely regional candidate cannot win the presidency; an attempt to help unify the people and country. -May appoint officials to all parts of national government without approval of legislature, this leads to Patrimonliasm, where the president is at the top -Receives all government oil and distributes some to the states as directed by law -commands armed forces -can veto laws passed by the legislature -When Buhari takes office on 29 May 2015 as scheduled it will mark the first time in Nigeria's history that an incumbent elected President will peacefully transfer power to an elected leader of the opposition -Current President: Muhammadu Buhari -Current president is from the north -2 round / majority FEDERAL CHARACTER

November 1999

-Zamfara, a state in the north, institutes Shari'a criminal code. It is the first of 12 states to do so. -Obasanjo send the army down to the Niger Delta town of Odi to root out local militias. In the process, the town is leveled.

Military Executive

-hurt the image of the military "predatory apparatus" : not a guardian of the people -Abacha suspended habeas corpus and hounded opponents into exile -Legislature disbanded and major executive decisions were subject to approval of a military ruling council (all members were yes men clients of the dictator) -Top down decision making: Babangida no longer allowed input from other 'big men' instead he ran a a play from the British playbook and played other loyalty pyramids against each other

Patrimonliasm

-system of patronage in which the president is at the top

Goodluck Jonathan

-took power in 2010 after Yar'Adua's sickness and death. -Came to power without support of his PDP party, and therefore had top establish his influence using Nigeria's oil wealth. -Won the 2011 rigged elections, pledged reform. -First few years follower "Big man" prebendal tendancies

Official name of Nigeria

Federal Republic of Nigeria