Not Quiz Bowl

Apollo 12 moon landing

"Lonely Goatherd" puppeteer Bill Baird did a marionette show for NBC during this event. The all-Air Force backup on this first successful H-type mission liked to prank its crew by slipping in Playboy centerfolds into mission checklists. The video feed for this mission was destroyed when the cameraman aimed the camera directly at the sun, forcing CBS to air a live at 6:00 AM broadcast of actors in a Long Island studio pretending they were on this mission. The destination of this mission was the (*) Ocean of Storms. News of this mission was kicked off the front page when the first photos of the My Lai massacre were published. Alan Bean was the lunar-module pilot on this mission where Pete Conrad yelled "Whoopie!" and noted that his step "was a long one for me" in reference to his immediate predecessor's famous speech. For 10 points, name this second manned mission to land on the moon.

measures

A certain function of this type has the property that its value for the union of two non-intersecting sets equals the sum of its values for each set, plus the product of those values with a parameter lambda between negative one and positive infinity. That function of this type is named for Sugeno and exemplifies the "fuzzy" variety. If two of these functions are absolutely continuous with respect to each other, they can be related by a Radon- Nikodym derivative. If a function of this type exists for a ring of subsets, there exists a corresponding function of this type for the (*) sigma-algebra generated by the ring, according to Carathéodory's extension theorem. A certain function of this type gives the greatest lower bound of the set of every countable union of boxes that covers a given set. These functions return zero for the empty set, are non-negative, and are countably additive. For 10 points, name these functions that generalize the concepts of length, area, and volume and include one named for Lebesgue.

Banting

A family of funeral directors with this surname handled the deaths of both George III and George IV. One of those undertakers with this surname was inspired by William Harvey to forego consuming bread, sugar and beer. That same man with this surname wrote Letter on Corpulence, Addressed to the Public, which kicked off a low-carb diet craze in the 1860s so popular that the Swedish word for diet is still named for him. Another man with this surname assisted Wilbur Franks in inventing the G-suit but is best known for building on the work of Joseph von (*) Mering and Oskar Minkowski. That Canadian with this surname gave half of his Nobel prize winnings to his medical student, Charles H. Best, after the Nobel committee passed Best over in favor of J. J. R. Macleod in 1923. For 10 points, give the surname of the man who blocked the pancreatic duct of dogs in order to extract insulin.

oxygen [accept O]

A form of this element exists predominantly in a triplet state with two unpaired electrons in its pi star orbital. A dismutase is used to protect the body from radicals of this element. Carbon-carbon double bonds can be cleaved into two carbonyls by a triatomic form of this element. A highly reactive anion that contains two atoms of this element with a charge of "minus 1" is called "super-[this element]". A molecule of this element is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain. It reacts with a hydrocarbon to produce water vapor and carbon dioxide in combustion reactions. For 10 points, name this element with symbol O.

General Electric [or GE]

A longtime engineer at this company formulated a law about the frequency of leading digits in certain series of numbers now known as Benford's Law. Future Home Depot and 3M CEOs Robert Nardelli and James McNerney lost a contest to become CEO of this company in 2000. Its chairman, Owen Young, once defended its "House of Magic" research lab as "the balance sheet itself". This company achieved a duopoly under its first President, Charles A. (*) Coffin. The X-Ray tube was one of the inventions created at this company's lab in Schenectady, and it runs a celebrated manager training school in Crotonville, New York. In 1930, RCA was spun-off from this company. Until it was purchased by Comcast, NBC-Universal was owned by this company. An early research coup for this company was the tungsten-filament lamp. For 10 points, name this company which grew out of Thomas Edison's work on lightbulbs.

sodium [accept Na+]

A method for detecting halogens, nitrogen, and sulfur in organic compounds uses a sample of this element to convert them to their ionic forms, and is known as this element's fusion test. A solution of this element in ammonia generates a solution of electrons used to reduce benzene in the Birch reduction. Electrolysis of its chloride is used to generate its hydroxide in the Castner-Kellner process. It can be prepared from a molten solution of its chloride in a Downs cell. This element is a common contaminant in flame tests where it drowns out other elements due to its intense, yellow color. For 10 points, name this element whose chloride is table salt.

solid-state Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy [prompt on NMR before mentioned; anti-prompt on magic angle spinning or MAS NMR before mentioned]

A method to remove sidebands in this technique applies a series of 180 degree pulses prior to data collection and is called TOSS. Heteronuclear couplings can be measured using an application of this technique called SEDOR, though REDOR is much more commonly used today. One constant important to this technique is proportional to one over r-cubed times gamma-sub-s times gamma-sub-I, where gamma is the gyromagnetic ratio; that constant is the (*) dipolar coupling constant. Dipole-dipole interaction in this technique leads to broadened lines in spectra relative to those in a different technique where that interaction averages to zero. A variety of this technique orients the sample at an angle of three cosine squared theta minus one relative to the magnetic field. For 10 points, name this technique which often orients samples at 54.74 degrees in its magic angle spinning variety and which exhibits chemical shift anisotropy, unlike solution-phase NMR.

quartz

A microbalance built with crystals of this mineral is used to measure rates of thin film deposition. This mineral is the most resistant to weathering according to the Goldich dissolution series. Tridymite and cristobalite are polymorphs of this mineral. Amethyst and onyx are varieties of this mineral, which is found at the bottom of Bowen's reaction series. Massive pressures at sites like the Chicxulub crater have deformed this mineral into its "shocked" variety. Certain clocks rely on the piezoelectric properties of this mineral to keep time. For 10 points, name this mostly translucent mineral with empirical form SiO2.

Greenwich Observatory [or Royal Greenwich Observatory; or Royal Observatory, Greenwich; or RGO; prompt on Royal Society]

A mural arc was purchased for this institution by its first chairman, a man who worked tirelessly to destroy unauthorized early publications of his magnum opus, the Atlas Coelestis. One head of this institution, Nevil Maskelyne, repeatedly worked to deny prize money that should have gone to John Harrison. This institution published the Nautical Almanac in 1767. Thomas Tompion built two blocks for this institution's Christopher Wren-designed octagon room. In 1948, this institution moved to Hertmonceux in Sussex. John (*) Flamsteed was the first head of this institution. Since 1999, a green laser has shined out from its original headquarters. The French anarchist Martial Bourdin was killed when his bomb went off prematurely near this institution, an event which inspired Joseph Conrad's The Secret Agent. Charles II founded this institution to solve the Longitude problem. For 10 points, the Prime Meridian runs through which institution's building?

airbrushes [prompt on paint distributor before mentioned; do not accept "paint brush" or "spray paint can"]

A part inspired by a perfume puffer was included in the first device of this kind made by Frank E. Stanley. A pen-like device of this kind was manufactured by the DeVlibiss Company of London. The Paasche AB turbo is one of the most celebrated of these things, which are made in great numbers today by the Iwata Company. The Illinois Art School was founded in order to meet the demand in how to teach people to use the first mass-produced devices of this type made by the Walkup brothers. One of these things was used by Syd Brak to create Long Distance Kiss, which was hanging in a lot of dorm rooms in the 1980s. Roger Huyssan used one of these devices to create the (*) cover for Boston's album, 1976. An early one of these devices was Abner Peeler's paint distributor. These devices are often used to provide quick color by caricature artists at amusement parks. For 10 points, name these devices used to retouch analog photographs.

tides

A set of three PDEs that describe the behavior of these phenomena were derived by Laplace. When there is no net transfer of angular momentum between a body and its satellite, such that the same face of the satellite always faces the body, they are termed "locked" via this phenomenon. These phenomena have zero amplitude at amphidromic points. The volcanism of Io results from heating by forces of this phenomenon. When these phenomena form waves that travel up a river or bay they are termed bores. At their maxima they are known as "spring" and at their minima as "neap." For 10 points, name these phenomena, the rise and fall of the sea levels resulting from the gravity of the moon and sun.

RNA [or ribonucleic acid, accept specific types of RNA like mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, etc.]

A type of this molecule important in spermatogenesis interacts with piwi proteins. The cr and tracr ("tracer") varieties of this molecule are used to guide Cas9 in the CRISPR/Cas system. Isolating this molecule requires frequently spraying the lab bench with ethanol and a solution that "zaps" enzymes that degrade this molecule. A form of this molecule associates with a RISC complex to regulate gene expression. Hammerhead and peptidyl transferase are examples of this molecule that possess catalytic activity. This molecule is distinguished by the presence of a hydroxyl on carbon 2 of its sugar backbone in contrast to its deoxy form. For 10 points, name this type of nucleic acid found in "messenger" and "transfer" varieties.

Stuxnet [or Flame]

A video at Gabi Ashkenazi's retirement party bragged of his role in developing this thing, which shared some DNA with something called Tilded ("till-duhed"). The true purpose of this thing was first publicly identified by Ralph Langner. The Equation Group probably had a hand in creating this thing, as did Unit 8200. This thing was made harder to detect by coordinating it with (*) power surges which were masked to look like defective Turkish equipment. This thing was tested on a mock-up built at a Department of Energy building and was approved by Keith Alexander. PLCs manufactured by Siemens were particularly affected by this thing, which sped up some machines to run at 1,410 cycles per second. This thing targeted a facility at Natanz and was co-developed by Israel. It was probably spread by USB keys. For 10 points, name this cyberweapon targeting the Iranian nuclear program.

Robert Moog (rhymes with "vogue" although commonly pronounced to rhyme with "fugue") [or Bob Moog or Robert Arthur Moog]

After this man's death, his namesake company was taken over by Mike Adams. He was inspired to make his best known invention after meeting Herbert Deutsch at a Rochester convention. His devices were generally easier to use than similar ones made by Don Buchla. He was the first person to create a device with ADSR envelopes. While still a PhD student at Cornell, he sold thousands of fifty dollar Theremin kits. This man personally autographed the first 600 of the Voyager models he began selling in 2002; the Voyager had two modulation buses and 14 (*) voltage-control knobs. This man's first device allowed users to mess with patch cables in order to change the waveform. He sold one of his namesake inventions to Mickey Dolenz in 1967. This man's business went bonkers following the popularity of Wendy Carlos' "Switched on Bach". For 10 points, identify this namesake of a type of synthesizer.

join

Because multirelations form a bicategory, two variants of this operation that differ in whether they retain duplicate attributes are both possible category-theoretic pullbacks. In 1984, DeWitt et al. introduced a hybrid- hash algorithm for this operation that makes better use of main memory than the older GRACE-hash algorithm; both algorithms require an equi predicate. The sort-merge algorithm for this binary operation allows arbitrary theta-functions and has time complexity O(N log N + M log M). In Edgar Codd's (*) relational algebra, the natural form of this operation is denoted with a bow-tie symbol and can be implemented in terms of his primitives as a Rename followed by a Cartesian product, a Selection, and a Projection. The "inner" and "outer" variants of this operation differ in whether non-matching tuples are removed or filled out with nulls. For 10 points, name this operation that combines rows from two tables based on values in a shared column, found in languages like SQL.

Sony [or TTK; or Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo]

An engineer at this company demoed "dancing neon" at the 1933 Paris World's Fair. Engineers at this company once used a frying pan to distill oxalic ferrite which coated a material nicknamed "talking paper". One of its first products consisted of a wooden bucket attached to electrodes that did a very poor job cooking rice. Albert Cohen's Canadian company Gendis helped sell this company's first big hit in North America. In 2005, (*) Howard Stringer became the first foreigner to head this company. This company's TR-55 and TR-63 were some of the first commercially successful transistor radios. For much of its history, this company was controlled by Akio Morita. One successful product made by this company grew out of a failed partnership with Nintendo to produce a CD add-on for the SNES. For 10 points, name this consumer electronics company behind the PlayStation.

glycolysis

An enzyme in this pathway also occurs as an isoform in which it is attached to the enzyme, FBPase 2, which regulates of this pathway's rate. In this pathway, DHAP is processed by the catalytically perfect enzyme TIM once it is produced as a byproduct of the enzyme aldolase. The second step of this pathway is an isomerization that produces fructose 6 phosphate, and its first step is an ATP-dependent phosphorylation catalyzed by hexokinase. It can be divided into an investment phase and a payoff phase and has a net yield of 2 ATP molecules. For ten points, name this anaerobic pathway that converts glucose to pyruvate, the first step of cellular respiration.

sine

An equation named for this function applies the D'Alembertian to this function to yield soliton solutions and is derived from the KleinGordon equation. The wave functions for a particle in a box are all proportional to this function because it is zero at the boundaries of the box. This function is multiplied by i in De Moivre's theorem. The Taylor series for this trigonometric function has only odd powered terms. The index of refraction is multiplied by this function of the incident angle in Snell's law. For 10 points, name this trigonometric function, equal to the ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse.

Geiger counters [accept Geiger-Müller tubes in power; prompt on gaseous ionization detectors; prompt on ionization chambers]

An essential characteristic of these devices is the generation of multiple non-discrete Townsend avalanches that propagate along an anode wire. Those avalanches always generate pulses of the same magnitude, meaning that these devices cannot give information about energy. These devices are operated in a voltage range where the gradient of the ion current is flat, known as their "plateau." Variants of the principal component of these devices include pancake and windowless types. That principal component of these devices is a (*) gas-filled tube that was initially co-developed by Walther Müller. A disadvantage of these devices is their propensity for giving falsely low readings due to ionization events occurring during their dead time. An end-window tube is necessary to detect alpha particles and weak beta particles using these devices. For 10 points, name these survey instruments commonly used to detect levels of ionizing radiation and named for a German physicist.

stomach

An infection of this organ is identified by detecting the presence of a nickel-containing metalloenzyme through a urea breath test. Antagonism of this organ's H2 histamine receptors targets its enterochromaffin-like cells. This organ is the body's largest source of ghrelin. An absence of a protein made by this organ results in pernicious anemia; that protein aids in vitamin B12 absorption and is called intrinsic factor. This organ's chief cells secrete a zymogen that is activated specifically in acidic environment to yield active pepsin. Chyme is passed through the pyloric sphincter from this organ to the small intestine. For 10 points, name this organ that receives food from the esophagus.

mitochondria

Carnitine transports fatty acids into this organelle for beta oxidation. The malate-aspartate shuttle transports reducing equivalents of NADH into this organelle. Uncoupling agents like thermogenin interfere with a process that occurs in this organelle. Ubiquinone and cytochrome c are electron carriers found in its inner membrane. This organelle possesses its own ribosomes and replicates its own DNA because of its endosymbiotic origin. It has many folds called cristae and its interior is known as the matrix. For 10 points, name this organelle which generates most of the cell's ATP through the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain.

heart

Cells in this organ have spectrin-rich domains at the apex of folds in the plasma membrane in a structure called the transitional junction. Irregular function of this organ can be treated with Atenolol, which is a beta-blocker. Coupling between this organ's cells occurs through their intercalated discs. The Frank-Starling law can be used to describe the mechanical behavior of this organ. Depolarization in this organ is indicated by the QRS complex on readouts from EKGs. This organ's activity can be divided into the diastole and systole, during which it contracts. The aorta ascends from, for 10 points, which organ's left ventricle?

insulin

Cells that secrete this hormone contain a unique ATP-sensitive potassium channel with a SUR1 subunit. The effects of Growth hormone are exerted by stimulating production of a growth factor named after this other hormone. GIP and GLP1 are examples of incretins which stimulate its secretion. It is co-secreted with amylin and the C-peptide. This hormone stimulates glycogen synthesis and induces the translocation of GLUT4 channels to the cell membrane of muscle and fat cells, allowing for increased glucose uptake. For 10 points, name this hormone released by the beta cells of the pancreas that is responsible for lowering blood sugar whose deficiency leads to type I diabetes.

acetone

Chaim Weizmann developed a process that produces this molecule, butanol, and ethanol using a special strain of Clostridium. A Hock rearrangement occurs in one step of a process that produces this molecule and phenol from benzene, oxygen and propylene, known as the cumene process. This molecule is the lightest of the three products of a pathway invoked during fasting that also produces beta hydroxybutyrate. This molecule is found with sulfuric acid and chromium trioxide in a reagent used to oxidize primary alcohols to carboxylic acids, the Jones reagent. It is commonly used to clean laboratory glassware. For 10 points, name this simplest ketone used in nail polish remover.

X chromosome

Defects in the MCCS unit in this structure is connected with microphthalmia with linear skin defects. The Sherman paradox describes how a disease related to this structure seems to appear more commonly in later generations. An irregular representation of these structures leads to their namesake "mosaicism." Tsix [tee- six] is an antisense gene that that methylates the promoter of a gene that coats this structure. That latter gene is a "specific (*) transcript" partially named for this structure. In a disease associated with this structure, CGG repeats affect the FMR1 gene, which can potentially cause mental retardation. These structures can be packaged into the form of facultative heterochromatin in a process called lyonization. When these structures are inactivated, they can become Barr bodies, and intellectual disability is associated with its namesake "fragile" syndrome. For 10 points, name this sex chromosome that females contain two of but males only contain one of.

iron [or Fe]

Granules containing excessive amounts of this element in certain cells are known as Pappenheimer bodies and this element is chelated by siderophores. A gamma ray emitting isotope of this element with a molecular weight of 57 was used to verify the predictions of general relativity by Pound and Rebka. This element can be dumped into the ocean to induce algal blooms. This element is found between two cyclopentadiene ligands in the first "sandwich" metallocene complex ever synthesized. This element is generally purified from ores like magnetite and hematite. A deficiency of this element can lead to anemia. For 10 points, name this element found in hemoglobin, with symbol Fe.

Neptune

Edward Herrick, a librarian at Yale, suggested that this object be identified with one supposedly observed by Wartmann. Adolf Petersen and Sears Walker independently precovered this object in Lalande's Histoire céleste française, while the Lazzaroni network of American astronomer Benjamin Peirce argued that the discovery of this object was a "happy accident." Nicholas Kollerstrom argues that George (*) Airy took an unreasonable share of blame for the British loss in the race to confirm this object's existence. William Lassell discovered a satellite of this object just 17 days after Heinrich d'Arrest assisted in its discovery. The subject of two independent solutions to the inverse perturbation problem, name this celestial object about which Johann Galle wrote in 1846 to Urban Le Verrier "monsieur, the planet of which you indicated the position really exists."

variable stars [accept Cepheid variables or RR Lyrae before mentioned]

Examples of these objects found in the bottom-left corner of an HR diagram include DAV and ZZ Ceti. The transition between helium 1+ and 2+ drives the kappa mechanism, which powers the behavior of some of these objects. Henrietta Leavitt discovered one type of these stars and Harlow Shapley used another type to calculate the size of the Milky Way. Periodluminosity relations are commonly determined for these stars. Examples of them used as standard candles to calculate astronomic differences are RR Lyrae and Cepheids. Found on the instability strip of an HR diagram are, for 10 points, what stars whose luminosity undergoes changes?

epidemics [accept pandemics]

Grassberger developed a lattice model of these phenomena that uses critical exponents of 4/3 and 5/36 to characterize percolation transitions. Models of these phenomena describe two types of equilibria: DFEs and EEs, and their stability depends on whether R sub zero is greater or less than 1. Most models of these phenomena assume the removal rate, symbolized gamma, to be constant. A common model of these phenomena may be modified to append an "M" compartment and an "E" compartment. The (*) SIR model is the basic deterministic compartmental model of these phenomena, and studies of these phenomena often use a number that represents the ratio between expected secondary incidents and one primary incident. That is the basic reproduction number. Studies of these phenomena generally divide groups into susceptible, infective, and recovered individuals. For 10 points, identify these phenomena, which are widespread occurrences of infectious diseases.

camcorders [prompt on video camera or video recorder or digital camera]

Fairchild manufactured some of the first military-grade devices of this type, which were fired from a 150mm round in an airplane and then parachuted to the ground. The back of the gravestone of Sony president Iwama Kazuo contains a chip that the company most profitably used to manufacture these devices; that chip is a charge-coupling device. The bulkier predecessor of these devices required two separate units. The DCT format was developed by Ampex to make digital types of these devices more practical. Cisco's purchase of Pure Digital Technologies was largely due to a popular product of this type made by the company, sold under the brand name of (*) Flip. In 1992, Sharp released the first of these devices with a color LCD screen. For 10 points, name these devices, which combine both the video capture device and the storage device.

thin film solar cells [or photovoltaic cells]

Flexible varieties of these devices are made by depositing CIGS on a molybdenum backing. The maximum efficiency for these devices is given by the ShockleyQueisser limit, which can be overcome by using multiple junctions and ensuring the band gaps of the materials used range from largest to smallest. An important factor in determining the efficacy of these devices is ratio of maximum obtainable power to the the product of open circuit voltage and short circuit current, known as the fill factor. They are most often fabricated from polycrystalline silicon with large grain sizes. For 10 points, name these devices that convert sunlight into electrical energy.

differentiation [or taking a derivative, or deriving; accept partial differentiation]

For a topological manifold, this operation is said to be defined for all orders provided the existence of a smooth atlas with smooth transition maps. Functions that satisfy the CauchyRiemann equations can undergo a type of this process. For multivariable functions, taking this operation with respect to one variable is commutative under Schwartz' theorem and is called the "partial" form of this operation. For single variable functions, taking this operation at a point provides the slope of the tangent line at that point. For 10 points, identify this mathematical operation whose inverse is integration.

boron

Brain tumors can be treated using a form of neutron capture therapy that utilizes one of this element's isotopes referred to as its "enriched" version. One atom of this element is present in an acid that is typically encountered adjoined to diethyl ether. It is theorized that the "wurtzite" modification of this element's nitride may exceed the hardness of diamond. The "styx number" is a method to aid in counting electrons in bonds involving this element. An acid containing one atom of this element is (*) coupled with aryl- or vinyl-halides in a reaction that is catalyzed by palladium. A compound consisting of this element and three hydrogens is added to an alkene as part of a two-part process that creates alcohols in an anti-Markovnikov manner. This element's hydride can take on closo-, nido-, and arachno- configurations. This element can only bond with six electrons, thereby violating the octet rule. For 10 points, identify this element with atomic number five.

bagels [note: Wikipedia helpfully explains that "The quality of a bagel may be evaluated by considering the experience it provides as it is eaten and its nutritional content."]

In 1962, there was something like an 85% drop in the nation's supply of this food after the Local 338 went on strike. A machine for mass-producing this food was patented by Daniel Thompson in 1960. It's not a drink, but Sisters Arum, Dawoon and Soo Kang appeared on an episode of Shark Tank hawking their restricted-use dating app partially named for this food. Like the (*) pretzel and the croissant, this food was allegedly invented during the 1683 Ottoman siege of Vienna. Frozen ones were sold by Harry Lender. One variant of this food is boiled in honey-infused water and then roasted in a wood-fired oven and is named for the city of Montreal. The water of New York City is allegedly the secret ingredient in authentic varieties of this food. For 10 points, name this food, a Jewish staple often served with lox.

screensavers [prompt on games; prompt on computer games]

In 1998, a site devoted to South Park-themed things of this type could be found at members.aol.com/ikillkenny. An expansion to a popular collection of these things called "More After Dark" featured "Boris, the lovable kitten". The estate of Irving Berlin weighed in on a lawsuit involving fair use in a parody of one of these things which used a character created by cartoonist Berkeley Breathed ("Breth-Ed"). That case, Berkeley Systems v. Delrina, established that (*) software wasn't afforded the same parody protections as literature. These programs lend their name to a program once hosted by Leo Laporte on TechTV. Popular examples of these things included a maze-solving routine included with Windows 95 and "Flying Toasters". For 10 points, name these programs which prevented monitor burn-in.

koalas [accept Phascolarctos cinereus or P. cinereus before mentioned]

In 2013, a research team led by Peter Timms mapped this animal's genome and sequenced the "holy grail" of its immune system, interferon gamma. Gilbert Price studied fossils of these animals to prove that they did not descend from, but rather lived contemporaneously with, a related "giant" species that went extinct at the end of the Pleistocene epoch. These animals are currently suffering from a massive outbreak of chlamydia, which causes an infection called "dirty tail". They're not gibbons, but 100 percent of the northern population of these animals is infected with a namesake endogenous (*) retrovirus. The male of this animal possesses velar vocal folds that enable it to produce bellows at anomalously low frequencies for its size. Phascolarctos cinereus is the species name of this animal, which has a seven foot long caecum that enables it to digest its sole food source. For 10 points, name these marsupials that sleep about 20 hours a day and eat eucalyptus leaves.

Arrhenius equation

In Marcus theory one term in this equation is replaced by the difference of the delta G of inner sphere electron transfer and the delta G of outer sphere electron transfer. One quantity in this equation is equal to the product of the steric factor and collision frequency. One modification of this equation, which uses the term "Boltzmann's constant times temperature divided by Planck's constant" as a replacement for this equation's pre-exponential factor, is named for Eyring. It states that the rate constant is proportional to the exponential of the negative of the activation energy divided by the ideal gas constant and temperature. For 10 points, name this equation which can be used to calculate the dependence of a reaction rate on temperature.

diesel engine [or compression-ignition engine; or CI engine] <1>

In a book titled Solidarism, the inventor of this device called for workers to run factories. The inventor of this device, despite having been kicked out of France in 1870, built the first prototypes at Paris' Linde ice factory and mysteriously disappeared from the deck of the Dresden on his way to England in 1913. Charles Kettering helped develop one of these for the Pioneer Zephyr. These devices often have (*) glowplugs to deal with cold weather and rely on adiabatic compression. The Detroit Series 71 is one of these devices. They were described in the 1892 text, Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor and based on principles outlined by Nicolas Carnot. For 10 points, name this type of internal combustion engine found in emissions-cheating Volkswagen.

cryogenic refrigeration [or cryogenics; or cryocooling; prompt on "cooling"]

In a three-stage method for this technique developed by Lounasmaa, the second stage contains a hexagonally symmetric alloy of praseodymium and nickel that has a very small Korringa constant and exhibits hyperfine enhanced van Vleck paramagnetism. The Kapitza boundary resistance limits the effectiveness of one kind of this technique that features a "superleak" membrane and exploits the 6.6 percent minimum solubility of (*) helium-3 in helium-4. Single-orifice pulse tubes allow for another kind of this technique that may alternatively use the Gifford-McMahon or Hampson-Linde regenerative cycles. The most powerful kind of this technique, adiabatic nuclear demagnetization, is based on the magnetocaloric effect. For 10 points, name this technique that enables the creation of extremely low temperatures.

Y2K Bug [or the new millennium bug; or January 1st, 2000; or equivalents

In an episode of the short-lived Dilbert cartoon about this event, Dilbert has to deal with Black Betty. In the aftermath of this event, one character pretends that he was the piano savant from Shine. Dale starts panicking after his pet gerbil destroys his stuff in a King of the Hill episode about this event. Following this event, Springfield's Sit 'n' Rotate restaurant shoots off into space, and Homer and Bart realize their spaceship with (*) Tom Arnold on it is being shot into the sun. In real life, approximately three hundred billion dollars was spent preparing for this event. Following this event, a Florida man was charged $91,250 by Super Video Rentals. A successor to this event may take place on January 19th, 2038 due to the use of a signed 32-bit integer in Unix systems. For 10 points, name this largely non-event that passed without a lot of computers incorrectly thinking it was 1900.

John McAfee [or John David McAfee]

In an interview with Psychology Today, this man described The Secret of the Yamas, Into the Heart of Truth and the three other books he'd written on pseudo-Eastern philosophy as "all trash". Working with Allison Adonizio, this man tabled work on an herbal antibiotic to research a female aphrodisiac. This defendant in a wrongful death lawsuit stemming from an aerotrekking accident had his location revealed to authorities when a (*) Vice photographer failed to remove the geotag from a picture of him. Dean Barrow, Prime Minister of Belize, called this potential murderer of neighbor Gregory Viant Faull "extremely paranoid, even bonkers". He pledged to lead a team of hackers to break the encryption on the San Bernadino iPhone as part of his bid to earn the Libertarian nomination for President. This man's namesake company is now part of the Intel Security Group. For 10 points, this founder and namesake of the first commercial antivirus program.

surface tension [accept surface energy or interfacial tension]

In certain regions, the natural log of the actual vapor pressure divided by saturation vapor pressure is directly proportional to "two times the molar volume times this quantity" in the Kelvin equation. Young's equation can be used to calculate this quantity by measuring the contact angle. The value of this quantity is equal to the derivative of Gibbs free energy with respect to area. Sodium dodecyl sulfate belongs to a class of substances that lowers this quantity, known as detergents. For 10 points, name this cohesive quantity describes how liquid droplets hold together at an air interface.

vesicle fusion [accept equivalents; prompt on exocytosis]

In comatose mutants of Drosophila, a protein necessary for this specific process is malformed. That ATPase, which can be inactivated by N-ethylmaleimide, is called NSF. Before this specific process begins, Rab effectors help recruit its participants, and they are dephosphorylated and recycled once it is complete. Depending on its conformation, complexin is either an inhibitor or promoter of this process. A superfamily of proteins that facilitate this process includes syntaxin and (*) VAMP; during this process, two members of that superfamily form a four alpha-helix bundle in a process called "zippering." James Rothman won the Nobel Prize for his investigation of this process. v- and t-SNAREs connect to begin this process, whose "kiss-and-run" type does not require clathrins for recapture. For 10 points, name this process preceded by docking, in which a vesicle releases its contents by merging with the cell membrane.

Oliver Sacks

In one late work by this author, he declared, "Above all, I have been a sentient being, a thinking animal, on this beautiful planet, and that in itself has been an enormous privilege". Photographs of him swimming in Iceland taken by his partner Bill Hayes are included in his collection, Gratitude. He wrote of a music teacher who, "Magoo-like might pat the heads of parking meters, taking these to be heads of children". In a Times editorial, he described how "Now I am face to face with (*) dying this particular sort of cancer cannot be halted". One of his books is about giving L-DOPA to survivors of the 1920s sleeping sickness epidemic and was adapted into a Robin Williams film. In one of his case studies, Dr. P tries to lift the head off of his spouse to put it on his own head. For 10 points, name this recently deceased neurologist, the author of "The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat" and Awakenings.

electronegativity

In organophosphorus chemistry, a series of values known as the Kabachnik parameters can be used to calculate this quantity. A form of this quantity can be calculated from the effective charge squared divided by the covalent radius, while another form is the average of the energies of the valence electrons of an atom. Differences in it cause trifluoroacetic acid to be much more acidic than acetic acid due to an inductive effect. It was predicted to be the average of ionization energy and electron affinity by Mulliken. Fluorine possesses the highest value of it at 3.98. For 10 points, name this ability of an atom to attract electrons.

Boltzmann transport equation

In quantum field theory, this equation is generalized by the Kadanoff-Baym equations. Deviations from ideality are commonly represented by the Shan-Chen pseudopotential in lattice methods for solving this equation under the BGK approximation. First-order perturbative expansion of this equation in terms of the Knudsen number produces the Navier-Stokes equations via the Chapman-Enskog method. In Gouy-Chapman theory, this equation is used to calculate the local density of counter-ions and then substituted into the (*) Poisson equation. This equation sets the action of the Liouville operator equal to that of the collision operator. For 10 points, name this central equation of non-equilibrium statistical mechanics that describes the evolution of a system's particle distribution function and directly implies its namesake physicist's H-theorem.

Q-tip [accept cotton swab before the end; accept Baby Gays before mentioned]

In the 1950s, Hollywood insider Ern Westmore wrote a "Lesson in Loveliness" about these things. Writing for Wonkblog, Roberto A. Ferdman claimed that these products were "the most bizarre thing people buy". These "medical devices" were invented by Leo Gerstenzang, who had observed his wife making one from a toothpick. Gerstenzang's boric-acid coated product was, unlike modern ones, only single sided. In 2008, this product was labeled an "inappropriate or harmful invention" by the America Academy of (*) Otolaryngology. They were once called Baby Gays. After suffering a bout of OCD, Hannah Horvath has to go the hospital because she hears "air hiss out of the hole" when improperly using one of these products on Girls. The manufacturer of this product conspicuously doesn't reference its popular use on ears on its website. For 10 points, name this brand of cotton swab.

cross product

In the Frenet-Serret formulas, the binormal vector can be obtained by performing this operation on T and N. The seventh dimension is the only other dimension than the third in which this operation returns a meaningful result. The Lorentz force is equal to the charge times this function of the velocity and magnetic field. The magnitude of this operation applied to "a" and "b" is equal to the magnitude of "a" times that of "b" times the sine of the angle between them. For 10 points, name this operation which, when performed on two vectors gives a third vector which is perpendicular to both.

paper

In the Middle Ages, the most basic operation to make this good had a vatman handing materials back and forth to a coucher. An eight-fold increase in the efficiency of producing this material was achieved through the use of the Hollander beater. The Maya made this stuff from amate. The Kraft process for making this good largely did away with the need for (*) rag men. Until the 19th century, Europeans wrongly believed that the Arabic variety of this substance was made from cotton. The Italian "milk mountains" got their name from the large amount of this material made in Amalfi. Hand-made varieties of this material have a deckle edge. This 3rd of the Great Inventions allegedly spread to the Islamic world thanks to Chinese prisoners obtained from the Battle of Talas. Early producers of this material would use wires to create brands called watermarks. For 10 points, name this writing material now largely made from trees.

dopamine

Ingestion of MPTP induces the symptoms of a disease caused by a deficiency of this compound. Receptors for this compound are used by the striatum and basal ganglia to perform action selection. This compound is shuttled from the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens via the mesolimbic pathway. The precursor to this catecholamine is synthesized from L-Tyrosine and is used to treat a degenerative disorder which occurs due to deterioration of the substantia nigra and whose patients suffer from tremors or shuffling gaits. For 10 points, name this neurotransmitter that is part of the reward pathway and whose deficiency can cause Parkinson's disease.

adrenal glands

It's not in the brain, but this structure secretes a hormone which is combined with cocaine to produce a mixture used in ENT surgery known as Moffett's solution. Excess secretion of a hormone produced in this structure leads to high blood pressure and is known as Conn's syndrome. The reninangiotensin pathway ultimately results in secretion of aldosterone from this structure. One disease of these structures, stemming from a deficiency in CRH or ACTH, leads to a deficiency in cortisol and is known as Addison's disease. A hormone produced by this structure induces the fight-or-flight response. For 10 points, name these glands that produce adrenaline and are found on top of the kidneys.

Prodigy

Jim Carpenter has reverse engineered this service's client. Preservationists have resurrected parts of this service with local STAGE.DAT files, once thought to be the source of spyware. It's not Teletext or Videotex, but graphics in this service were drawn using an object-oriented variant of NAPLPS rather than a pixel-by-pixel approach. The "classic" variety of this service was closed in 1999 on a bullshit Y2K bug justification. Russ Brown recreated this service's MadMaze game. At one point, users of this service were charged 25 cents for each e-mail they sent after exceeding a 30 e-mail limit. This service briefly charged an hourly rate for its popular message boards, whose posts had to be individually approved by censors. ESPN's first online content was published on this service. In 1990, this service was second in subscriber numbers to CompuServe, and it was eventually overtaken by AOL. For 15 points, name this early online service.

Crispr-Cas9 [or Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats]

Katrine Bosley is the CEO of Editas, a company founded to leverage this technology. Bill Gates is funding Intellia, another company founded to take advantage of it. Early work on this technology was done at Danisco by Philippe Horvath and Rodolphe Barrangou while figuring out how to improve the efficiency of making (*) yogurt. Eric Lander wrote a controversial paper on the "heroes" of this technology that did not disclose his conflict of interest. It's not coffee, by a company called Caribou is using this technology to fulfill a mushroom contract with DuPont. Feng Zhang paid $70 to expedite his patent application for this technology, which may ultimately prove decisive in a lawsuit against Jennifer Doudna, another possible inventor who is backed by Berkeley. Cpf1 is one nuclease which can be used in this technology, which along with RNA cuts and guides a new sequence into the genome. For 10 points, name this gene editing technology.

halogens [or group 17 or group 7A]

Ketones can be converted to carboxylic acids by reacting them with sodium hydroxide and elements from this group of the periodic table. An element in this group yields two peaks of equal height separated by two mass units in mass spectrometry. Mercury and an element from this group are the only two elements liquid at STP and every element in this group is diatomic at STP. They have the highest electron affinity, and one of their members is the most electronegative element. Elements in this group acquire one additional electron to fill their p orbitals and form "minus 1" ions. For 10 points, name this group of elements that includes bromine and fluorine.

gradient descent [or steepest descent, accept SGD]

Kingma et al. introduced a variant of this algorithm that adds estimates of biased and corrected first and second moments. Schaul et al. introduced an adaptive variant of it that requires a good estimate of the Hessian, while SMORMS3 is a simpler hybrid of that variant and RMSProp, a version of this algorithm introduced in an oft- cited lecture slide by Geoffrey Hinton. Hogwild! is a lock-free implementation of an asynchronous version of this algorithm, while Nesterov and Rumelhart et al. each introduced variants that use momentum. (*) Stochastic approaches to this algorithm perform each step with a small sample or minibatch from a dataset and form the basis for optimization of deep neural networks. For 10 points, Adam and AdaGrad are variants of what simplest first -order optimization algorithm, which finds a local minimum for a function by taking steps proportional to and in the direction of highest negative slope?

airplane black box [or flight data recorder; or FDR; or CVR; accept cockpit voice recorder before "audio" is mentioned]

Krishna M. Kavi argued that these things should be replaced with a "glass" alternative stored in the cloud and powered by Ku-band technology. The largest manufacturer of these devices, Florida's L-3, assures buyers that theirs are C121b compliant. Some of the first of these devices were named HB for co-inventors Francois Hussenot and Paul Beaudouin and used photographic film as a medium. Later devices of this type were called the Red Egg. In the 1960s, the Australian government became the first to mandate the use of these things. Variables collected by these devices might include the (*) DC bus status. EUROCAE ED-112 requires that they be heat resistant up to 1,000 degrees Celsius. Many of these devices can send ultrasound signals for 30 days. They're often colored orange. For 10 points, name these devices which might capture cockpit audio and are designed to survive plane crashes.

Robert Hooke

Lisa Jardine, the director of the Centre for Editing Lives and Letters, helped recover and place online a long-lost folio of the works of this scientist. Henry Oldenburg, the Secretary of the Royal Society, tried to write this man out of history and may have leaked the details of an escapement he made for pocket watches. This man built up a fortune while serving as the Surveyor of London under Christopher Wren following the Great Fire. He's not Cardan, Hardy or Spicer, but a device that allows a rod to bend in all directions is sometimes called this man's (*) joint. He found the fifth star in Orion's Trapezium and postulated the phenomenon of diffraction. This man constructed an air pump for Robert Boyle. He published detailed drawings of corks and snowflakes in his Micrographia and was a bitter rival of Isaac Newton. For 10 points, identify this namesake of a spring law.

X chromosome

Luke Hutchinson noticed that the inheritance patterns of these structures follows the Fibonacci sequence. Lyonization inactivates these structures by wrapping them in a long, noncoding RNA called Xist. Abnormally long dendritic spines, macro-orchidism, and a narrow face with protruding ears characterize a defect in these structures, which is responsible for the majority of inherited cases of mental retardation. That disorder occurs when this structure is "fragile." Having an excess of these is known as Klinefelter's syndrome, and having too few of these characterizes Turner's syndrome. For 10 points, name this chromosome, two of which are found in biological females.

airline industry [or airline reservations; prompt on travel industry]

Martin Campbell-Kelly's history of the software industry is titled for beginning at this industry and ending with Sonic the Hedgehog. Roy Nutt, an employee in this industry, was loaned to IBM and worked with John Backus to become the first corporate user of FORTRAN. Bob Crandall, a powerful executive in this industry, admitted to Congress that his company's SABRE program did indeed favor his own company over competitors. A company in this industry bought a Trainer, Pennsylvania (*) oil refinery in 2012. Computerized systems replaced the inefficient "availability board" and Magnetronic Reservisor used by this industry. For a long time, intrastate companies in this industry such as Muse and L'Express were not regulated. The CAB stopped regulating "legacy" companies in this industry in 1978, giving rise to more hub-and-spoke routes. For 10 points, name this industry, now dominated by companies such as Delta and American.

salinity [accept equivalents, such as salt concentration or the amount of salt dissolved in water]

McDougall et al. developed a global algorithm to estimate this quantity's "absolute" form, which is used with the TEOS-10 standard. It's not refractive index, but handheld devices for measuring this quantity are often calibrated using a specific gravity reference value of 1.0264. Gradients in temperature and this quantity drive the Meridional Overturning Circulation. This quantity's "practical" form has a typical value of thirty-five and is defined as the ratio of the (*) conductivity of a given sample to that of a reference solution of potassium chloride. This quantity increases dramatically when traveling from the tidal limit of a river to the mouth of an estuary. For 10 points, identify this quantity that remains constant along isohaline lines and measures the concentration of dissolved ions in seawater.

electron density [prompt on density until "electron"]

Meta-GGA approaches include the Laplacian of this quantity in addition to its gradient, and functions of it obtained using those approaches include M06 and TPSS. One definition of this quantity sets it equal to eight pi over three times Planck's constant cubed, all multiplied by the cube of the Fermi momentum. The total kinetic energy of a system is proportional to the integral of this quantity to the five-thirds power in the (*) Thomas- Fermi model. The LDA approximation assumes that the exchange and correlation energy depend only on the value of this quantity at each point in space. Hybrid functions of this quantity, such as B3LYP, can be obtained by including Hartree-Fock exchange. The first Hohenberg-Kohn theorem states that the external potential of a system is a unique functional of this quantity. For 10 points, name this quantity that is used instead of the wavefunction in DFT calculations to quantify the probability of finding an electron in a particular location.

chirality

Mosher's acid is used to determine this property for certain alcohols and amines using fluorine-19 NMR. Cyclodextrin is used to separate molecules with this property in a form of chromatography. Meso compounds do not exhibit this property. Molecules with this property are labeled R or S in the CahnIngoldPrelog system. Glycine is the only amino acid which lacks this property. Molecules that possesses this property have mirror images known as enantiomers. For 10 points, name this property that describes molecules which can not be superimposed on their mirror images.

oxidation

N-oxoammonium salt species are used to catalyze reactions of this type in either the stoichiometric or catalytic mode. TEMPO and BAIB are among the compounds used to perform such a reaction. A reagent that is used to perform this kind of reaction on wastewater consists of hydrogen peroxide and ferrous iron. That is Fenton's reagent. One notably non-toxic reaction of this type reacts oxalyl acetate with (*) DMSO to form an intermediate that is attacked by an alcohol. Potassium permanganate is a commonly used reagent for performing this type of reaction. Another example of this type of reaction uses chromium trioxide to turn alcohols into either carboxylic acids or ketones. Examples of this kind of reaction include ones named for Swern and Jones, and these reactions occur in the anodes of electrodes. For 10 points, name this type of reaction that results in a loss of electrons, unlike a reduction.

pi

Nei and Lin used this letter used to represent the nucleotide diversity in a population. This letter names a theorem that describes how an equation with n variables, in k dimensions can be rewritten in terms of n-minus-k parameters. A quantity denoted by this letter is equal to the pressure needed to prevent water movement across a semipermeable membrane. Huckel's rule states that a cyclic system with "4n plus 2" electrons in these orbitals is aromatic. Double bonds in alkenes consist of a sigma bond and a bond denoted by his letter. For 10 points, name this letter which is used to symbolize a constant equal to the ratio of a circle's circumference to diameter.

cobalt

Nitrile hydratases with this metal in their active site are distinguished by the presence of a VCTLC amino acid sequence. This metal is the lowest-atomic-number element subject to the "oxo wall" predicted by ligand field theory, as it cannot attain a low enough d-electron count to form pi bonds with an oxygen atom. The trivalent cation of this metal lies between vanadium 3+ and manganese 4+ in the fixed-ligand spectrochemical series, leading to large d-orbital splittings and low-spin states for its octahedral complexes. In this metal's 2+ oxidation state, it has a (*) d7 electron configuration. In humans, cofactors containing this metal have either an adenosyl or a methyl group axially bound to them, though in foods and supplements a cyano group is usually bound instead. The standard source for Mössbauer spectroscopy is an isotope of this metal that decays to iron-57. For 10 points, name this metal that is the central atom in vitamin B12 and lies between iron and nickel on the periodic table.

red

On galaxy color magnitude diagrams, a sequence of this color is found above the cloud and valley regions. Gas and dust particles between stars cause the extinction of electromagnetic radiation in a process named for this color. Stars of spectral class M are this color. Betelgeuse and Antares are supergiants of this color. It's not brown, but dwarves of this color are the most common type of star in the Milky Way. After leaving the main sequence, stars enter a branch named for this color before emitting a planetary nebula and becoming white dwarfs. For 10 points, name this color which also describes a kind of giant, luminous star the sun will eventually become.

entropy

One equation for calculating this quantity is only valid when the volume divided by the particle number times the thermal wavelength cubed is greater than 1 and is named for Sackur and Tetrode. For a gas undergoing a temperature change this quantity is equal to the number of moles, times the heat capacity, times the natural log of final temperature over initial. This quantity is equal to the amount of heat added to a system divided by the system's temperature. It is also equal to Boltzmann's constant times the natural log of the number of microstates. This quantity is always increasing for an isolated system according to the second law of thermodynamics. For 10 points, name this quantity, a measure of the disorder of a system.

stress [accept specific types]

One form of this quantity equals density times the product of the mean and fluctuating components of the flow velocity, and this quantity appears as a consequence of applying Reynolds averaging to the Navier-Stokes equations. Another form of this quantity equals one over four pi times the sum of three terms: the dyadic product of the E-field with itself, the dyadic product of the H-field with itself, and negative one-half times quantity, E squared plus H squared, close quantity, times the unit dyad. The divergence of that form of this quantity gives the (*) momentum flux density of an electromagnetic field. Bingham plastics behave like fluids at high values of this quantity. Representations of this quantity include the Lame ellipsoid as well as the Piola-Kirchhoff and Cauchy tensors. The von Mises criterion sets yield strength equal to the scalar tensile value of this quantity. For 10 points, name this quantity that appears in the numerator of Young's modulus.

action [prompt on "S"; accept specific examples, e.g. Einstein-Hilbert action]

One form of this quantity may be modified to account for the effects of torsion via addition of the Nieh-Yan term. Another form of this quantity is defined such that the area of a worldsheet has the property of Lorentz invariance. This quantity equals the tautological one-form of the Hamiltonian flow on a cotangent bundle. In general relativity, this quantity is proportional to the spacetime integral of the product of scalar curvature and the (*) square root of the negative determinant of the metric tensor. This quantity's derivative with respect to the generalized coordinates is zero by Hamilton's principle. In the path integral formalism, the weight of a trajectory is given by the exponential of this quantity times i over h-bar. For 10 points, name this quantity that equals the time integral of the Lagrangian

size exclusion chromatography [or gel permeation chromatography; or gel filtration chromatography; or molecular sieve chromatography; prompt on "(column) chromatography"]

One form of this technique uses calibration curves that rely on the Himmel-Squire method to determine the approximate spherical equivalents of random coils. Hayashi, Matsui, and Takagi developed another form of this technique that incorporates static LS, UV, and RI detectors as well as ASTRA multi-angle laser light scattering software. Fitting the data measured with this technique to the Mark-Houwink-Sakurada equation enables the calculation of polymer (*) molecular weights from intrinsic viscosities. Sephadex and Sephacryl are common matrices for this technique, which may use thyroglobulin or dextran blue as markers for calibrating the void volume. This technique can separate monomers from oligomers and folded from unfolded proteins because they have different hydrodynamic radii. For 10 points, name this type of chromatography in which larger molecules pass more slowly than smaller ones through a column of porous beads.

Louis Braille

One invention of this man was mechanized with a piston board built by Pierre Foucault. P. Armand Dufau favored a rival to this man's invention named for the city of Boston. This man's best known creation was widely adopted 26 years after his death at the Universal Exposition of 1878. As a child, this son of a saddler injured himself playing with an awl. This man's best known invention was promoted by his schoolmaster, Alexandre-Rene Pignier. Charles Barbier refused to accept this person's ideas on how to make his (Barbier's) night (*) writing system more efficient. In response to critics, this man developed a system called raphigraphy which was comprehensible to everyone. He removed the hard to distinguish dashes from his best known system. A system invented by this man can be written to at high-speeds by an NV Interpoint 55 embosser. For 10 points, name this man who invented a tactile system that the blind can use to read.

spins

One of these functions is associated with each edge of a type of directed graph for which edges correspond to irreducible representations of a compact Lie group and vertices correspond to equivariant maps of adjacent edge representations. The simplest renormalization group transformation consists of replacing a set of these functions with a single "block" function. In loop quantum gravity, Hilbert space is constructed from the set of equivalence classes of (*) "networks" of these functions. The negative of the sum of the dot products of one of these functions with each of its nearest neighbors, times the coupling constant of the exchange interaction, minus the product of this function and the external magnetic field at a particular lattice site, gives the Hamiltonian in the Heisenberg model. These functions are assigned values of either one or negative one in the Ising model. For 10 points, name this type of function that represents an atom's intrinsic angular momentum.

alkynes [do not accept "alkanes" or "alkenes"]

One of these molecules, an alkene, and carbon monoxide react to form a cyclopentenone in the Pauson-Khand reaction. Only terminal, not internal, examples of these molecules display C-H stretches in IR spectroscopy. Hydroboration or oxymercuration of these molecules results in an enol that tautomerizes to an aldehyde or ketone. The cyclization of these molecules with an azide is a widely-applied click reaction. Terminal forms of these molecules have a pKa of 25. Lindlar's catalyst can reduce them to cis-alkenes. The simplest example of this class of molecule is acetylene, or ethyne. For 10 points, name this class of molecules containing a carbon-carbon triple bond.

solar cells [or photovoltaic cells]

One type of these devices is subject to the Staebler-Wronski effect. C.H. Henry developed a graphical method for analyzing the theoretical performance of another type of these devices against the AM1.5 standard. Brian O'Regan and Michael Grätzel invented the dye-sensitized type of these devices, which may alternatively make use of materials like cadmium telluride and copper indium gallium diselenide. Multiple (*) exciton generation enables nanocrystal varieties of these devices to exceed the Shockley-Queisser limit on their efficiency in the single- junction case. Polycrystalline silicon is the most common material used to make these devices, which operate in the fourth quadrant of an I-V diagram and produce electron-hole pairs by absorbing photons. For 10 points, name these devices that generate electrical power from sunlight.

vortices [or a vortex; accept "fluxons" before "Lamb-Oseen model," but do not accept or prompt thereafter]

One type of these phenomena is subject to Onsager-Feynman quantization and is the product of a phase discontinuity between the "zero" and "pi" regions of a long Josephson junction. In another type of these phenomena, the B-field is proportional to a zeroth-order Bessel function of the quotient of radial distance and London penetration depth. The Lamb-Oseen model describes dissipative effects in these phenomena, which can produce oscillations with frequency proportional to the (*) Strouhal number. Type II superconductors exhibit a magnetic variety of these phenomena named for Abrikosov. For 10 points, Helmholtz's theorems apply to fluid flows in the vicinity of what phenomena, which can form a von Kármán street and are characterized by a namesake quantity equal to the curl of the velocity field?

spin [prompt on angular momentum]

Particles that interact similarly with the strong force but have different charges are said to have different values of the "iso-" form of this quantity. A set of three complex, unitary matrices used to calculate it are named for Wolfgang Pauli. Ortho and parahydrogen are isomers that differ in this quantity. Bosons have integer values for this quantity while fermions have fractional values. It existence was first confirmed by firing silver atoms through a magnetic field in the Stern-Gerlach experiment. It is represented by either +½ or -½ in the fourth or, magnetic quantum number. For 10 points, name this quantity, a form of intrinsic angular momentum.

WordPerfect [accept LetterPerfect before mentioned]

People getting tech support for this product could chat with "hold jockeys" who would give them traffic reports. This software was originally developed on contract for the city of Orem, Utah by two BYU guys who would go on to found Satellite Software International. Power users of this software might press Alt + F3 to open up a second screen to see its Reveal Codes. The PTR language was used by hardware manufacturers to write printer drivers for this product. One publisher of this software sued Microsoft for using "secret APIs" to make its competing software run better on 32-bt machines. A lightweight version of this software replaced part of its name with (*) "Letter". Today, this software is bundled with Quattro Pro, a spreadsheet program, and saves to the .wpd file format. The seventh version of this software lets you edit PDFs and supports the competing .docx format. For 10 points, name this early word processing software.

stop lights [or traffic signals; or traffic lights]

Physician John A. Harriss personally financed the first permanent one of these things in New York City. Hans Monderman successfully experimented with removing these things. A fondness for Ireland led Syracuse, New York to invert the common design for these devices well into the 1960s. Salt Lake City police officer Lester F. Wire may have invented these things, with a prototype adapted from a birdhouse. The architect Joseph H. Freedlander designed cast-bronze examples for the (*) Fifth Avenue Association in New York. Unlike modern examples of these things, the prototype of one designed by Cleveland hair-straightening entrepreneur Garrett Morgan had words printed on it; Morgan is often celebrated during Black History Month. In the 1920s, these devices made redundant some fifty-five hundred New York City police officers. For 10 points, name these safety devices which automatically regulate traffic flow at intersections.

passenger pigeons [or wild pigeon; or Ectopistes migratorius; prompt on pigeon]

Pike County, Ohio sheriff Henry Clay Carnes may have framed a boy named Press Clay Southworth in an incident involving one of these things named Buttons in 1900. These things are the "flagships" of Stewart Brand's Revive & Restore project. A monument to these things that blames "The Avarice and Thoughtlessness of Man" was erected in 1947 in Wyalusing State Park in Wisconsin. An 1857 resolution by the Ohio state senate, which the Ohio Historical Society ranked as the fifth most embarrassing thing to happen in Ohio, states that these things "[need] no (*) protection no ordinary destruction can lessen them". David Mrazek's documentary From Billions to None chronicles these things, as does Joel Greeneberg's book, A Feathered River Across the Sky. They feasted on acorns and beechnuts. Males of this species had a slate-blue color. The last one, Martha, died in the Cincinnati Zoo. For 10 points, name this once ubiquitous American bird.

Aluminum [accept Al]

Raney nickel contains an alloy of nickel and this element. An atom of this element bonded to four hydrogen atoms and accompanied by a lithium counterion forms a very strong reducing agent. This element's trichloride is used as a Lewis acid in the first step of the Friedel-Crafts reaction. This element typically forms 3+ ions by losing 1 electron from its 3-p orbital and 2 electrons from its 3-s orbital. It is found along with sodium and fluorine in cryolite. This element is purified in the Bayer process by smelting the ore bauxite. For 10 points, name this metal from which most kitchen foil is made.

Irving Langmuir [accept Langmuir states, Lewis-Langmuir equation, Langmuir-Blodgett trough, Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism, or Langmuir wave]

This scientist names a set of quantum states that correspond classically to an isosceles triangle configuration of the orbits of two electrons and the nucleus of a helium atom. Garner, Meek, and Patrick added correction terms to an equation for calculating atomic charge that this scientist co-names with Lewis. This scientist is the second alphabetical namesake of an apparatus used to deposit amphiphilic thin films on solid substrates, as well as a process in which two molecules (*) adsorb onto neighboring sites of a heterogeneous catalyst. In addition to proposing that reaction mechanism along with Hinshelwood, this scientist developed a model that is equivalent to the biological Hill equation and is extended to multiple layers by the BET isotherm. For 10 points, what scientist is the namesake of a type of plasma oscillation with higher frequency than an Alfvén wave?

long-term potentiation [or LTP; do not accept or prompt on "long-term depression"]

This state only corresponds to input rates beyond the threshold theta-sub-m in both the CLO and BCM theories. One way to establish this state is the phosphorylation of the stargazin-PSD-95 complex, which immobilizes a receptor critical for this state. CaMKII-mediated phosphorylation of GluR1 helps maintain this state by increasing that receptor's conductance. The "local protein synthesis" hypothesis supplanted the "synaptic tagging" hypothesis for the establishment of the (*) "late phase" of this state, facilitated by CREB. Receptors important to establishing this state often respond to glutamate released by the tips of Schaffer collaterals. This state is established when depolarization activates NMDA receptors, thus promoting the creation of more AMPA receptors and dendritic spines. For 10 points, name this type of neuroplasticity, a persistent increase in the strength of the synapse between two neurons that is thought to be the molecular basis of memory.

Andes

Two animals native to this mountain range are crossbred to create the huarizo. Customers often pick out their meals from a group of cages designed to look like a castle at a type of restaurant popular in this mountain range, the cuyeria [KWEE-eria]. A species of bird named for this mountain range is tied to the back of a bull during the Yawar festival. That bird from this mountain range has a distinctive ring of puffy white feathers around its neck. This range is home to the last remaining species of short-faced bear, its namesake (*) spectacled bear. This mountain range is the breeding ground for most species of New World flamingo. The wingspan of an endangered bird of prey from this mountain range is slightly shorter than that of its closest living r elative, the California condor. For 10 points, name this mountain range where the guinea pig is considered a delicacy and whose ancient peoples domesticated the alpaca and the llama.

gamma ray bursts [accept gamma radiation/particles, prompt on abbreviations like GRB with the letter G in them, prompt on photons]

Unlike the other Markarian galaxies, Markarian 501 is especially notable for its visibility in one part of this regime, which is utilized by the Fermi and INTEGRAL satellites. The first space-borne telescope in this regime was aboard Explorer 11. The Crab Nebula is especially bright in the higher-energy region of this part of the spectrum, which was studied by the Compton Observatory's EGRET telescope. A class of emissions of this type first discovered by the Vela satellites leaves a characteristic lower-energy afterglow, according to the fireball model of those emissions. Magnetars might be the source of this kind of radiation's namesake soft repeaters. The brightest events in the universe are "bursts" of this radiation. For 10 points, name these electromagnetic rays with higher energy than x-rays

pluripotent stem cells [accept word forms like pluripotency]

Vitamin C and valproic acid are examples of [emphasize] "small molecules" that are included in high-efficiency protocols for inducing this property. Flow cytometry tests look for SSEA-1 as a marker for this property, and NANOG is a gene that is key to maintaining this property. OCT4, SOX2, KLF4, and c-MYC were discovered to be four highly-expressed transcription factors associated with this property. Those transcription factors are now named for the (*) Japanese biologist who made that discovery. Yamanaka and John Gurdon won the Nobel Prize for Medicine for developing a method that can "reprogram" a mature cell to have this property. A type of cell that possesses this property is notably derived from the inner mass cell of the blastocyst. This property for a cell means that, aside from the placenta, it can form any tissue in the human body. For 10 points, identify this property possessed by embryonic cells that is distinct from "multipotent" and "totipotent."

Bose-Einstein condensates [or BECs; prompt on "Bose gases" or anything mentioning "bosons"]

When these systems incorporate only repulsive interactions, their phonon spectra do not exhibit an energy gap by the Hugenholtz-Pines theorem. An equation describing these systems has a one-dimensional soliton solution with value proportional to the hyperbolic tangent of "one over radical two times displacement over healing length". That equation describing these systems includes a coupling constant equal to "four pi times h-bar squared times scattering length over mass" and introduces a (*) nonlinear pseudopotential term into the Schrödinger equation under the Hartree-Fock approximation. In the dilute regime, the single particle wavefunction for one of these systems is given by the Gross-Pitaevskii equation. For 10 points, name this exotic form of matter consisting of supercooled atoms with integer spin that occupy the same quantum state.

rigid rotor [or rigid rotator]

n a less constrained version of this system, the distortion constant D equals four times B cubed over omega squared. Energy levels in this system are split by 2 times B, where B equals Planck's constant over the quantity eight pi squared c times I. Molecules are classified as spherical, symmetric, or asymmetric variants of this system in microwave spectroscopy, as this system generally absorbs light in the microwave region. Spectra containing P and R branches can be analyzed by allowing for (*) vibrations to be coupled to the motion described by this system; those branches correspond to the delta J equals plus or minus one selection rule for this system. The wavefunction for this system equals a normalized complex exponential times an associated Legendre polynomial. For 10 points, name this quantum mechanical model with a wavefunction fully described by spherical harmonics, which treats a diatomic molecule as having a fixed bond length and only rotational motion.

amines

Sodium cyanoborohydride can be used to reductively replace carbonyls with this functional group. Fully substituted versions of this functional group can be eliminated to give the non-Zaitsev product in the Hoffman elimination. Primary versions of this functional group give two sharp peaks at 3300 - 3500 inverse centimeters in IR. These compounds can be prepared from alkyl halides by treatment with potassium phthalimide in the Gabriel synthesis. Aniline consists of benzene bonded to this functional group. This functional group can be reacted with carboxylic acids to yield amides. For 10 points each, name this functional group characterized by the presence of a nitrogen atom bonded to three other atoms.

planetary nebulae [or PNe; prompt on "(emission) nebulae"; do not accept "protoplanetary nebulae"]

Some of these objects evolve too slowly to ever become bright enough for observation, which Alvio Renzini dubbed their "lazy" variety. Majaess et al. made a precise calculation of the distance to one of these objects named PHR 1315-1655 by showing that it is part of the open cluster Andrews-Lindsay 1. Microstructures in these objects include supersonic jets with point or major-axis symmetry, respectively called BRETs and (*) FLIERs. These objects exhibit a strong emission line at 500.7 nanometers due to a forbidden transition of doubly ionized oxygen. For a Sun-like star, the evolutionary stage named for these objects has a duration on the order of tens of thousands of years and occurs in between the asymptotic giant branch and white dwarf stages. For 10 points, name this type of nebula that consists of the ionized outer layers of a red giant and has a misleading name.

sewing machine [or industrial sewing machine]

The Brehmer and Smyth companies made devices of this type for the publishing industry. Bartheleémy Thimmonier, who used these devices to fulfill a large order from the French army, was almost killed by a mob angry that these things were taking their jobs. David Hounshell claims that "the first important patent pooling arrangement in American history" was for these devices and involved firms such as Grover & Baker and Wheeler & Wilson. Industrial ones often have a walking foot. These machines increased the demand for printed paper (*) patterns. Elias Howe arguably invented these devices. These machines were improved by placing a hole in the point rather than the eye of the needle. For 10 points, name these devices manufactured by Isaac Singer's company that sped up the making of clothes.

electronic voting machines [or computerized voting machines]

The Brennan Center for Justice recently found that some of these things use PCMCIA storage cards with a maximum capacity of 512 KB that cost $100 each to replace. In 2006, Princeton professor Ed Felten developed a proof-of-concept virus targeting these things. Some of these things are required to provide a VVPAT. Some four billion dollars were allocated for these devices in 2002, and the EAC was set up to standardize them. They're not routers, but ones made by AVS used the insecure WEP network protocol and had hardcoded passwords such as "admin". Eroding glue on these devices can commonly lead to (*) "flipping". Half of these devices owned by California run an OS no newer than XP, in part because a lot were bought immediately after November, 2000. A 2006 Simon Ardizzone documentary alleged that some of these devices had been deliberately rigged by Diebold. For 10 points, name these devices, analog examples of which might produce hanging chads.

classification [accept more specific answers, like binary classification or multiclass classification]

The Matthews correlation coefficient is used to evaluate the results of this task, which has informedness and markedness as chance-correct unidirectional components. Kernel density approximation using adaptive bandwidths is a common approach to this task. The theoretical basis for some methods of performing this task is to find a maximum-margin hyperplane, or a perceptron. Linear discriminant analysis, or LDA, is useful for doing (*) dimension reduction for the purpose of this task. One variant of this task employs either one vs. rest or one vs. one strategies. The success of this task is often evaluated using an F1-score, which is the harmonic mean of precision and recall. Designing a spam filter is a classic application of the naïve Bayesian method of this task, and the binary version of this task may be performed with a logistic regression. For 10 points, name this supervised statistical learning method in which one tries to determine what subset an observation belongs to.

Salmonella poisoning [or Salmonellosis; or Salmonella outbreak; prompt on food poisoning]

The National Health Service's first public inquiry into how a hospital was run occurred following this thing happening in the 1980s at Stanley Royd Hospital. In that same decade, followers of cult leader Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh intentionally caused this to happen in order to keep rural Oregonians from voting in a local election. The cause of this thing was first observed by Karl Eberth in the lymph nodes of a person who had died from typhoid. The four-inch law governing (*) turtle sales was passed to prevent this disease from spreading. Stewart Parnell was sentenced to 28 years in prison for knowingly shipping a product contaminated with this disease while serving as the owner for the Peanut Corporation of America. The bacterium that causes this disease often spreads through feces. For 10 points, name this type of food poisoning commonly contracted from badly prepared poultry and eggs.

Speak & Spell

The TMS5100 chip was developed for use in the first of these devices. A Dallas radio DJ named Robert Phillips was hired to provide content for these devices. These devices had no moving parts, unlike an earlier similar device from Mattel named for a character called Cathy. The "Super" version of this device replaced the VFD screen with an LCD and replaced its alphabetical keyboard with a QWERTY layout. Cartridges for these devices were sold with titles such as Magnificent (*) Modifiers, Super Stumpers, and Mighty Verbs. This toy was the brainchild of Paul Breedlove at Texas Instruments. Variants of these devices might help you "read" or do "math". One of these devices could be enhanced with the E.T. Fantasy Module, appropriate since one of these things was used by E.T. to phone home. For 10 points, name this educational toy that said a word and asked you to type it in.

asteroids [accept meteoroids before "David J. Tholen"]

The Yarkovsky effect describes the force imparted on these objects by the anisotropic emission of thermal photons. David J. Tholen developed a method of classifying these objects into C-, S- or X-types based on their spectral features. Regions that lack these objects due to the orbital resonance of Jupiter are known as Kirkwood gaps. Some examples of these objects located at the L4 and L5 Lagrange points are known as Trojans. Notably large examples of these objects include Pallas and Vesta. For ten points, name these objects, many of which are found between Mars and Jupiter in their namesake belt.

electrons

The anomalous magnetic moment of this particle was calculated by Julian Schwinger to be equal to the fine structure constant divided by 2 pi. The characteristic blue glow of underwater nuclear reactors occurs when these particles travel faster the speed of light in the Cherenkov effect. A beam striking a rotating nickel target was used to confirm the wave nature of these particles by Davisson and Germer. These particles are emitted when the energy of beam of light exceeds the work function of a metal in the photoelectric effect. The atomic number increases by one when an antineutrino and one of these is emitted in beta-minus decay. For 10 points, name these negatively charged particles that occupy orbitals surrounding a nucleus.

rheumatoid arthritis [or RA; do not accept or prompt on osteoarthritis; prompt on partial answer]

The anti-CCP test and anti-MCV assay are methods of finding an antibody associated with this disease, and the PTPN22 gene can double a person's risk of getting this disease. The classification criteria for diagnosing this disease includes determining the prevalence of anti-citrullinated protein antibody, or ACPA. DMARDs are drugs which can be used to slow the progress of this disease. This disease is characterized by the presence of autoantibodies that are antibodies against the Fc regions of IgG. Those autoantibodies are this disease's namesake factor. This disease is associated with thickening of the (*) synovial membrane. This disease can be distinguished from a similar disease because it causes periods of stiffness that are typically longer than an hour. And unlike that other disease, the affected areas can turn hot and red and are actually inflamed instead of merely swollen. For 10 points, name this disease that causes inflammation of joints and is distinct from a similar "osteo-" disease.

methanol

The bacterium M. capsulatus can produce this compound from its primary substrate via a diiron-containing oxidoreductase called MMO. Oxidation of this [emphasize] non-aldehyde produces a powerful inhibitor of cytochrome c oxidase that also binds strongly to tetrahydrofolate. This compound's dehydrogenation can be slowed by fomepizole, which competitively inhibits the enzyme (*) ADH. The hydrolysis of pectin by pectinesterase produces polygalacturonate and this compound, explaining why elevated levels of this compound are detected after fruit consumption. Vitamin B3 is often administered to mitigate the metabolism of this compound to formate; otherwise, formic acid buildup causes acidosis, inhibits nerve cell respiration, and causes blindness in this compound's namesake "toxicity." For 10 points, name this poisonous compound that is oxidized to produce formaldehyde and is the simplest alcohol, having formula CH3OH.

screws [or bolts]

The brothers Job and William Wyatt couldn't capitalize on the machine they invented which reduced the time it took to make these things from minutes to just seven seconds. A British standard for these things was introduced by Joseph Whitworth, with Whitworth's products being the first mass produced standardized items of any type made for the British Navy. A massive one of these things for use in a dividing engine was produced with an innovative new (*) lathe developed by Henry Maudslay. A Windsor, Ontario Model T factory was the first big user of a type of these things which remain popular in Canada designed by Peter Robertson. Some of these things are more prone to cause cam outs than others. A cruciform design was incorporated into the heads of these things by traveling salesman Henry F. Phillips. For 10 points, name these threaded alternatives to nails.

histone acetylation

The circadian regulator CLOCK appears to perform this enzymatic process, and shows homology to the MYST family, which also has this function. This is not tumor suppression, but SV40 T antigen inactivates a protein complex with this function called p3000/CBP. In yeast, the SAGA complex and Gcn5 perform this action, which is enhanced by Trichostatin A or sodium butyrate in vivo. This action increases binding affinity with a 110- residue loop of alpha helices called a (*) bromodomain, and can remove the positive charge of a lysine residue. HDACs reverse this action, which usually modifies the N-terminal lysines of H3 and H4 histones. By reducing the strength of DNA-histone interactions, this action makes chromatin more transcriptionally active. For 10 points, name this post-translational modification of histones by HATs, which adds to amino acids a functional group often bound to coenzyme A.

Macintosh [or Mac]

The company that made this system generally refused to market games for it, although Steve Capps' Through the Looking Glass was an exception. The CEO of the company which made this system wanted to call it the "Bicycle". The original idea for this system came from the author of Computers by the Millions, Jef Raskin. A lot of the software for this system was written by Andy Hertzfeld, whose game Puzzle was the first ever included on an OS. Susan Kare designed the icons and fonts for this system. John C. Dvorak complained that "there is no evidence that people want to use these things" when referring to this system's then-novel inclusion of a (*) mouse. This system was released a year after the Lisa. Anya Major runs with a sledgehammer in hand in a Ridley Scott-directed ad for this system that aired during the 1984 Super Bowl. For 10 points, name this personal computer by Apple, still the partial namesake of its laptops.

Rutherford scattering

The cross section for this process is proportional to "the co-secant of theta divided by two to the fourth power". Mott scattering is the equivalent of this process in electrons. One person who discovered this process went on to develop a device that detects ionizing radiation with clicking sounds. Ernest Marsden and Hans Geiger discovered this phenomenon via an experiment in which roughly 1 of every 8000 particles fired was deflected at an angle greater than 90 degrees. This experiment disproved JJ Thomson's plum pudding model and lead to the development of the Bohr model of the atom. For 10 points, name this type of scattering discovered when alpha particles were fired at a gold foil.

hotspots [prompt on "mantle plumes"]

The distribution spectrum of these features has peaks at harmonic degrees 2 and 6 that are strongly correlated with the long-wavelength residual geoid. These features are used as a reference frame for calculating true polar wander, and they contain unusually high ratios of helium-3 to helium-4. According to one hypothesis, these features may form at the site of impact events that penetrate the oceanic crust, while in another hypothesis, they are the result of lithospheric extension leading to the passive upwelling of fertile melt. These features create namesake (*) "tracks" that may contain kimberlite fields. W. Jason Morgan proposed the most widely accepted theory of their formation, in which flood basalts and these features represent the heads and tails of mantle plumes, respectively. For 10 points, name these geologic features located far from tectonic plate boundaries that underlie volcanic chains like the Hawaiian Islands.

imine [prompt on "Schiff base" before mention]

The formation of one of one of these compounds is the initial mechanism of the Ugi reaction, after which it is reacted with an isocyanide and a carboxylic acid. The aza modification of the Diels-Alder reaction reacts this functional group with a diene to get a tetrahydropyridine. This functional group is the intermediate in reductive amination, in which it is usually reduced using sodium cyanoborohydride. Alkenes can be reacted with (*) hydrazoic acid to synthesize these compounds in one reaction, and they can also be created by reacting aldehydes or ketones with ammonia. These compounds share a tautomer relation with enamines, and these compounds are synthesized via the Schmidt reaction. When one of this functional group is connected to an aryl or alkyl bond, it is known as a Schiff base. These compounds can be hydrolyzed to form an amine and a carbonyl. For 10 points, name this functional group which contains a carbon double bonded to a nitrogen

density

The gradient of this quantity is greatest below a pycnocline. This quantity times the derivative of pressure with respect to this quantity gives the bulk modulus. Incompressible fluids have a constant value of it. For liquid water this quantity is maximized at 4 degrees Celsius. Every term in the Bernoulli equation except for the pressure is multiplied by this quantity. The pressure at the bottom of a pool is equal to the depth, times gravity, times this quantity. The ratio of this quantity for a given substance to that of water is the specific gravity. For 10 points, name this quantity, the ratio of mass to volume.

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb

The increase in resistance of tunnel junctions at low temperatures is known as this man's "blockade". His namesake operator, written J sub j, appears as a component of the Fock operator. His gauge sets the curl of the magnetic vector potential equal to zero. For a nuclear reaction to occur, nuclei must overcome a barrier named for him. One over 4 pi times the permittivity of free space is equal to a constant named for this man. That constant, symbolized k, multiplies the product of the two charges, divided by the distance squared, to give the electrostatic force in an equation also named for him. For 10 points, name this French physicist who names the unit of charge, symbolized C.

solar flares

The most energetic variety of these phenomena does not occur in regions with box-counting fractal dimension less than 1.25. Monica Bobra and Sebastien Couvidat developed a machine learning algorithm to analyze the world's largest data set of these phenomena, and they are the subject of the HTCS and Heyvaerts-Priest-Rust models. These phenomena generate supra-arcade downflows and Moreton waves. Each of these phenomena is classified with one of five letters: A, B, C, M or (*) X. The Neupert effect is the observed correlation between the hard X-ray flux of these phenomena and the derivative of their soft X-ray flux. The RHESSI mission observes these phenomena, instances of which were responsible for the Carrington and Bastille Day events. For 10 points, name these phenomena that are often followed by coronal mass ejections and release lots of energy from the Sun's atmosphere.

translation

The nonstandard amino acid hypusine is found in a protein that initiates this process. It begins with the identification of a Kozak sequence in eukaryotes or a Shine-Dalgarno sequence in prokaryotes. Thermostable and thermo unstable elongation factors hydrolyze GTP during this process. Antibiotics like tetracycline or erythromycin inhibit this process. Inosine can be used for wobble base-pairing during it. In this process the ribosome translocates between E, P and A sites as the ribozyme peptidyl transferase catalyzes peptide bond formation. For 10 points, name this process in which a protein is assembled from an mRNA transcript.

thyroid

The pendrin ion channel is found in this organ. A selenocysteine-containing peroxidase helps regulate the secretion of a hormone from this gland. That tyrosine-based hormone from this gland is produced from MIT and DIT precursors. Cretinism is a result of its underactivity. Another secretion of this gland, which opposes the actions of PTH in maintaining calcium homeostasis, is calcitonin. Autoimmune diseases of this gland are named after Graves and Hashimoto. It consists primarily of a colloid surrounded by follicular cells. Goiters in this gland are the result of an iodine deficiency. For 10 points, name this butterfly-shaped endocrine gland in the neck.

qubits

The phase space for these objects is the simplest possible example of a four-point non-commutative phase space. In a Haskell API for these objects, they are the most primitive instance of a typeclass that defines make, measure, conditional, and let methods, and they are wrapped by the QIO monad. In 2009, Monz et al. realized a Toffoli gate over these objects, which allows universality when coupled with any nontrivial gate that uses one of them. A computation that uses an auxiliary one of these objects, called an ancilla, is (*) unitary if it returns the ancilla to its original state. The first step when using these objects, as in Deutsch's algorithm, is often to apply the Hadamard transformation, which takes N of these in their base states into a linear combination of 2 to the N orthogonal states by rotating the Bloch sphere by pi radians. Shor's algorithm is competitive with about 600 of these objects. For 10 points, name these units of information in quantum computing.

vision [or sight or other equivalents]

The portion of the cortex that processes this sense displays distinct blobs when stained for cytochrome oxidase. This sense is relayed by the LGN of the thalamus. Different features of this sense are processed separately by magno and parvocellular neurons. This sense is carried by the second cranial nerve, which decussates at its namesake chiasm. Receptors for this sense hyperpolarize when cGMP-gated channels are closed by the isomerization of rhodopsin. Problems with this sense can occur in glaucoma and cataracts. This sense is detected by the rods and cones of the retina. For 10 points, name this sense that relies on your eyes.

resistance [or R]

The power spectral density of Johnson-Nyquist noise is equal to four times Boltzmann's constant, times temperature, times this quantity. The Quantum Hall effect can be used to calculate the quantum of this quantity, known as the von Klitzing constant. The product of this quantity and capacitance has units of time. The inverse of this quantity is measured in units of Siemens. This quantity can be calculated as the product of a constant called rho and the length of a material divided by its cross sectional area. The product of this quantity and current gives the voltage according to Ohm's law. For 10 points, name this quantity, measured in ohms, which quantifies how difficult it is for current to pass through a circuit.

actin

The proteins villin and supervillin bind this proteins. Listeria moves through cells by forming so-called rockets of this protein to propel itself. Cytochalasin and blocks its polymerization while phalloidin prevents its depolymerization. Nebulin binds monomers of this protein in the sarcomere. This protein forms the cleavage furrow that leads to cytokinesis. In muscle cells, binding of calcium to troponin moves tropomyosin allowing myosin to bind this protein. This protein's monomeric globular form can polymerize to form its filamentous polymer form. For 10 points, name this protein that comprises microfilaments.

acceleration [accept linear acceleration or angular acceleration, prompt on a]

The recoil force on a moving charged particle, known as the AbrahamLorentz force, is proportional to the derivative of this quantity. The power emitted by a non relativistic point charge is proportional to charge squared times this quantity squared divided by the speed of light cubed. Torque can be written as the moment of inertia times one form of this quantity. That angular form of this quantity is equal to its tangential form divided by the radius. The derivative of this quantity is known as the jerk. At the surface of the earth, this quantity is equal to 9.8 meters per second squared. For 10 points, name this quantity equal to the rate of change of velocity.

solvation [or dissolution]

The relative strengths of the driving mechanisms of this process may be determined using a triangular Teas graph. A parameter characterizing this process may be calculated via the Wodak-Janin approximation or the Shrake-Rupley algorithm. Empirical models of this process include the Abraham and Eisenberg-McLachlan equations. The influence of this process on the kinetic isotope effect is quantified by the Kresge-Gross-Butler equation. EEF1 and COSMO are implicit models of this process, which occurs at a rate dependent on the (*) accessible surface area. This process' Gibbs free energy is proportional to "one over vacuum permittivity minus one over relative permittivity" in the generalized Born model, which does not take into account the effect of polar molecules forming this process' namesake "shells" around central ions. For 10 points, name this process that occurs at a lower rate than precipitation above the saturation concentration of the solute.

particle accelerators [anti-prompt on "synchrotrons" or "storage rings"]

The stability of one type of these devices is analyzed using a necktie diagram. Another type of these devices is subject to the Touschek effect. The Keil-Schnell stability criterion and Robinson damping criterion are design constraints for these devices, which may incorporate Chasman-Green, DBA, or FODO lattices. The Courant- Snyder invariant is a constant of motion that depends on these devices' Twiss parameters, which characterize an ellipse in phase space with area equal to pi times (*) emittance. Chromaticity correction is a technique for reducing the frequency spread of these devices' betatron oscillations. These devices use quadrupole magnets for strong beam focusing and produce synchrotron radiation if they are circular in shape. For 10 points, name these devices exemplified by SLAC and the Large Hadron Collider.

FIRST Robotics [or For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology

The theme of this organization's inaugural year in 1992 was "maize craze" and, mysteriously, involved a two-inch thick coating of corn. A more recent event run by this organization represented litter with pool noodles. Woodle Flowers, a co-founder of this organization, is a big proponent of the concept of "gracious professionalism". In one of this organization's events, up to four thousand dollars can be spent supplementing the standard Kit of Parts. An event it runs often starts with a 15 second (*) autonomous phase where joysticks don't work. One of the co-founders of this non-profit developed the AutoSyringe and hyped up his "IT" device which disappointingly turned out to be the Segway. A toy company's Mindstorms are used for its LEGO League. For 10 points, name this organization which runs a namesake high school robotics competition.

Young's modulus

The work of fracture is directly proportional to the stress intensity factor squared divided by this quantity. When Hooke's law is generalized to three dimensions, each of the three xx, yy and zz vectors is divided by this quantity. This quantity is multiplied by the moment of inertia in the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation to give the beam stiffness. This quantity is no longer constant after the limit of proportionality, and is defined as the ratio of stress to strain in a material. For 10 points, name this quantity describing the stiffness of a material, named for the creator of the double-slit experiment.

stacks

These data structures are utilized by Graham scan algorithm for finding the convex hull of a set of points in O(n log n) ("big O of n-log-n") time. Backtracking algorithms like depth-first search utilize these data structures. They can be implemented as a singly-linked list with a pointer to the first element. In these structures the most recently added elements are also the first removed, so they operate in a last-in first-out format. Infinite recursion can lead to their "overflow". For 10 points, name this data structure that is a collection of elements from which elements can be "pushed" and "popped."

knots [accept links before mentioned]

These objects are the subject of the Tait flyping conjecture proven by Thistlethwaite and Menasco. Properties of these objects include the Thurston-Bennequin number, which equals writhe minus cusp number. These objects are the boundaries of Seifert surfaces. The Gordon-Luecke theorem states that two of these objects are equivalent if their complements are homeomorphic. One of these objects named for Fintushel and Stern unusually has seven exceptional slopes, so named because they produce non-hyperbolic (*) 3-manifolds under Dehn surgery. The Jones and Alexander polynomials are examples of these objects' namesake invariants. These objects can be manipulated via the Reidemeister moves. Embedding a circle in three-dimensional Euclidean space produces one of these objects, which are generalized to higher dimensions by links. For 10 points, name these mathematical objects that include the trefoil, the figure eight, and the pretzel.

Robert Burns Woodward

This chemist names a reaction in which alkenes react with iodine, followed with nucleophilic displacement with acetate in the presence of water. That reaction achieves the opposite result of the Prevost reaction because it creates syn diols as opposed to anti-diols and is this chemist's namesake cis-hydroxylation. This chemist is the first namesake of a system that makes important distinctions between antarafacial and suprafacial topologies. With Albert Eschenmoser, this chemist famously demonstrated the total synthesis of (*) vitamin B12. The legendary synthesis of strychnine is also a part of this chemist's pioneering work on demonstrating the total syntheses of many different compounds, for which he would win the Nobel Prize. This chemist is the alphabetically latter namesake of a set of rules for predicting barrier heights for pericyclic reactions. For 10 points, identify this chemist who co-names a set of rules with Hoffmann.

Zenefits

This company's founder poached engineer Laks Srini from the Mike Sha-led portfolio management company he split from. The current CEO of this company was a producer for the film Thank You for Smoking and had previously made a lot of money when Microsoft purchased Yammer. This company's early investor, physician Bob Kocher, helped connect it with healthcare companies. This company was founded by Parker Conrad after he was annoyed at how hard it was to get his other company, SigFig, up and running. This rival of Gusto has a logo which is an origami bird. A Businessweek cover story described how this company "Self-Disrupted". Employees at this company were supposedly given a Chrome (*) macro that automated having to sit through 52 hours of training to become insurance brokers in California. For 10 points, name this HR startup.

helium [accept He]

This element is the final product of the triple alpha process. Temperatures below zero-point-three Kelvin can be achieved by exploiting the heat of mixing of two isotopes of this element in a dilution fridge. One form of this element can creep up the walls of the container it is held in to form a Rollin film. The diatomic form of this element with a charge of plus-one can exist hypothetically with a bond order of one half. It was first observed as a bright yellow emission line at 587 nanometers coming from the chromosphere of the sun. Below the lambda point, this element exhibits superfluid behavior. An alpha particle consists of the nuclei of this element. For 10 points, name this second lightest element.

human neurocranium [prompt on "skull" until mentioned; antiprompt on "occipital" bone; antiprompt on "calvaria" or "skullcap" until "petrous"]

This feature contains the highest, superior, and inferior nuchal lines. One bone in this feature contains a pyramid-shaped "petrous part" that is among the densest in the body. To measure the length of this feature, one sets its most anterior point to be a depression called the glabella. One bone in this structure features a ridge called the crista galli and may contain a small amount of vestigial magnetite. Soft regions of this structure that disappear after early development are known as (*) fontanelles. The foramen magnum is a large hole in this structure, whose synarthrotic fibrous joints are known as "sutures." This feature includes the ethmoid, temporal, parietal, and occipital bones, and inside its namesake "vault" lies features like the dura mater, the corpus callosum, and the hippocampus. For 10 points, name this domed part of the human skull that encases the brain.

binary

This is the most general type of ordered tree on which one would perform a tree rotation. Building a frequency-sorted tree denoted by this term from the bottom-up is how Huffman codes work. Red-black and AVL trees are self-balancing examples of the search trees denoted by this term, which have their nodes ordered from least on the left to largest on the right. A logarithmic time search that repeatedly partitions a sorted array in half is the search denoted by this term. A signed representation such as ones's complement is used for this type of number. For 10 points, what type of number system is used by computers?

gamma

This is the third and final letter that appears in the nickname of a landmark paper on Big Bang nucleosynthesis published by Ralph Alpher, George Gamow and Hans Bethe. This letter also represents the ratio of the magnetic momentum of a particle to its angular momentum, known as the gyromagnetic ratio. The adiabatic index, which is equal to the ratio of the constant pressure and constant volume heat capacities, is given this letter. This letter also represents a quantity widely used in time dilation and length contraction calculations, known as the Lorentz factor. Radiation of this type consists of a high energy photons. For 10 points, name this third Greek letter after alpha and beta.

Claude Shannon

This juggling enthusiast for some reason built a manikin in the form of W. C. Fields that, you guessed it, could juggle. His PhD on "An Algebra for Theoretical Genetics" was delayed by his poor marks in German. This inventor of a rocket-powered Frisbee made a rare appearance in 1985 when Solomon Golomb accepted his namesake award. He named one of his inventions the Thorbac, which stands for "Thrifty Roman Numeral Backward Computer". Under the guidance of Amos Joel, this man's MIT master's thesis revived a system invented by George Boole and was hailed as the "Magna Carta of the communications age" after being published in the 1948 edition of the Bell System Technical Journal. This man's Boston residence was known as (*) Entropy House, a nod to the namesake type of entropy he formulated. For 10 points, name this inventor of the bit and "father of information theory".

Sir Humphry Davy

This man moved to Thomas Beddoes' lab in Bristol after reading Lavoisier's Traité Elémentaire de Chimie. One of this man's inventions improved on a device made by William Reid Clanny and on one invented by railway pioneer George Stephenson. This "reasonably competent poet" edited the second edition of Lyrical Ballads. This woodcarver's son worked with Michael Faraday to create a device whose ventilation tubes helped prevent disasters similar to the 1812 conflagration at the Felling (*) Colliery which killed 92 people. He earned a Royal Institution invitation for discovering a compound that caused him to feel a sensation "highly pleasurable in every limb". One wag quipped that "He lived in the odium / Of having discovered sodium". This man discovered laughing gas and invented the first practical miner's safety lamp. For 10 points, name this scientist who discovered chlorine.

Michael Faraday

This man names an effect in which the polarization of a light wave rotates in response to a magnetic field in the direction of propagation. An apparatus used to catch charged particles in a vacuum is known as his "cup". An equation named for this scientist states that the EMF is equal to the negative rate of change of magnetic flux and is applied in his namesake law of induction. A constant named for this man, equal to the product of elementary charge and Avogadro's number, is equal to the amount of charge carried by a mole of electrons and is applied in electrolysis calculations. For 10 points, name this scientist who names the SI unit of capacitance.

Paul Allen [or Paul Gardner Allen]

This man's namesake effect couldn't save his investment in '90s Google Glass progenitor Virtual Vision. This man put up three hundred million dollars to fund a research company that developed Purple Moon, a failed social network for young girls. This man used the patents from his failed think tank, Interval, to sue AOL, Google and others in 2010. This "Accidental Zillionaire" has funded the Living Computer Museum and a group which released the unpopular Vulcan FlipStart netbook. Oren Etzioni heads this man's Institute for Artificial Intelligence. A museum he funded has a monorail that runs through it and was designed by Frank Gehry. This backer of the (*) Experience Music Project put up the funding for SpaceShipOne, which won the Ansari X Prize. He owns the Trail Blazers and the Seahawks. For 10 points, name this co-founder of Microsoft.

Vitamin C [accept ascorbic acid]

This molecule is produced from D-glucose in the Reichstein process. It's not folate, but the reduced form of this molecule has a enediol which is oxidized to a diketone. This vitamin is produced in some organisms by the enzyme L-gluconolactone oxidase, which is not found in humans. This vitamin is used as a cofactor by an enzyme that produces norepinephrine from dopamine. This vitamin is used by hydroxylase enzymes that act on the lysine and proline residues in collagen, which is why a deficiency of this vitamin leads to a condition characterized by a poor fibrosis and gum bleeding. For 10 points, name this vitamin that prevents scurvy and is found in citrus fruits.

dimension

This quantity for a group representation is the character evaluated at the identity element. The rank and nullity of a linear transformation sum to this quantity. It is given by the trace of an identity matrix. When this quantity is finite, two vector spaces with the same value of it are isomorphic. This is the size of a basis, or the maximum number of linearly independent vectors. This quantity is denoted by n when talking about the Euclidean space "R n", and is the precise number of coordinates needed to specify a point. For 10 points, identify this quantity which is three for a cube and two for a square.

area [accept surface area]

This quantity is equal to the "number of lattice points, plus half the number of boundary points, minus one," according to Pick's theorem. Given a set of points n, this quantity can be calculated by constructing an "n plus one by two" matrix with the shoelace theorem. Gabriel's horn has an infinite amount for this quantity. For a cyclic quadrilateral, this quantity can be calculated with Brahmagupta's theorem. The semiperimeter is used to calculate it for a triangle according to Heron's formula. An integral is equivalent to finding this quantity under a curve. For 10 points, name this quantity, which for a triangle is one half base times height.

dielectric constant [or relative permittivity; accept absolute permittivity before "minus one," but do not accept or prompt thereafter; prompt on "epsilon," "epsilon-sub-r," "kappa," or "k"]

This quantity's value under the random phase approximation is given by the Lindhard function. Nitrided hafnium silicates belong to a class of materials named for having a high value for this quantity, which makes them useful in the fabrication of nanoscale MOSFET gates. This quantity is the dependent variable of the Kohlrausch-Williams-Watts and Havrilak-Negami relaxation models. This quantity alternates between high and low values in the layers of a (*) photonic crystal. This quantity minus one, divided by this quantity plus two, is proportional to molecular polarizability according to the Clausius-Mossotti relation. In non-magnetic materials, this quantity equals the square of the index of refraction. This dimensionless quantity equals one plus electric susceptibility and is denoted epsilon sub r. For 10 points, name this constant of proportionality between the vacuum permittivity and the permittivity of its namesake kind of insulating material.

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb [accept Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, Coulomb blockade, Coulomb potential, Coulomb gauge, or Coulomb's law]

This scientist is the first alphabetical namesake of the equation "shear strength equals cohesion plus normal stress times the tangent of the angle of internal friction," which is a failure criterion he co -names with Mohr. Electron tunneling into a quantum dot capacitor causes an increase in differential resistance at low voltage bias in this scientist's namesake blockade. The first-order contribution of vacuum polarization effects to an interaction named for this scientist is called the (*) Uehling potential; that interaction named for this scientist is generalized to massive scalar fields by the Yukawa potential. The divergence of the magnetic vector potential equals zero in this scientist's namesake gauge condition. For 10 points, identify this physicist whose namesake law governs the electrostatic interaction of point charges.

Josiah Willard Gibbs

This scientist is the first namesake of an effect that describes how charged particles distribute themselves unevenly across a semipermeable membrane. This scientist proposed a paradox about the increase in entropy when two containers of an ideal gas are mixed. He developed a law that states that the number of degrees of freedom of a system is equal to the number of components, plus the number of phases, minus two. A quantity named for him is equal to enthalpy minus the product of entropy and temperature. For 10 points, name this scientist who names a quantity that predicts the spontaneity of a reaction, known as his "free energy."

Lord Rayleigh [or John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh; accept Rayleigh flow, Rayleigh-Taylor instability, Rayleigh dissipation function, Rayleigh-Plesset equation, Rayleigh number, or Rayleigh scattering]

This scientist names a phenomenon in which the stagnation temperature depends only on Mach number and adiabatic index. This scientist is the first alphabetical namesake of a phenomenon that forms characteristic "fingers" when the Atwood number is close to zero. In Lagrangian mechanics, the force of friction is given by the negative velocity gradient of this scientist's namesake dissipation function. This scientist neglected the effects of viscosity and surface tension in deriving a model of (*) bubble cavitation generalized by Plesset. The interface between two fluids of different densities is subject to an instability named for this scientist and Taylor. His namesake number quantifies whether heat transfer occurs mainly through conduction or convection. For 10 points, identify this scientist whose namesake scattering makes the sky appear blue.

ice ages [accept equivalents like galaciation]

Louis Agassiz developed the most famous theory of these phenomena by stealing the work of Karl Schimper. Eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession are a set of three parameters that describe a model developed to describe occurrences of these events, developed by Milutin Milankovitch. The cyclic nature of these phenomena has been tied to variations in albedo. Pluvial lakes formed after the most recent of these phenomena, while the Great Oxygenation Event triggered the Huronian one of these events. A "Little" one of these periods occurred after a Medieval Warm Period. For ten points, name these glacial episodes of cooling that covered much of the Earth in sheets of ice.

alloons [or fire balloons; or hydrogen balloons; or balloon bombs; or hot-air balloons; do not accept "weather balloons"]

20. In reaction to the use of these non-lethal things, the California Division of Forestry started the Firefly Project. These non-lethal things were the key component of a technology which killed the children of pastor Archie Mitchell on a family visit to Gearhart Mountain, Oregon. The feasibility of using these things for a military operation traces back to a paper published in Esperanto by Wasaburo Ooishi. Some of these things were hand-laminated by schoolgirls with a paste made from the konnyaku plant as part of an operation codenamed "paper". Operation (*) Fu-Go attached weapons to these things in an attempt to set forest fires and avenge the Doolittle Raid. For 10 points, Japan ineffectively attacked the continental United States during World War II with bombs attached to what types of inflatable devices?

polarization

Beams that possess different forms of this property are used to study protein secondary structures in CD spectroscopy. A set of four parameters in spherical coordinates named for Stokes are used to mathematically describe this property. Waveplates can be used to alter this property. The intensity of a beam of light that has undergone this phenomenon is equal to its original intensity times the square of the cosine of the angle according to Malus's Law. Sunglasses often have coatings to filter out light with this property, which can occur in linear, elliptical or circular forms. For 10 points, name this phenomenon in which a wave oscillates in a certain direction.

smells [or scents; or aromas; or smell-o-vision]

Cyrano Sciences sells a device for digitizing these things. Hans Laube invented a system for synchronizing these things as a gimmick for a project by Mike Todd, Jr. in the 1960s. Amy Radcliffe made a prototype called the Madeleine which uses headspace technology to record these things. Before founding Times Square's Roxy Theater, Samuel Rothafel used these things to make a 1909 newsreel of the Rose Bowl more exciting. One system for (*) dispersing these things debuted with the unpopular Behind the Great Wall. Cards were used to deliver these things in John Waters' film, Polyester. These things were released through the air-conditioning system in a film whose "vision" system propagated these things. For 10 points, name these things which could be released by scratching certain paper cards, triggering one of your senses.

lungs

Damage to this organ can occur when a deficiency of alpha-1-antitrypsin causes elastase from breaking down its tissues. Angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II by ACE in this organ. The function of this organ can be measured with a spirometer. Tumors in it are classified as "small-cell" or "non-small-cell." DPPC is the major component of its surfactant. These organs become more susceptible to infection when clogged with mucus in cystic fibrosis. Their expansion is caused by the contraction of the diaphragm. In this organ, diffusion occurs across hollow sacs called alveoli. For 10 points, name this organ in which gas exchange occurs

audiophiles [or golden ears; accept people who buy high-end audio equipment and stuff like that before the end; prompt on things such as music-lovers]

Fred Kaplan wrote a Slate article declaring he was one of these people "and proud of it". In 1962, J. Gordon Holt founded a magazine catering to these people which favored reviews filled with words like "whispiness" and "edginess" rather than bench-tests. A crowd-funded device manufactured by Ayre catering to these people was announced on Letterman in 2014. These people made a big stink over the Red Book Standard's 44.1 (*) kilohertz sampling and some wore t-shirts reading "Stop Digital Madness" to protest a new technology being touted by Sony at CES in 1982. David Pogue panned a device catering to these type of people made by Neil Young called the Pono. These people were early proponents of the flac format. In the 1950s, these people were early adopters of new hi-fi technology. For 10 points, name these people prone to buying high-end cables and stereo equipment.

color recognition/vision [prompt on vision or equivalents

Gunnar Svaetichin studied the biological effects of this faculty in fish and developed the S-potential to quantify this faculty. This faculty's interference of reaction time is the subject of the Stroop effect. One theory of this faculty that was expanded to quantify emotion by Richard Solomon includes three pairs of receptors for this faculty; that theory is the opponent-process theory. The most common form of synesthesia involves the perception of this faculty when viewing numbers and letters. Ishihara plates are used to diagnose this faculty's namesake blindness. For 10 points, identify this human faculty which is described by the trichromatic theory.

Raoult's Law

Margules functions can be added to correct this equation, and Köhler theory is used to study cloud droplets by combining the Kelvin effect with this equation. Obeying this equation leads to a straight line on P-x-y diagrams, and this law can be extended via multiplying by (*) fugacity and activity coeffi- cients on different sides of the equation. It can be used to calculate the bubble and dew points, and this law is only valid for ideal solutions. This law is violated by azeotropes. For 10 points, name this law which states that partial vapor pressure can be calculated as the product of the vapor pressure of a pure component and its mole fraction.

free radicals

RAFT, or reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer polymerization, uses thiocarbonyl compounds as a source of these molecules. Rate laws for reactions with these species can have fractional reaction orders. The release of nitrogen gas from AIBN generates two identical molecules of this kind. Bromination with NBS proceeds through a mechanism of this type. These molecules are produced from heterolytic bond cleavages. Mechanisms involving these species have initiation, propagation, and termination steps and use fishhook arrows. For 10 points, name these molecules that contain unpaired electrons.

Julius Wilhelm Richard Dedekind

Raising a function named for this mathematician to the twenty-fourth power, then multiplying by two pi to the twelfth power, is equivalent to cubing the g-sub-two invariant of a Weierstrass elliptic function, then subtracting twenty-seven times the g-sub-three invariant. A theorem named for this mathematician states that a prime ideal of a field is ramified in a finite separable extension of that field if and only if it divides the discriminant of the field extension. Multiplying an integer n by the product over all its prime factors p of "one plus one over p" gives this mathematician's namesake (*) psi function. Every nonzero prime ideal is maximal in this mathematician's namesake type of integrally closed Noetherian domain. He names an operation that partitions a totally ordered set into a closed upwards set and a closed downwards set that has no greatest element. For 10 points, the rational numbers can be used to construct the real numbers via what mathematician's namesake "cuts"?

data types

Ruby and Python use a system for these things that named for the aphorism "If it walks like a duck and talks like a duck, it must be a duck". Whether these things are checked at compile-time or run-time determines whether a language is statically or dynamically this term. Using the equal-equal operator lets JavaScript perform coercion on this category of things. In C, a special example of this category of things consists of a set of constants and is an enum (EE-numb). An example of this classification that was standardized by IEEE 754 is used to approximate real numbers. For 10 points, what term is applied to the classification of data and variables in a computer program, such as boolean, integer, and float?

Oryza sativa [or rice]

SLR1 codes for a DELLA protein expressed in the slender mutant of this plant. The genome of one variety of this plant was modified to incorporate the psy, beta-lcy, and crtI [CRT-one] genes with a glutelin promoter, allowing the endosperm-localized conversion of GGPP into lycopene. In another variety of this plant, a defective form of GA 20-oxidase gives rise to the sd-1 phenotype due to decreased gibberellin synthesis; that hardy variety of this plant is called IR8. Conversely, gibberellin overproduction causes this plant to become etiolated and chlorotic as a consequence of bakanae, or (*) "foolish seedling" disease. The "miracle" semi-dwarf variety of this plant is said to have enabled the Green Revolution, and Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer created a "golden" variety that could synthesize beta-carotene in order to fight vitamin A deficiency. For 10 points, name this grass species that is the world's most common staple food.

ringtones

Sumanth Gopinath asked, "how much can you charge people for things that are more or less worthless?" in his boring book on the "dialectic" of these things. These things really took off in Japan following the publication of the Keitai Chaku Mero Doremi Book in 1997. Andy Clarke, who bought [these things].net in 1999, secured a B5 license for them in the UK. The NTT DoCoMo was the first device to allow customizing them. The first service for these things was Finland's (*) Harmonium service. Finland was also the source of an extremely popular one of these called the "Grande Valse" first used on an 8110 model device. Jamba's biggest profits came from selling these things based on the characters Sweety the Chick and Crazy Frog. More powerful devices could support "true" rather than monophonic or polyphonic examples of these things. For 10 points, name these sounds your old Nokia would play when someone called you.

even numbers/functions/permutations

Symplectic manifolds have dimensions with this property. Integers described by this term are not taken to the namesake value in the "3n+1" Collatz conjecture. The sum of degrees of a graph's vertices has this property, by the handshake lemma. The alternating group consists of all permutations described by this term, which have positive sign. All of these numbers can be written as a sum of two primes, according to Goldbach's conjecture. It is an open question whether or not all perfect numbers have this property. Functions described by this term include cosine and x-squared, and are symmetric about the y-axis. For 10 points, what term describes numbers divisible by 2?

apoptosis [prompt on "programmed cell death" until mentioned]

t's not VDJ recombination, but one assay for this process uses the enzyme TdT to add dUTP to nicked DNA ends. When run on a gel, DNA isolated from cells following this process appears to be "laddering." The movement of phosphatidylserine from the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane to the outer leaflet signals this process. The assembly of the DISC complex upon activation of the fas receptor begins this process. Bax, BAD, and other members of the Bcl-2 protein family regulate this process. In this process, the release of cytochrome C from the mitochondria leads to a cascade of caspase activation. For 10 points, name this process of programmed cell death.

Hendrik Brugt Gerhard Casimir [accept Casimir-Onsager reciprocal relations, Casimir trick, Casimir- Polder force, or Casimir effect]

A 2013 experiment by Zou et al. measured a phenomenon named for this scientist using a silicon micromechanical chip. Odd functions of individual particle velocities satisfy this scientist's generalization of the Onsager reciprocal relations. The problem of finding S-matrix elements can be reduced to the problem of calculating traces of gamma matrices using this scientist's namesake (*) trick. He is the first alphabetical namesake of a phenomenon that implies a nonzero expectation value for baryon number in the chiral bag model of the nucleon and has magnitude per unit area of h-bar times speed of light times pi squared, divided by 240 times separation distance to the fourth power. For 10 points, identify this scientist whose namesake effect can be observed in vacuum between two uncharged conducting plates.

bakelite [or poly-oxy-benzyl-methyl-englycol-anhydride; prompt on plastic until mentioned]

A Culture of Improvement author Robert Friedel credits this product's inventor with making "the very feel of the twentieth century unique". The inventor of this "artificial amber" was made the President of the American Chemical Society in 1924 and appeared on the cover of Time with the quote, "It will not burn. It will not melt". The inventor of this product had earlier made a million dollars selling his patent for Velox, a type of improved photographic paper, to George Eastman. This product was first marketed for use as an electrical insulator. It was invented in a home lab in Yonkers by a man who was trying to find a replacement for shellac. This material was first created by reacting some phenols with (*) formaldehyde. This "material of a thousand uses" largely replaced a flammable predecessor known as celluloid and helped reduce the cost of telephones and radios. For 10 points, name this early plastic, invented by Leo Baekeland.

Packard [or Vance Packard; or Leon Packard (of Packard Bell infamy); or Dave Packard]<

A businessman with this surname issued a namesake memo on martial law while serving as Deputy Secretary of Defense in 1971. A man with this surname was the first named partner in a company bought by NEC in 1996 which infamously sold new PCs such as the Axcel 467 with pre-owned parts and was #1 on PCWorld's "Worst PCs of All Time". An author with this surname examined how businesses were making us "debt-ridden permanently discontented individuals" in a book which popularized the term "planned obsolescence". That same man with this surname documented how ad firms were hiring the title psychologists to sell us more stuff in one book. A man with this surname owned the Palo Alto (*) garage where the 200A was built. Vance, a critic with this surname, wrote The Waste Makers and The Hidden Persuaders. For 10 points, give this surname of Bill Hewlett's founding partner.

cannabis [accept marijuana; accept THC or tetrahydrocannabinol until "5-HT1A", anti-prompt on it after; prompt "weed" and other street names]

A compound in this substance activates the lipid derivatives anandamide and 2-arachidonylglycerol, which mediate depolarization-induced 'suppression of inhibition' in the hippocampus and cerebellum. Another active ingredient in it contains a 5-HT1A receptor agonist, which explains its anti-anxiety effect. Indica and Sativa are the primary strains of this drug; examples of the former include the prized (*) "purple" variety. Medical uses of this plant include treating chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting as well as glaucoma. For 10 points, THC is the main psychoactive ingredient in what drug, whose effects are mimicked by synthetic cannabinoids?

Republic of Ireland

A mathematician from this country proved a theorem that extended Ptolemy's theorem to the case of four non-intersecting circles that lie tangentially inside a larger circle. A mathematician from this country applied biquaternion algebra to special relativity and helped a leader of this country, who was earlier one of his students, found the DIAS. The first director of that institute in this country was Erwin Schrodinger, who fled to this country to escape the Nazis. One mathematician from this country discovered the (*) icosian calculus and names a theorem stating that matrices satisfy their own characteristic equation with Arthur Cayley. Éamonn De Valera was a math teacher here before becoming the Taoiseach of this country. For 10 points, name this country in which the equation describing quaternions was carved into the Bloom Bridge by William Hamilton while on a walk through Dublin.

black​ [accept vantablack, red-black​ trees, black body​, or black box]

A novel material of this color is made of vertically aligned nanotubes and is known as "vanta"-​this color. Every path from a node to its leaves has the same number of nodes of ​this color in a type of tree named for it and an alphabetically-​later color. This color names an object that emits radiative power proportional to the fourth power of (*) ​temperature, according to the StefanBoltzmann law. This type of "body" absorbs incident radiation of all frequencies. In computer science, a device whose internal workings are unknown is called a "box" of this color. For 10 points, identify this color corresponding to the absence of light.

mechanical equilibrium

A process for which this condition holds at all times is termed a quasistatic process. In thermodynamics, state functions are only defined in systems with this property. Under the IAU definition, if a body is subjected to gravitational and pressure gradient forces, then it must attain the hydrostatic type of this condition to be a planet. The (*) ​thermal type of this condition holds transitively, according to the zeroth law of thermodynamics. This condition arises at an extremum of potential energy, with maxima and minima corresponding to its stable and unstable types, respectively. For 10 points, name this motionless condition in which all the forces on an object sum to zero.

Franklin Institute [or the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts; or the Franklin Institute Science Museum]

A racist named B. Howard Rand pulled out of lecturing at this place because it had admitted a black man named Octavius Catto as a member. William Castellini issued a fake press release from this organization claiming the world would end on April 1st, 1940, sparking a War of the Worlds-style panic. This institution owns an automaton capable of writing three distinct poems built by Henri Maillardet. In 1897, Wilhelm Rontgen won its Elliott Cresson Medal. One of the cooler things owned by this museum is a moving Baldwin 60000 locomotive in its basement. It publishes the country's second oldest science journal. The signature exhibit of this museum is a gigantic human (*) heart you can walk through. Nick Cage bribes schoolkids to decode the Silence Dogood letters at this place in the first National Treasure movie. For 10 points, name this Philadelphia science museum, whose Electricity exhibit honors its namesake's kite experiments.

Gugliemo Marconi [or Guglielmo Marconi, 1st Marquis of Marconi]

A scandal named for this man causes Lord Reginald Fitzambey to have a nervous breakdown in George Bernard Shaw's The Music Cure. In the real-life version of that scandal, Godfrey Isaacs gave David Lloyd George and other British politicians below-market shares in a company named for this man. This man's Patent No. 7777 was overturned in 1943 due to the prior art of John Stone. He names a company founded by his cousin Jameson Davis that linked South Foreland and Wimereux. This non-German co-winner of the (*) 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics revolutionized the news coverage of the 1899 America's Cup and was made a marquess by Victor Emmanuel III in 1929. Jack Phillips and Harold Bride, employees of this man, used his best known invention to save lives on the Titanic. He'd sometimes make nighttime demonstrations of longwave transmissions. For 10 points, name this Italian inventor of wireless telegraphy.

(canonical) commutation relations [accept commutators, accept anticommutation relations before "sum" in the fifth line]

A seminal effort at classifying representations of infinitely many of these relationships was done by Gårding and Wightman. Constructing a quantum field theory by quantizing a classical field theory can be thought of as reinterpreting dynamical variables as operators that obey an equal-time example of these relationships. An exponentiated group analog of a set of these relationships is said to be the Weyl form. For (*) Pauli matrices j and k, one of these relationships has a right-hand side of two i times the sum from l equals one to three of epsilon sub j k l times the Pauli matrix l. The uniqueness of a fundamental example of these relationships is given by the Stone-von Neumann theorem. For two operators A and B, the equation for AB minus BA is given this name. For 10 points, identify this type of relation exemplified by the fact that a certain operation applied to position and momentum equals i h-bar.

glycogen

A serine/threonine kinase named for its role in the synthesis of this compound is inhibited by lithium in one treatment for bipolar disorder. This compound is synthesized by iteratively attaching subunits containing uridine diphosphate and then cleaving the UDP. It's not associated with the Wnt signaling pathway, but this molecule's production is regulated by the kinases CK-II and GSK-3. This compound's namesake phosphorylase depends on pyridoxal phosphate. Insulin triggers the synthesis of this compound, which is basically a more highly-branched version of the amylopectin found in plant starch. For 10 points, name this polysaccharide form of glucose stored in skeletal muscles and the liver.

Johannes Kepler​ [or Iohannes Keplerus​]

A spacecraft named for this person uses a photometer to measure the brightness of stars in the constellations Cygnus, Lyra, and Draco. This man described a model of the universe consisting of nested Platonic solids, one for each planet, in his ​Mysterium Cosmographicum. A spacecraft named for this person has used the "transit method" to discover over 1,000 (*) ​exoplanets since 2009. A set of postulates named for this man includes the "equal areas in equal time" law and the statement that orbits are ellipses with the sun at one focus. For 10 points, name this one-time assistant to Tycho Brahe, a German astronomer who proposed three laws of planetary motion.

graph minor [do not accept or prompt on "graph" or "subgraph"]

A structure H will be a substructure of a series-parallel construct if and only if all of these things for H do not include the wheel designated by W-sub-four. Tutte hypothesized that a structure K with the bridgeless property will have a nowhere zero four-畔low if its underlying Petersen family is not one of these things for K. A theorem by Tutte states that every mathematical snark will have a Petersen graph as one of these things. Graphs have the property that they are well-quasi-ordered with respect to the embedding of these constructs according to the Robertson-Seymour theorem. Wagner's theorem, and not Kuratowski's theorem, states that a graph is planar if and only if the original graph and all of these constructs do not include K-sub-炬ve and K-sub-three-three. For 10 points, name these structures which are formed by contracting and deleting edges of a source graph.

pressure

A substance's bulk modulus has the same units as this quantity, and is equal to "negative volume times the derivative of ​this value with respect to volume." A reference value of 20 millionths of this quantity's SI unit is used to define the decibel in acoustics. This value is equalized in all directions and at all points in a fluid according to (*) ​Pascal's principle. This value is added to kinetic and potential terms to give a constant in Bernoulli's equation, which implies that this value decreases if a fluid's velocity increases. For 10 points, name this quantity equal to force divided by the area over which it is applied, which is measured in the atmosphere with a barometer.

Claisen rearrangement

A variant of this reaction named for Chen and Mapp generates a phosphite in place of an alcohol and works because the P=O double bond is favored over P=N. The allyl ester of a carboxylic acid is converted to its enolate in a variant co-named for (*) Ireland, while other variants of this reaction are named for Johnson, Bellus, and Eschenmoser. This reaction can be viewed as a variant of the Cope Rearrangement with oxygen substituted for the R-group. This heat-catalyzed reaction is highly susceptible to solvent effects - with polar solvents accelerating it by 10-fold. For 10 points, name this [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement in which an allyl vinyl ether is converted to an unsaturated carbonyl compound.

time-of-flight [or TOF; or MALDI-TOF]

After a direct measurement of this non-derived quantity, Bruker's BioTyper software is used to identify bacteria. The first devices to directly measure this quantity were marketed by the Bendix Corporation under the McLaren-Wiley design, a two-grid apparatus divided into three regions. This is the directly-measured variable in PEPICO. Boris Mamyrin's reflectron increases this measured quantity to narrow its distribution. The directly measured variables in an atom probe tomography experiment are (*) position and this quantity. Modern devices named for this quantity operate using an orthogonal continuous ion source like a pulsed laser. This measured variable is squared, then multiplied by twice the voltage over distance to the analyzer, to give the mass-charge ratio. For 10 points, name this variable used to sort ions flying through a namesake mass spectrometer often paired with MALDI.

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis [or ALS; accept modifiers like "familial" or "sporadic"; accept Lou Gehrig's disease until mention; prompt on motor neuron disease or MND]

Along with frontotemporal dementia, this condition is strongly linked to a GGGGCC repeat expansion in a noncoding region on chromosome 9. Patients with FTLD or this condition often show buildups in misfolded FUS and TDP-43 proteins. A4V and G93A are among the more than twenty missense mutations linked with this disease; those mutations, which may cause the misfolding and aggregation of superoxide dismutase, are in the (*) SOD1 gene. Sufferers of this condition may exhibit symptoms like the "pseudobulbar affect," or uncontrollable periods of laughing or crying. This condition, which is often mitigated by the drug Riluzole, is characterized by symptoms of both upper and lower motor neuron damage. In late stages of this condition, muscle atrophication prevents speaking, swallowing, or breathing. For 10 points, name this disease that causes rapid degeneration of motor neurons, which afflicts Stephen Hawking and Lou Gehrig.

renormalization group methods [accept regularization]

An "on-shell" method for this process doesn't work when massless particles can be emitted, because then there is no finite energy gap between one and multiparticle states in the spectral representation. A differential equation that characterizes quantities like mass and the wave function under this transformation is named for Callan and Symanzik. Counterterms are added to the Lagrangian in order to do this, but when in 4D, this process is impossible for operators whose mass dimension is greater than 4. The most common scheme for doing this involves setting the number of dimensions to 4 minus epsilon. The (*) beta function quantifies how this process changes a coupling constant. A basic, but not Lorentz-invariant, scheme for doing this imposes a finite energy cutoff. This process is necessary because closed loops in Feynman diagrams involve the integral over possible loop momenta, which may not be finite. For 10 points, identify this mathematical procedure for removing divergences from physical theories such as QED.

binary space partition tree [or BSP tree; prompt on tree or partition tree or binary tree, prompt on k-d tree before it's mentioned; do NOT accept or prompt on "binary search tree"]

An algorithm for computing dynamic changes to these data structures was developed by Chrysanthou and Slater. A paper by Chin and Feiner extended the use of this data structure to the problem of generating shadow volumes. This data structure was developed by Fuchs, Kedem, and Naylor. Merging two of these structures, which can be done in logarithmic time, forms the basis for the set operations of constructive solid geometry. k-d trees are a subset of these structures. These structures are created by recursive subdivision of a volume by (*) hyperplanes. A standard use of these structures is to specify a polygon rendering order for the painter's algorithm. These data structures have leaf nodes representing front and back perspectives. For 10 points, name these tree structures used in computer graphics in which each node represents a hyperplane that splits the world in half.

calculator [or graphing calculator

An early one of these devices from Sony known as the SOBAX was killed because Ibuka Masaru thought there was only a market for them amongst businessmen. Nihon Keisanki, one of the sixty Japanese companies that made these things during their so-called "wars" in the 1970s, developed the world's first microprocessor. Patrick Haggerty dreamed up a (*) palm-sized device of this type to sell the integrated circuits of his Dallas-based company. The awesomely named Rocket Sasaki challenged his engineers at Sharp to make the first solar-powered one. A man playing with one of these devices on a train inspired Gunpei Yokoi to develop the Game & Watch. Canon was the first to add a phone-style 10-digit pad to them. For 10 points, the TI-83 is what type of device for making math easy?

diodes [prompt on "semiconductors" until "Shockley"]

An equation important to these devices assumes that drift, diffusion, and thermal recombination- generation are the only significant processes creating current in them. That equation states that the saturation current times the quantity exponential of voltage divided by the thermal voltage and ideality factor all minus one equals the current passing through these devices. That equation is named for (*) Shockley. Quantum tunneling causes negative resistance in the Esaki version of these devices, and one type of them can conduct in the reverse bias direction and is named for Zener. For 10 points, name these devices that allow current to only pass in one direction, an example of which is the light-emitting type.

magnetization [accept magnetic polarization before ―polarization‖ is read; prompt afterwards, do not accept or prompt on ―polarization‖]

At low temperatures, this quantity's temperature dependence equals the product of its value at absolute zero times 1 minus the ratio of the actual and critical temperatures raised to the three halves power. The anisotropy energy of a uniaxial crystal is proportional to the square of the sine of the angle between the crystal's ";easy axis"; and this quantity. This quantity's time derivative is expressed as the sum of a torque-dependent damping term and a term proportional to this quantity's cross product with the effective field according to the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation. This quantity's curl equals the bound current density. The B-field equals the permeability of free space times the sum of the H-field and this quantity. For 10 points, name this magnetic analogue of electric polarization density, which gives the magnetic moment of a material per unit volume.

proton

CTEQ provides a software framework for using a certain set of "distribution functions" which are most commonly used in analyzing this particle. Minimally supersymmetric standard model theories impose R-parity to ensure this particle's stability. The difference in the first moments of structure functions of this particle and a heavier one are given by the Bjorken sum rule. In some theories beyond the Standard Model such as the GeorgiGlashow model, the decay of this particle is mediated by a very (*) heavy X boson. Several grand unified theories posit the decay of this particle to a positron and a pion on extremely long timescales. Experiments such as those at the Super-Kamiokande have given the half-life for that decay a lower bound of more than 10 to the 33 years. Isospin was introduced to describe this particle and a heavier partner, and this particle has two up quarks and one down. For 10 points, name this charged nucleon.

angular momentum operator [or L, accept spin]

Calculating a Racah W-coefficient requires knowledge of six parameters corresponding to this quantity. Another set of coefficients arising from this quantity relate reduced matrix elements to the spherical tensor. The individual components of the operator corresponding to this quantity commute with its square, but not with each other. That square of the operator corresponding to this quantity has as its eigenfunctions the spherical harmonics. This quantity's conservation follows by Noether's theorem from rotational invariance, and implies Kepler's second law. In the case of a particle undergoing uniform circular motion, this quantity's magnitude equals m times v times r. For 10 points, name this quantity, equal to moment of inertia times angular velocity.

Jahn-Teller effect [or Jahn-Teller distortion]

Ceder et al. recently used scanning tunneling electron microscopy to directly observe the cooperative version of this phenomenon in a sodium/manganese/O2 superstructure. The second-order variant of this phenomenon occurs to allow for a configuration interaction between a molecule's HOMO and LUMO and can be invoked to explain the stereoactive lone pair in xenon hexafluoride. A shoulder in the UV-Vis absorption band of aqueous titanium(III) is attributed to this phenomenon, which often occurs in a weaker (*) dynamic form at room temperature in complexes with T-sub-1g and T-sub-2g ground states. This phenomenon is weak in tetrahedral complexes, since none of the ligands directly overlap with any d-orbitals. The most common manifestation of this phenomenon is in the tetragonal elongation of six-coordinate transition metal complexes with four, seven, or nine d- electrons. For 10 points, name this effect in which a molecule distorts to relieve an orbital degeneracy.

ghosts [accept "spirits" until read; accept specters or anything indicating these are spirits of some kind; DO NOT accept demons]

Charles Richet named a substance whose presence indicates the formation of these entities, the pro- duction of which is attributed to the emission of "ectenic force". The presence of these entities can be detected by infrared thermometers by identifying cold spots. Another method of detecting these entities indicate their presence by spikes in EMF. Audio recordings in the presence of these entities can produce an (*) EVP, or an electronic voice phenomenon and photographic evidence of them are identified by the presence of "orbs". Early methods of detecting these entities saw their formation from a slimy substance called ectoplasm emitted from a human host known as a "medium". For 10 points, identify these supernatural manifestations commonly believed to be the spirits of the deceased.

formation of the moon

Description acceptable. Jacobsen used the Hf-W isotopic system to try to predict when this process oc- curred. A theory put forth by researchers at Caltech proposes that following this process a silicate vapour atmosphere formed allowing for isotopic equilibration. Cuk and Stewart published a paper explaining how angular momentum could have been lost following this process due to evection reso- nance. (*) Problems with the mainstream theory of this process include near identical ratios of Titanium-50 to Titanium-47 and the relative lack of volatile elements. The dislodgement of Theia from L4 or L5 may have caused this process. The Giant Impact Theory predicts that it resulted from a collision with a Mars-sized object. For 10 points, name this event that led to the creation of the object that causes our tides

polyploidy [accept paleopolyploidy; prompt on "ploidy"]

Diagonal lines on syntenic self-self dot plots reflect the presence of this phenomenon. Peaks appearing in the time distribution of the synthetic substitution rate, or K-sub-s, can be used to detect widespread historical instances of this phenomenon. This phenomenon may cause certain features to be elongated or enlargened in a result referred to as the "gigas effect." The effects of this phenomenon in the genus Brassica may be visualized with the "Triangle of U." This phenomenon can be induced using chemicals such as oryzalin or (*) colchicine. This phenomenon is responsible for many instances of speciation in ferns and angiosperms, and can be used to produce seedless fruit. Endoreplication is one way in which this phenomenon may occur, and it sometimes occurs because of irregularities in prophase I of meiosis. For 10 points, name this phenomenon in which cells possess multiple pairs of homologous chromosomes.

alcohol dehydrogenase [or ADH; or EC 1.1.1.1 until it is read]

Drew Schwartz developed a mutagen-detection system in maize by assaying variants of this protein. The chimeric gene jingwei evolved from the gene encoding this protein in Drosophila, which has "fast" and "slow" polymorphs. Computing the ratios of fixed replacement to fixed synonymous differences, and their respective polymorphisms, McDonald and Kreitman tested neutral theory by studying mutations to this protein. In the EC system, this enzyme is assigned 1.1.1.1. A SNP ["snip"] that causes hyperactivity of this protein is frequently coupled to inactivity of another protein with the (*) rs671 SNP in haplogroup D. In metabolism, this enzyme is immediately followed by another oxidoreductase that produces NADH and acetic acid. Disulfiram mimics the effects of an over-strong variant of this enzyme found in 40% of East Asians that causes a flushing reaction. For 10 points, name this enzyme that oxidizes ethanol to acetaldehyde.

poliovirus

Eckard Wimmer's group at SUNY Stony Brook was condemned for showing that this pathogen's genome could be assembled entirely from synthetic cDNA fragments. A modi炬ed version of this pathogen, P·V·S-RIPO, is being tested in clinical trials to treat glioblastoma. The T·g·P·V·R mouse line was developed to model the e猼fects of infection by this virus. In the 1960s, Bernice Eddy found that rhesus monkey cells used to prepare vaccines against this virus were contaminated with S·V·40. It replicates in the oropharynx and small intestine before spreading into the C·N·S, where it kills lower motor neurons in the anterior horn of the spinal cord. Albert Sabin developed an oral vaccine for this virus, which is responsible for a disease that can result in long-term muscle paralysis and atrophy. For 10 points, Jonas Salk developed a vaccine against what virus?

Devonian period

Exposed fossil beds from this period can be seen at Falls of the Ohio State Park in Clarksville, Indiana. The Archaeopteris was a tree from the end of this period which was the oldest tree known until the discovery of the Wattieza, also from this period. This period included the beginning of the Antler orogeny and the collision of Laurasia and Baltica to form the supercontinent Euramerica. The Gogo formation is a Lagerstätten from this period that contains the only discovered specimen of Materpiscis, the earliest known vertebrate to undergo live birth. Psammosteid heterostracans survived the (*) Kellwasser event at this period's FrasnianFamennian boundary, which caused the extinction of stromatoporoids and other reef-builders, but they perished in the Hangenberg event, which also wiped out the placoderms that had dominated this period's shallow, warm seas. For 10 points, identify this geologic time period nicknamed the "Age of Fishes" that preceded the Carboniferous and followed the Silurian.

Triassic period

Fossils from this period can be found in the Paleorrota geopark, which includes the Santa Maria formation. Monte San Giorgio contains the best marine fossils from this period. The earth saw major climate change in the Carnian Pluvial Event that occurred during this period. Plesiosaurs and (*) ichthyosaurs were the only marine reptiles to survive the extinction occurring at the end of this period. An event preceding this period led to a lack of coal originating from it and the only known mass extinction of insects. Explosions from the Siberian traps may have caused the massive extinction that occurred right before this period. For 10 points, name this period, the first of the Mesozoic, which witnessed the emergence of dinosaurs and preceded the Jurassic.

fax machines [or telecopying machine; or telefax machine; or facsimile machine; prompt on chemical telegram; prompt on Xerography machine; prompt on modem; do not accept "copying machine"]

Frederick Bakewell got rid of the pendulums in Alexander Bain's chemistry-powered one of these devices for an invention Bakewell demoed to general disinterest at the Crystal Palace in 1851. Exxon's subsidiary Qwip lost millions making these devices. In February 2016, a Twitter account for one of these devices at the University of Florida posted a video of itself playing a cover of Adele's "Hello". The aforementioned Bain machine of this type was successfully challenged in patent court for violating the (*) telegraph patent owned by Samuel Morse. The Kennedy administration killed Speed Mail, which was powered by this technology. These machines are still essential to National Signing Day for some reason. It took 6 minutes for one of the first of these devices to transmit a standard A4 page. For 10 points, name these devices which use modems to send images across telephone wires.

matroids

If one of these structures is GF-four representable, then all GF-four representations of these objects are equivalent. R-sub-ten is a unique splitter for a certain class of these structures according to Seymour. One of these structures of rank r is uniform if and only if all of its circuits have exactly r plus one elements. The regular types of these structures can be represented over all fields and are precisely those that don't contain the four-point line, the Fano plane, and its dual. The Tutte polynomial of these structures is a generalization of the (*) characteristic polynomial to two variables. Maximal independent ones of these are bases. These are defined on a ground set and an independent collection of subsets. These structures provide strong connections between graph theory and linear algebra. For 10 points, name these combinatorial structures that generalize the concept of linear independence to matrices.

UDP [or User Datagram Protocol]

In November 2014, FreeBSD started supporting a ";lightweight"; variant of this system that allows for partial checksums. STUN uses this standard to determine if a device is behind a NAT (";N-A-T";) and is often used to find values reserved for it. So-called ";keep-alive"; data must be sent out every couple of seconds to maintain a connection in the ";hole-punching"; technique named for this standard. Only four fieldssource, destination, length, and a 16-bit checksum constitute the eight-byte header for this standard, differentiating it from the twenty-byte header of a similar standard. This system avoids head of line blocking since it does not guarantee order delivery; it also does not guarantee error recovery, nor does it not establish a three-way handshake, unlike another transport layer standard. For 10 points, name this protocol that is often used for streaming multimedia and DNS queries, since it is faster but less reliable than TCP.

cytochrome c [do not accept or prompt on ―cytochrome‖]

In bacteria, the presence of an enzyme whose substrate is this protein can be detected using TMPD or DMPD. Mutations in that enzyme whose substrate is this protein are the most common cause of Leigh syndrome. In animals, the most common region used for DNA barcoding is the gene coding for an enzyme whose substrate is this protein. It's not a fibrinopeptide or hemoglobin, but Emanuel Margoliash's studies on this protein provided supporting evidence for the molecular clock hypothesis. The peroxidation of cardiolipin causes the release of this protein into the cytoplasm, where it reacts with APAF-1 to activate caspases 9 and 3 during apoptosis. In the Q cycle, oxidation of coenzyme Q facilitates the reduction of this heme-containing protein. For 10 points, name this protein which shuttles electrons between complexes III and IV of the electron transport chain.

Windows Vista [or Windows Longhorn]

Jim Allchin told the Wall Street Journal how he completely reset development of this product. In one ad from a competitor, a man piles up a huge stack of money to spend on advertising this product rather than fixing it. You could install an analog clock to the new Sidebar feature in this product. The default font in this software was changed from Tahoma to Segoe UI, and it also introduced the (*) Aero Glass theme. In one ad, people were shown enjoying "Mojave", a rebranded version of this software. An ad making fun of this software personified its User Account Control as a black-suited bodyguard constantly asking whether you want to "cancel or allow" basic actions such as pointing out its security flaws. A new mail program replaced Outlook Express in this operating system, which spent over five years in development. For 10 points, name this unpopular successor to Windows XP.

Imre Lakatos [or Imre Avrum Lipschitz; or Imre Molnár]

John Vasquez's interpretation of this thinker is the subject of the essay "Evaluating Theories" by Kenneth Waltz. This thinker described the techniques of "monster-barring," "monster-adjustment," and "exception handling" in one work. This thinker described the process of generating theorems as a "sausage machine." A work by this man is framed as a Socratic dialogue where students named after Greek letters try to derive the (*) Euler characteristic formula for a polyhedron. This thinker developed a concept that consists of a "hard core" surrounded by a "protective belt," which can be approached via positive or negative heuristics in order to reconcile Kuhn's normal science with Popper's falsificationism. For 10 points, name this author of Proofs and Refutations and The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes, a Hungarian philosopher of science.

arsenic poisoning [or arsenic exposure; prompt on poisoning]

Lancet editor Thomas Wakley started investigating how to save people from this fate after he was almost killed in this manner working at the Lancet's office. The media had a field day over Mary Stannard and Jennie Cramer, two New Haven women who succumbed to this fate in 1878. Arctic explorer Charles Francis Hall died in this fashion. In 1839, Leopold Gmelin investigated why this might happen to people who wore (*) ball gowns or lived in homes with wallpapers made from Scheele's Green. This fate befell people in France who were given "inheritance powder". Murder victims who died in this manner became less common following the development of the Marsh Test. Hair tests have mostly debunked the theory that Napoleon I died in this manner. For 10 points, name this way to die, which involves consuming a lot of an element with atomic number 33.

pons [prompt on midbrain; prompt on brainstem]

Lesions in this structure and in the MLF cause one-and-a-half syndrome. Cinelli discovered that, uniquely in lampreys, a central pattern generator in this structure drives oscillations. This structure is supplied blood by namesake perforating branches of the basilar artery. The dorsal part of this structure, the tegmentum, contains the salivary nuclei. The inspiratory off switch is regulated by the KF and parabrachial regions of this part of the brain. Norepinephrine is synthesized by its (*) coeruleus nucleus. A stroke or demyelination here is the most common cause of locked-in-syndrome. Conjugate gaze palsies can be caused by lesions in this structure at the nucleus of the sixth cranial nerve. It and the cerebellum originate from the metencephalon. The pneumotaxic center of this structure regulates breathing. For 10 points, name this part of the brain stem located between the midbrain and medulla.

Jethro Tull

Long after this man's death, James Smyth and Sons mass produced his invention. His best known contraption was prototyped at a homestead named "Prosperous" in Hungerford. He warned of "too much nitre" affecting soil in one text. This man's signature invention incorporated the groove and tongue from the soundboard of an organ and initially consisted of a (*) wheelbarrow with its gudgeon removed and a rotating cylinder added. One of his apparatuses was used to create some of the landscape seen in Gainsborough's Mr. and Mrs. Andrews. The second edition of this man's Horse-hoing Husbandry provided evidence that pulverization was effective in boosting yields. A lighter version of one of his inventions was used for turnips. This man's invention popularized row-based planting rather than broadcasting. For 10 points, name this inventor of the seed drill and namesake of a prog rock band.

Michael addition or Michael reaction [accept 1,4-conjugate addition before mentioned; prompt on "addition"; accept MukaiyamaMichael Addition before "aldol"]

Magnesium perchlorate is an effective catalyst for reactions of this type involving silyl ketene acetals. DABCO performs an aza-version of this reaction in the first step of an atom-economic coupling of aldehydes and electron-deficient alkenes called the MoritaBaylissHillman reaction. Like the aldol reaction, silyl enol ethers can undergo a variant of this reaction named for (*) Mukaiyama. This reaction is followed by an aldol condensation in the Robinson ring annulation. Gilman reagents and resonance-stabilised nucleophiles preferentially perform this reaction instead of direct attack of the carbonyl pi-star orbital. For 10 points, name this reaction where carbanions undergo 1,4-conjugate addition to alpha-beta unsaturated carbonyls.

retina [or retinal pigmented epithelium; prompt on eye]

Math5 and other homologs of atonal are required for differentiation of cells in this structure. Its patterning is driven by Soho-1 and GH6 in chicks. During development, this structure is split by a transient acellular layer named for Chievitz. A compound named for it activates Lefty-1 transcription and patterns the hindbrain. In Drosophila, a wave of hedgehog creates the morphogenetic furrow during the development of the (*) nasotemporal axis of this structure, which proceeds by the induction of a single R8 cell. The namesake progenitors for this structure localize to the ciliary marginal zone or to its namesake pigmented epithelium. During differentiation, it produces Müller glia. Horizontal cells nest on this structure's outer plexiform layer, one of seven layers that also include bipolar and amacrine neurons. For 10 points, name this light-sensitive tissue home to rods and cones.

aldehyde [prompt on carbonyl]

Molecules with this functional group can be isolated by forming adducts with a bisulfite anion. A molecule with this functional group can be produced from ethylene using a palladium catalyst in the Wacker process. DIBAL-H can reduce nitriles and esters to this functional group. They react with Grignard reagents to yield primary and secondary alcohols. Unlike Jones reagent, which produces carboxylic acids, PCC generates molecules with this functional group. They can be made by oxidizing primary alcohols, and they produce a silver mirror in Tollens' test. For 10 points, name this functional group consisting of a carbonyl bonded to at least one hydrogen atom, unlike ketones.

liquid-liquid extraction [or supercritical fluid extraction or partitioning, accept PUREX prompt on separation]

Nitric acid is used in one type of this process for recovering plutonium and uranium left over in used nuclear fuel. The raffinate produced in the most common type of this process is usually discarded. Green chemists love another form of this process relying on supercritical carbon dioxide. One device used for this purpose should not be shaken too violently, lest emulsions form that take annoyingly long to get rid of; that device is a pear-shaped funnel with a stopcock at the bottom. This process is more effective with high partition coefficients, as the concentration in the organic phase will be much greater than in the aqueous phase. It typically makes use of a separatory funnel. For 10 points, name this technique in which differences in solubility drive a solute from one immiscible fluid to another.

Vulcan

Note: we're looking for something with a specific name. A sick patient almost played Person from Porlock to the physician Edmond Modeste Lescarbault, who was called away from observing this object. Luckily, this object was still visible when Lescarbault returned, earning him the Legion of Honor despite Emmanuel Liais's assertions that it was not visible from Liais's more powerful Brazil-based equipment. The name of this object was coined by Urbain Le Verrier in an 1859 article. The SOHO and STEREO missions had the possibility of studying this object. One theory held that this object explained the (*) precession of a neighbor, although turns out the precession is explained by Einstein's Theory of General Relativity. It was not seen in an 1878 solar eclipse. For 10 points, name this hypothesized planet near Mercury, which shares a name with Mr. Spock's home planet.

melanoma [prompt on "skin cancer" or "cancer"]

One form of this disease has cell types sorted by the modified Callender system; that variant appears as a "collar-button" lesions in the eye. The synthetic virus T-VEC was approved to treat this disease. Other therapies for this disease target the immune checkpoint proteins PD-1 and PD-L1. This disease comes in nodular sclerosing, acral lentiginous, and superficial spreading subtypes. Screening for this disease uses the ABCDE mnemonic, which incorporates asymmetry, irregular borders, irregular coloring, size, and evolution. Staging of this disease often incorporates the Clark level and Breslow depth. Like BCC and SCC, risk of this disease is drastically increased by xeroderma pigmentosum and UV exposure. For 10 points, name this cancer in which pigment-producing cells in the skin rapidly divide.

software design patterns

One of these concepts introduced by Trygve Reenskaug in the Smalltalk language gained popularity with Apple's WebObjects and is near-universal along with its MVVM variant for iOS applications. Another one of these concepts involves the use of double dispatch to traverse a structure made of polymorphic elements using an object known as a visitor. The web's first wiki accompanied a collection of documentation on these concepts known as the (*) "Portland repository" of them. This term was introduced in 1995 by Gamma et al.'s "gang of four," while Martin Fowler wrote the 2002 standard text on these concepts in "enterprise application architecture." Examples of these concepts include flyweight objects and model-view-controller architectures, and applying them without understanding them is sometimes known as "cargo cult programming." For 10 points, name these reusable architectures for common problems encountered in software engineering.

halogen​s [or group seventeen​; or group seven​-A]

One of these elements is ionically bonded to a large heterocycle in an intercalating agent that is often used in gel electrophoresis. Another of these elements is found in a roughly 75-25 mix of its isotopes 35 and 37. A compound of one of these elements turns starches dark blue, and is named for Lugol. Within each period, these elements have the second-lowest atomic (*)​ radii and the second-highest ionization energy. This group contains elements that are solids, liquids, and gases at room temperature. These elements have the highest electronegativity, since they are only "missing" one valence electron. For 10 points, name these elements that include bromine and chlorine.

Pythagorean theorem

One proof of Bessel's inequality involves projecting onto the span of the first n members of a family of vectors, and then applying this theorem. In probability, this theorem can be used to show that the covariance of the sum of two independent random variables is equal to the sum of the covariances. Two consecutive applications of this theorem can be used to compute the length of the space diagonal of a cube. This theorem can be proven by dropping an altitude to the longest side of a triangle, and then using the fact that that altitude divides the triangle into two triangles that are similar to both each other and the original triangle. For ten points, name this theorem that states that in a right triangle with sides a, b, and c, a squared plus b squared equals c squared.

metathesis [accept specific types like olefin metathesis or alkyne metathesis]

One reaction of this type is catalyzed by a complex containing a tungsten atom bonded to three tert-butoxy groups and triple bonded to a carbon atom. That reaction of this type is also catalyzed using a mixture of resorcinol and molybdenum hexacarbonyl in the Montreux system. ADMET polymerization is based on this type of reaction. A catalyst for one type of this reaction is synthesized by reacting di-phenyl-cyclopropene with a complex containing two chlorine and two bulky phosphine ligands. One class of these reactions proceeds via a [2+2] cycloaddition between a transition metal alkylidene complex and an alkene to form a metalla-cyclobutane intermediate. That reaction of this type is catalyzed by a "first generation" catalyst based on ruthenium. For 10 points, name this type of reaction in which two molecules exchange substituents, whose "olefin" variety is aided by Grubbs' catalyst.

masers [accept specific types]

One type of these phenomena is described by the Boland-de Jong model, while another is found in "broken ring" structures. Taylor et al. created the standard classification of these phenomena, for which Menegozzi and Lamb developed coupled radiative transfer equations. Measurements of one type of these phenomena in galaxies like NGC 4258 currently provide the most accurate reference for calibrating the (*) cosmic distance ladder and constraining the value of the Hubble constant. Another type of these phenomena can be used to map the magnetic field distribution of the interstellar medium, because the Zeeman effect causes splitting of spectral lines in populations of hydroxyl radicals. For 10 points, name these phenomena in which molecules like silicon monoxide, formaldehyde, and water emit radiation with a wavelength longer than infrared light.

gyroscopes [anti-prompt on "optical fiber" and "interferometer" or "Sagnac interferometer" early

One type of this device exploits a superfluid analog of the Josephson effect called "quantum whistling." Transient temperature gradients in another type of this device generate nonreciprocal phase shifts in the Shupe effect. That type of this device contains a quadrupolar wound coil of optical fiber that acts as a Sagnac interferometer. Sources of error in the dynamically tuned type of this device include pseudoconing and (*) anisoelasticity. Four of these devices made from fused quartz coated with niobium were used in the Gravity Probe B experiment to measure the geodetic and Lense-Thirring effects. These devices are employed in conjunction with accelerometers to measure motion in all six degrees of freedom. For 10 points, name these devices that exhibit torque- induced precession, as shown by a top.

quantum computers

Optimizing the layout of these systems can be achieved with the SolovayKitaev algorithm. These systems are characterized by five criteria put forth by David DiVincenzo. Specialized programming languages for these systems include the Haskell-based Quipper and Microsoft's LIQUiD. A universal model of these systems was proposed in a classic 1985 paper by David (*) Deutsch. A barrier to error correction in these systems is the no-cloning theorem. An analog of the reversible XOR gate, the CNOT gate, which stands for "controlled not," is used in these systems because all universal gate designs require it in order to be able to approximate any unitary operation to arbitrary accuracy. Algorithms designed for these systems include Grover's search algorithm. For 10 points, identify these systems whose basic unit of information is the qubit.

paint programs [or photo editing software; or image editing software; prompt on Photoshop programs before mentioned]

Probably the most popular software of this type today contains a horrible amount of glue code known as MacApp that longtime engineer Thomas Knoll hopes to refactor. Jasc Software specialized in making programs of this type. A children-focused application of this type included a character who would yell things like, "Espara un minuto!" and "I made a boo-boo, yeah!" The character of Undo Guy appeared in a series of programs of this type whose sequel included the Wacky TV mode. It's not a (*) level editor, but one program of this type also came with a music editor where you could place fire flowers and mushrooms as notes, as well as the mini-game Gnat Attack. That program of this type was bundled with the SNES Mouse accessory. Examples of these programs include Lightroom. For 10 points, Kid Pix and Photoshop are what types of software?

ozone [accept O3 accept ozonolysis​; do not accept or prompt on "O2" or "oxygen"]

Reacting this compound with alkenes or alkynes will break the carbon-carbon bond through a "one-three dipolar cycloaddition" mechanism first described by Rudolf Criegee. That reaction explains why this compound causes cracking in rubber. It's not sulfur dioxide, but the concentration of this compound can be measured in (*) ​Dobson units. The formation of a chlorine atom via UV light leads to the depletion of this molecule; due to that reaction, CFCs are banned under the Montréal protocol. For 10 points, give this triatomic form of oxygen that forms a protective layer in the atmosphere.

plasma cell [prompt on B cell]

Recent research has revealed that, though these cells are differentiated in response to XBP-1 splicing, the process is surprisingly not driven by unfolded protein response in the ER. PRMD1, also known as Blimp-1, is necessary for the differentiation of these cells. Bortemozib is a protease inhibitor that can effectively deplete the "long-lived" versions of these cells, which can cause SLE in mice. Flow cytometry can detect these cells because they express high levels of CD138 on their surface, and these cells notably do not express (*) CD20. The cancer of these cells is called multiple myeloma. In somatic hypermutation, the differentiation of these cells is driven by their high affinity for a given antigen. These cells are differentiated from their counterparts because they secrete antibodies immediately in response to infection. Those longer-lasting counterparts of these cells secrete antibodies in response to reinfection. For 10 points, identify this type of B cell that isn't a memory cell.

n log n [or linearithmic, loglinear, accept answers with other letters in place of n, such as E log E, prompt on quasilinear or quasipolynomial, do not prompt on partial answers of any of the above answers like "log n" or "linear" are totally wrong]

Schonhage and Strassen conjectured this lower bound on the runtime of algorithms for multiplying integers, though their algorithm takes log-log-n times longer. One algorithm with this runtime uses properties of 2-to-the-kth roots of unity and twiddle factors to cut down on the slower runtime of naïve discrete algorithms. Algorithms satisfying the recurrence T-of-n equals n plus quantity 2 times T of n-over-2 have this runtime. The Cooley-Tukey algorithm for FFT has this runtime. Algorithms with this runtime are quasilinear with exponent one. Mergesort worst-case has this runtime, and this average runtime of quicksort is better than the worst-case n-squared. For 10 points, what is the asymptotic runtime of doing n repetitions of an n-element binary search algorithm?

Steadicam [accept Brown Stabilizer before mentioned; prompt on cameras; prompt on movie cameras]

Ted Churchill published a pamphlet on how to operate one of these things, calling his occupation the "Last Great Job in the Business". Vittorio Storaro co-led early workshops on how to use these devices. A handheld one of these devices goes by the name of Merlin. This is the best known invention of a man who also created "Sky", "Dive" and "Moby" variants of the same product. A consumer-marketed version of these devices can hold an iPhone and is marketed as the Smoothee. They were originally named for their inventor, Garrett Brown. Like a (*) gyroscope, a gimbal is used for balancing these things and supports the sled. The counterbalance of these devices often includes the battery pack. The operator of one of these devices no longer had to rely on an expensive dolly setup. One of these devices was used to record the steps sequence from the first Rocky and the speeder-bike shots in Return of the Jedi. For 10 points, name this type of stable camera.

mixing [or word forms; or stirring; or word forms; or impelling; or word forms; or axial mixing; or backmixing; prompt on moving or motion or similar answers; do NOT accept or prompt on "solvation" or "dissolving"]

The Euclidean minimum spanning tree and modified Curl models characterize this process. As the extent of this process increases, the calculated area under a Levenspiel plot increases, and the RTD widens from a spike to a decaying exponential. In a device where this process is assumed not to occur, the axial Peclet number is infinite, and conversion is maximized at one minus the exponential of the negative Damköhler number. To facilitate this process, packed beds are fluidized. This operation is combined with (*) settling in liquid-liquid extractors. Assuming ideality, the free energy change from this process equals negative RT times the sum of "mole fraction times log of mole fraction." This process does not occur at dead zones or in a plug-flow reactor, but is perfect in a CSTR, where it is done by an impeller. For 10 points, name this process which makes the concentration uniform throughout a chemical reactor, which is done in the lab using a magnetic bar.

substitution [accept SN1 or SN2]

The Finkelstein reaction is one-step reaction of this type. The acylation and alkylation Friedel-Crafts reactions are electrophilic aromatic reactions of this type. Substrates undergoing one reaction of this type pass through a trigonal bipyramidal transition state and undergo a Walden inversion of configuration. The reaction of hydroxide with iodomethane to yield methanol is an example of this type of reaction. These reactions, which often compete with elimination reactions, have a unimolecular version termed SN1 and a bimolecular version termed SN2. For 10 points, name this type of reaction in which one group in in a molecule is replaced by another.

supersymmetry theories [or SUSY, accept word forms, accept supergravity]

The Haag-Lopuszanski-Sohnius theorem allows for these theories to rely on a non-trivial extension of the Poincaré algebra. In models of this type, R-parity is introduced to forbid violations of baryon-lepton number conservation. A hypothetical spin-3/2 particle with an exceedingly long decay time would be predicted by combinations of these theories and gravity. The recently-discovered Higgs boson is near the upper mass limit allowed by this class of theories, the lightest particle proposed by which composes dark matter in many models. The spontaneous breaking of its central relations would solve the hierarchy problem. None of their predictions have been confirmed by the LHC. For 10 points, identify this likely-false class of theories that propose fermionic superpartners for every boson

symmetric [accept word forms]

The Schur polynomials form a basis for the space of polynomials described by this adjective. According to Cayley's theorem, a group is isomorphic to a subgroup of one of these groups, which each contain a subgroup half its size known as an alternating group. When all of its entries are real, a Hermitian matrix is equivalent to a matrix described by this adjective. An equivalence relation obeys reflexivity, transitivity, and this property. An even function has this property with respect to the line x = 0, A parabola has this property about the line x = negative b divided by 2 a. For 10 points, give this term which describes a shape that can be reflected along an axis in its center, such as a star or a circle.

moment of inertia [or angular mass; or rotational inertia; do not prompt on or accept "mass" or "inertia"]

The angular frequency of a torsion pendulum is equal to the square root of the spring constant divided by this quantity. If an object has three distinct values of this quantity, its movement about its second axis is unstable according to the tennis racket theorem. If this quantity is known for an object about one axis, it is equal to its value through the center of mass plus mass times radius squared through a parallel axis. The product of this quantity and angular acceleration equals torque according to the rotational analogue of Newton's second law. This quantity can be calculated by integrating radius squared with respect to mass. For 10 points, name this rotational analogue of mass.

sulfur [accept S]

The blue color of lapis lazuli is due to a triatomic, radical anion of this element. Canyon Diablo troilite is used as the international reference standard for isotope ratios of this element. Sweetening gasoline involves oxidizing atoms of this element. Superheated water is pumped into the ground to extract this element in the Frasch process. This element is found with mercury in cinnabar and with lead in galena. Its most common allotrope is a crown-shaped ring containing eight atoms of it. It is found with iron in pyrite, or "fool's gold" and a very strong acid with this element at the center is made in the lead chamber process. For 10 points, name this nonmetal that forms yellow crystals.

liquid crystals [accept specific types]

The expression for the free energy density of these materials includes a term that is typically calculated using the Rapini-Papoular approximation. Imura-Okano theory describes these materials' anomalous dispersion of ultrasonic waves. Kapustin-Williams domains appear in these materials when an applied voltage induces the Carr-Helfrich instability. The Leslie coefficients and Frank parameters respectively characterize the viscosity and elasticity of these materials, whose (*) order parameter is given by the average of the second-order Legendre polynomial of the cosine of the angle between the molecular axis and the local director. Distortions of the structure of these materials occur via bends, splays, and twists, the latter of which can be controlled using an electric field in order to change their opacity. For 10 points, name this class of materials whose thermotropic variety exhibits smectic and nematic phases, the latter of which is widely used in electronic displays.

organ transplant rejection [accept clear equivalents; accept host-versus-graft disease before it is mentioned; do not accept graft-versus-host disease or GvHD]

The high rate of this condition in African-Americans is partially explained by the DARC receptor. Drugs used to treat this condition generally fall into two categories: calcineurin inhibitors such as tacrolimus and cyclosporine, and mTOR inhibitors such as everolimus and rapamycin. This condition can be triggered by opsonization followed by a complement cascade, in which many phagocytes are recruited to the area.. The risk of this phenomenon can be mitigated by serotyping both parties before one process, to ensure the human leukocyte antigens are sufficiently similar. For 10 points, identify this condition where a host's immune system destroys grafted foreign tissues, like a donated kidney.

Legendre polynomials [prompt on "spherical harmonics"]

The nth of these functions evaluated at x equals the hypergeometric function 2 F 1 of negative n, comma, n plus one, semicolon, 1, semicolon, 1 minus x over 2. The square of the nth of these functions is greater than the product of the n minus one-th and the n plus one-th according to Turan's inequality. These functions' orthonormality conditions involve 2 over 2 L plus 1 times the Kronecker delta. Problems in spherical coordinates but with azimuthal symmetry are often solved using these functions. Their (*) "associated" functions appear evaluated at cosine of theta when solving the Schrödinger equation in spherical coordinates. The eigenfunctions angular momentum can be written as a normalization constant times an exponential times one of these functions of cosine theta; those are the spherical harmonics. For 10 points, name this set of orthogonal polynomials that appear in the angular portion of the wavefunction of a hydrogen atom.

flowers [prompt on "petals"]

The organization of these organs before maturation is called their "aestivation." These organs are often subtended by bracts, which in some cases are arranged into involucres at the base of umbels. In the Fagaceae, these structures are arranged into catkins. During development, these structures can be protected by a calyx. In monocots, these organs have three-fold symmetry. Ovaries are located at the base of these organs. These structures often have patterns only visible under UV light to attract pollinators. For 10 points, name these structures which are surrounded by petals and contain the stigma, style, and anther.

Maillard reaction [my-YARD] [or glycation or word forms; prompt on Amadori rearrangement until it is read]

The oxidative Namiki pathway contrasts with this reaction's classic mechanism offered by John Edward Hodge. Boronate affinity chromatography is specific for products of this reaction. Pentosidine and pyrraline, which are formed by this reaction, have been implicated in Alzheimer's disease. This reaction forms furfural at low temperatures and acrylamide at high temperatures. The first half of this reaction opens a hemiacetal, then dehydrates it to give the enamine, then rehydrates it to reform a six-membered ring, which is the (*) Amadori rearrangement. Advanced endproducts called AGEs can be formed by a Strecker degradation at the end of it. Hb1Ac is hemoglobin that has undergone this reaction. Sterilizing LB too long in an autoclave causes the media to undergo this reaction and turn dark brown. For 10 points, name this condensation of amino acids and reducing sugars, which occurs when you bake bread.

ideal gas constant [accept R before mentioned]

The point at which the second virial coefficient is zero is inversely proportional to a van der Waals coefficient times this quantity; that point is the Boyle temperature. van der Waals predicts the critical temperature to be at 8a over 27b times this quantity. The difference between the heat capacities in the numerator and denominator of the adiabatic index is equal to it. Plotting rate constant against reciprocal temperature gives a graph with slope inversely proportional to this value, because it appears in the denominator of the exponential term of the Arrhenius equation. This constant is the result of multiplying Boltzmann's constant by the Avogadro constant, and it's equal to PV over NT. For 10 points, what is this constant, often symbolized R?

convection

The stability of a body against this process can be calculated by dividing the gravitational acceleration by constant pressure heat capacity, which is known as the Schwarzschild criterion. The movement of a fluid at an interface via this process is known as the Marangoni effect. The energy transfer of this process appears in the numerator of the Nusselt number. A form of this process causes the formation of Rayleigh-Benard cells. The heating of air, causing it to rise and be replaced by colder air leading to air circulation, is a form of this process. For 10 points, name this transfer of heat contrasted with radiation and conduction.

red blood​ cells [or erythrocyte​s; prompt on just "blood cells"]

These cells can fail to mature as a result of atrophic gastritis. These cells proliferate in polycythemia, and they are created from reticulocytes. Formation of these cells is inhibited by low amounts of vitamins B9 and B12. These cells are affected by the E-6-V mutation of glutamic acid to valine. Breakdown of them creates (*) biliverdin and bilirubin. ​These cells catalyze the production of a carbonic-acid buffer. These cells unusually lack nuclei. They are produced via erythropoiesis in the bone marrow and are afflicted in sickle-cell anemia. For 10 points, name these hemoglobin containing cells that transport oxygen through the circulatory system.

indoles

These compounds can be synthesized from benzoquinone in the Nenitzescu synthesis. A methyl group ortho to a nitro group is deprotonated in the first steps of the Leimgreuber-Batcho and Reissert syntheses of these compounds. A ketone, an imidazole, and this functional group is found in the anti-nausea drug ondansetron. A classic reaction used to synthesize these compounds was modified to use a palladium-catalyzed cross coupling between an aryl bromide and a hydrazone by Stephen Buchwald. That synthesis of these compounds contains a [3,3]- sigmatropic rearrangement where a compound with two imines is formed from an aryl hydrazine. The Fischer synthesis is used to make this functional group, which is part of the most commonly occurring auxin and the side chain of tryptophan. For 10 points, name this heterocyclic functional group consisting of a benzene ring fused to a pyrrole.

enzyme​s [prompt on "proteins"; prompt on "catalysts" before the word "catalyze"]

These molecules are modeled by the equation "​​V equals ​V-max-​S over ​K-m plus ​S," which uses a steady-state approximation. Their function can be enhanced via cooperativity, and they are usually regulated by feedback inhibition. The function of these molecules is described by the MichaelisMenten model. These molecules, which often require (*) ​cofactors, can be inhibited competitively or noncompetitively, or regulated allosterically. Via an induced fit, the active site of one of these molecules binds to its substrate, lowering the activation energy of a reaction. For 10 points, name these proteins that catalyze metabolic reactions.

alpha helix [or alpha helices; prompt on "helix" or "helices"]

These structures have a 1JCa-Ha ("one-J C-A H-A") coupling constant of 146.5 hertz. A phenomenon exhibited by these structures corresponds mathematically to a large, acoustic, and weakly coupled polaron. Wenxiang ("wun-shee-ong") diagrams depict these structures, which propagate energy via Davydov solitons. Connecting loops between these structures are the locations of NPA motifs. These structures show strong minima at (*) 208 and 222 nanometers in circular dichroism spectroscopy. Lysine acetylation takes place at hydrophobic binding sites created by the interaction of four of these structures in a bromodomain. Heptad repeats form when two of these structures dimerize into a leucine zipper. For 10 points, hydrogen bonds at every fourth amino acid characterize what type of protein secondary structure that is contrasted with a beta sheet?

ecological niches

These things are defined in terms of both requirements and impacts by Chase and Leibold, who use Tilman's ZNGI ("zin-gee") formalism to analyze them graphically. Stephen Hubbell's Unified Neutral Theory represents a null hypothesis for the existence of these things by assuming equivalence among individuals. Joseph Connell used Chthamalus stellatus and Balanus balanoides in a landmark study of the (*) realized width of these things. Grinnell and Elton developed alternate environmental and biotic conceptions of these things. G. E. Hutchinson defined the "fundamental" type of these things as an n-dimensional hypervolume, where each axis corresponds to a different resource. The "paradox of the plankton" was posed due to an apparent violation of Gause's law of competitive exclusion concerning the overlap of these things for different species. For 10 points, name this term that refers to the role played by an organism in its habitat.

waveguides

They're not vacuum tubes, but if the frequency-gap product is too large in these devices, the resulting electron cascade can destroy them via the multipactor effect. Sommerfeld sometimes lends his name to one of these devices invented by George Goubau. The effective index method is not as good as the Marcatili method for approximating behavior inside these structures. The natural one formed by the lower boundary of the ionosphere and Earth's surface can explain Schumann resonance. Solving Maxwell's equations with appropriate boundary conditions yields hybrid, TM, TE, but not TEM modes in the one-conductor rectangular form of these devices. For 10 points, identify these structures like optical fibers that force linear propagation of electromagnetic radiation.

Forbidden Planet

This film's score is credited as "electronic tonalities" created by Bebe and Louis Barron. A cook in this film requests some alcohol and is asked in response "Would sixty gallons be sufficient?" A tiger that had previously been docile in the presence of this film's only female character attacks her on sight after she has her first kiss. In this film's only battle scene, atomic disintegrator blasts reveal the outline of a creature that had earlier torn Chief Quinn limb from limb. Much of this film takes place at the house of (*) Dr. Morbius, who has unknowingly re-awakened the "monsters from the id" that long ago destroyed a hyper-advanced alien race called the Krell. In this film, Leslie Nielsen plays a young spaceship commander who leads a mission to Altair IV to re-establish contact with a group of United Planets colonists. For 10 points, name this 1956 film whose poster shows Anne Francis being carried by Robby the Robot.

Baron Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin

This inventor had a key inspiration after reading a proposal by postmaster general Heinrich von Stephan and was able to convince fellow Wurttemberger Gottlieb Daimler to lend him his engineer, Theodor Groß ("Gros"). Hermann von Helmholtz once deemed this man's proposed invention, "very remarkable and not infeasible" while serving as chair of a panel that recommended that the military fund him. The first of his inventions to be tested was shown to be (*) faster than La France. Bags from goldbeater's skin were used in this man's best known invention, which was developed into a technology that killed three-year-old Elsie Leggatt and six others in London on May 31st, 1915. A large setback for a technology developed by this man occurred on May 6th, 1937 in Manchester Township, New Jersey, prompting Herbert Morrison's famous line, "Oh, the humanity!" For 10 points, name this builder of eponymous air ships.

Francis Beaufort

This man survived the wreck of the Vansittart, which was carrying over ninety thousand pounds' worth of treasure. This scientist drilled troops on how to operate Ireland's first optical telegraph service, a system developed by his brother-in-law Richard Lovell Edgeworth. He wrote a book titled Karamania after he was wounded while conducting a hydrographic survey of Syria and Turkey in the HMS Frederickssteen. This man improved on systems devised by lighthouse engineer John Smeaton and the Dutchman Jan Noppen. One system invented by this man used the symbol "fg" to represent (*) "foggy" and "sq" to denote "squally" among its 29 symbols. A system he created was originally based on the effects of a certain phenomenon on a fully rigged man-of-war and was first used on the Beagle expedition. That same system assigned a score of 0 to calm and 13 to storm. For 10 points, identify this namesake of a wind scale.

histidine [accept His; do not accept or prompt on "histamine"]

This molecule's namesake kinases are exemplified by envZ and cheA, and use four-helix bundle motifs to relay phosphoryl groups from ATP. AICAR is a byproduct of the biosynthesis of this molecule, which involves the Amadori rearrangement of 5'ProFAR in order to produce its unique side chain. In a particular catalytic triad, the acidic residue, aspartate, polarizes this molecule, which in turn activates (*) nucleophilic cysteine. At the oxygen binding site of hemoglobin, iron is bound to this amino acid's imidazole side chain. For 10 points, name this slightly basic amino acid which is decarboxylated to form histamine.

four

This number divided by any integer greater than or equal to 2 is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of three positive integers according to the Erdos-Straus conjecture. Frobenius proved that real division algebras have a maximum of this many dimensions. The smallest non-cyclic group has this many elements and is called the (*) Klein group. Any integer can be expressed as the sum of this many square numbers. The Abel-Ruffini theorem states that this is the highest degree of a polynomial for which a general solution in radicals can be found. Cousin primes are a distance of this number apart. For 10 points, name this number of colors required for map coloring, which is equal to the square root of 16.

curl [accept del cross until mentioned; anti-prompt on spatial derivative]

This operation takes place at each "leapfrog" time step of the Yee algorithm. In computational MHD, a fourth-order instance of this operation is o畔ten replaced by a di猼ferent operation that is second-order but has 220 degrees of freedom per conforming 炬nite element. The magnitude squared of this operation appears in the expression for the rate of change of magnetic energy due to Joule heating. Along with the time derivative, this operation modi炬es the superconducting current density in the London equations. The free-space electromagnetic wave equation may be derived by performing this operation on both sides of the di猼ferential formulation of Faraday's law or Ampère's law, then using the identity that applying this operation twice is equivalent to subtracting the Laplacian from the gradient of the divergence. For 10 points, name this operation that relates the magnetic vector potential to the B-炬eld and is denoted "del cross."

methane [accept CH4 before mentioned]

This organic compound may be formed by reacting aluminum carbide with water. The nickel-catalyzed Sabatier reaction is usually applied after the electrolysis of water in a process for synthesizing this compound. A sulfate reduction is typically coupled to the anaerobic oxidation of this compound. Water-gas shift is usually performed in conjunction with the steam reforming of this compound. The chlorination of this compound is a standard free radical halogenation reaction that can be used to create (*) chloroform. When this compound is trapped in crystallized water, it can form its namesake clathrates. This compound is typically produced by reacting carbon dioxide with hydrogen gas. The presence of this compound in Mars' atmosphere has led some to speculate about the possibility of extraterrestrial life there, and it is a major component of natural gas. For 10 points, identify this simplest alkane with formula CH4.

cloud droplet formation

This process' size distribution is commonly measured using a device designed by Roberts and Nenes. Chuang et al. identified an inertial mechanism that is the only kinetic limitation on this process to satisfy conservation of particle number. Berry and Reinhardt developed the stochastic collision model of this process, in which the magnitude of the collection kernel indicates the relative importance of turbulence. This process is described by a combination of the (*) Kelvin equation and Raoult's law, according to Köhler theory. The products of this process may subsequently undergo the Bergeron-Findeison process in the presence of supercooled ice crystals. For 10 points, identify this process that typically occurs via the activation of its namesake condensation nuclei and produces large masses of supersaturated atmospheric water vapor.

the nucleus [or atomic nuclei]

This system's Coriolis reduction problem is addressed perturbatively by the use of a cranking Hamiltonian. The dependence of this system's single-particle energy spectrum on its quadrupole deformation parameter is plotted on a Nilsson diagram. An yrast (EER-ast) state of this system is has the minimum energy for a given angular momentum. Collective motion in this system is described by the Bohr-Mottelson model. A correction term that is either positive, negative, or zero depending on whether its two inputs are both even, both odd, or of opposite (*) parity accounts for the pairing interaction among this system's components in an equation that also incorporates volume, surface, asymmetry and Coulomb terms. That semi-empirical mass formula for this system is based on the liquid drop model. For 10 points, name this system that is most stable for "magic numbers" of protons and neutrons.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging [or NMR]

This technique can be used to study protein folding and structure by measuring hydrogen-deuterium exchange with the solvent. The nuclear Overhauser effect is utilized by the ROESY and NOESY versions of this technique. Deshielded atoms like the carbons of carbonyl groups appear farthest downfield in this technique. In this technique, peak separation can be used to calculate the coupling constant J, and its splitting patterns of this can be predicted by Pascal's triangle. It can only be applied to nuclei with spin like carbon-13 or protons and it serves as the basis for an MRI. For 10 points, name this technique that studies studies the nuclei of atoms with a strong magnetic field.

chlorophyll

Tigrina mutants are characterized by buildup of a toxic precursor to this molecule. A pathway for the synthesis of this molecule unusually requires glutamic acid ligated to tRNA as a precursor. The C5 pathway, also known as the Beale pathway, comprises a major step in the synthesis of this molecule. LPOR and DPOR are two reductases that are used in the synthesis of this molecule. The breakdown of this molecule causes an increase in pheophytin a, which is then converted into tetrapyrrole catabolites called (*) NNCs. This molecule is not heme, but glycine and succinyl-CoA is converted to a precursor of this molecule by 5-ALA synthase. This molecule comes in "special pairs" called P680 and P700. It contains a long 20-carbon phytol chain and a porphyrin coordinated with a central magnesium ion, and is located in the thylakoid membrane. For 10 points, name this green pigment that is used for photosynthesis.

garbage collection [or GC , accept word forms]

To aid in performing this process, Smalltalk and Racket make use of ephemerons. A lazy algorithm developed for this process by Lins works most efficiently when side effects are rare. One package for this purpose in C was developed by Boehm, Demers, and Weiser. A new heap is created and live objects moved to it in Cheney's algorithm for this process. All methods for performing it on the Java virtual machine are stop-the-world. This process can make use of a finalizer. The tracing that precedes this process is often used instead of reference counting, and can be accomplished by Dijkstra's three-color or mark-sweep techniques. For 10 points, name this automatic type of memory management which frees up space taken by objects that are no longer used.

Pearson hard soÂt acid base theory [or HSAB theory; accept Pearson HSAB theory until it is read; prompt on hardness]

Toxicant-target interactions of molecules like acro·le·in and cur·cumin can predicted from a parameter derived from this theory which is symbolized omega. This theory explains why certain metals like titanium and niobium form oxides via hydrolysis or abstraction of oxygen. This theory predicts that in reactions with ambident nucleo·philes, the more electronegative atom reacts via a SN1 (ess-enn-"ONE") mechanism while the less electronegative atom reacts via a SN2 (ess-enn-"TWO") mechanism. Oxo·phil·icity and Kornblum's rule are predicted by this theory, which explains why nucleophiles like Grignard reagents add one-two to alpha-beta unsaturated carbonyls. The quantity central to this theory is proportional to the second derivative of the total energy of a system with respect to the number of electrons, but it can also be calculated as half the di猼ference of the ionization energy and electron a猼炬nity. Molecules are categorized based on their size, charge, and polarizability by, for 10 points, what acid-base theory developed by Ralph Pearson?

XY model [or planar spin model]

Villain developed an approximation for this model by replacing the original Hamiltonian with a Gaussian. The correlation function in this model diverges exponentially when approaching the critical temperature from above but follows a power law when approaching from below. The change in free energy when adding a pair of singularities in this model is determined by the "helicity modulus" or "spin stiffness." Although this model does not exhibit an ordered phase, as implied by the Mermin-Wagner-Hohenberg theorem, (*) vortex excitations can drive a phase transition named for Kosterlitz and Thouless. The Hamiltonian for this model can be written as the sum over i and j of the cosine of the difference between theta-sub-i and theta-sub-j, where i and j are indices of a lattice of spins. For 10 points, identify this model of statistical mechanics which takes its name from the fact that its dimensionality is traditionally equal to 2.

Doug Engelbart [or Douglas Carl Engelbart]

While serving as a radar technician in the Philippines, this man's life changed when he read Vannevar Bush's "As We May Think". The Bootstrap Alliance is now named for this man. A one hundred thousand dollar CDC 160A was a key component of this man's oNLineSystem or NLS. He contended that using a computer should involve increased levels of cognitive focus because "a co-evolution will occur between the tools and the people who use them". This man "dealt lightning with both hands" during a groundbreaking (*) presentation at the Joint Computer Conference in San Francisco in 1968 where he manipulated an SRI computer in Menlo Park. This man gave the aforementioned "Mother of All Demos". Mechanical engineer Jack Hawley replaced the perpendicular flywheels in this man's best known invention with a roller-ball. For 10 points, name this inventor of the mouse.