NRSC: EXAM 4 (CH. 16-20)
What evidence supports the conclusion that the memory system that supports skillful behaviors is outside of the region of the brain that supports our ability to recollect the training episodes?
Amnestic patients who have no recollection of their training episodes can still perform the tasks from the trainings.
(T or F) According to the unitary view, the hippocampal formation is required for episodic memory but not for semantic.
False
(T or F) Based on the animal research using the contextual fear conditioning model one should conclude that the standard model of systems consolidation is wrong.
False
(T or F) Caroline and Robert Blanchard found that the predatory imminence gradient only applies to animal models.
False
(T or F) Damage to the hippocampus after contextual fear conditioning has no effect on recall of the contextual fear memory.
False
(T or F) Damage to the hippocampus prior to contextual fear conditioning produces severe amnesia for contextual fear memory.
False
(T or F) Fleeing is the dominant and most effective defensive behavior in rodents.
False
(T or F) Freezing is the dominant and most effective defensive behavior in rodents.
False
(T or F) Henry Malaison could not learn or retain any new skills.
False
(T or F) In the context preexposure experiment animals spent more time freezing in the context where they were shocked than they did in the preexposed context.
False
(T or F) Inactivating prelimbic neurons does not affect the expression of fear behaviors.
False
(T or F) Information from the perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices is projected to the hippocampus.
False
(T or F) Initial experiments by Mishkin revealed that damage to either the hippocampus or the amygdala had severe effect on DNMS performance.
False
(T or F) Injecting an enzyme that degrades the perineuronal net into the BLA prior to or after fear conditioning erases the fear memory in adult rodents.
False
(T or F) It is likely that the monkeys with damage to the hippocampus were using recognition based on recollection to perform the DNMS
False
(T or F) Mark Bouton's research found evidence for the associative loss hypothesis.
False
(T or F) One cannot have a sense of familiarity without recollection.
False
(T or F) Our episodic memory system can only be accessed if we intentionally initiate a search.
False
(T or F) Patients with selective damage to the hippocampus that was sustained in early childhood had impaired cognitive function and severe amnesia.
False
(T or F) Pattern completion processes enables similar experiences to be stored as unique memories.
False
(T or F) Rats with damage to the action system would adapt more rapidly to a discrimination reversal than normal rats.
False
(T or F) Rats with damage to the striatum performed as well as control rats in the adjacent-arm task.
False
(T or F) Sensory information at the neocortex level is well integrated and not abstract.
False
(T or F) The ITC-b cluster normally excites central amygdala neurons.
False
(T or F) The activation of the entire memory by a subset of the original experience is called pattern separation.
False
(T or F) The animal research literature provides strong support for the standard model of systems consolidation.
False
(T or F) The brain has specialized systems to store the different kind of memories, but the content of our experience does not matter to the brain.
False
(T or F) The delay matching to sample task requires the subject to choose the previously sampled object.
False
(T or F) The habit system adapts rapidly to changes in contingencies.
False
(T or F) The habit system is more flexible than the action system.
False
(T or F) The hippocampus only automatically stores information that pertains to the task at hand.
False
(T or F) The hippocampus stores the content of experiences.
False
(T or F) The patient in Claparède's experiment could remember that Claparède stuck him with a pin but would still shake hands
False
(T or F) The prelimbic region is critical in the acquisition of the associations that support a habit.
False
(T or F) The standard model of systems consolidation applies to declarative and procedural memory.
False
(T or F) There is no evidence that the extrahippocampal system acquires a contextual fear memory if the hippocampus is functioning normally at the time of conditioning.
False
(T or F) Thorndike believed that instrumental behaviors are purposeful and organized around goals.
False
(T or F) To create a contextual fear memory Ramirez used optogenetic stimulation to activate the memory of the preexposed context in a context where the mice were shocked.
False
What were the results in the adjacent-arm task?
Normal rats learned this task, but rats with damage to the striatum were quite impaired.
What is an important difference between recognition based on recollection versus recognition based on familiarity?
Recognition based on recollection relies on the episodic memory system and the hippocampus, whereas recognition based on familiarity does not.
Provide an example of recognition without recall.
Recognizing a person as familiar without being able to recall information about the place and time you met them.
(T or F) DREADD but not optogenetic methods revealed that a contextual fear memory is acquired by the extrahippocampal system even if the hippocampus is functioning normally at the time of conditioning.
True
(T or F) Damage to the hippocampus after contextual fear conditioning produces severe amnesia for contextual fear memory.
True
(T or F) Damage to the hippocampus or the amygdala did not impair performance on the DNMS task.
True
(T or F) Discrimination reversal tests are thought to measure flexibility.
True
(T or F) During memory formation an index is created in the hippocampus that provides a loop back to the neocortical units that store memory.
True
(T or F) Endel Tulving argued that episodic memory should be considered as separate from declarative memory.
True
(T or F) Extinction neurons project to ITC-b cells.
True
(T or F) Henry Malaison had extensive anterograde and retrograde amnesia, but his short-term memory was intact.
True
(T or F) Information from the perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices is projected to the entorhinal cortex.
True
(T or F) Initial experiments by Mishkin revealed that damage to either the hippocampus or the amygdala had very little effect on delayed nonmatching to sample (DNMS) performance.
True
(T or F) Instrumental behavior is modified by the outcome it produces.
True
(T or F) It is difficult to develop an animal model of episodic memory because animals can't directly tell the experiment what they recall.
True
(T or F) It is likely that the monkeys with damage to the hippocampus were using recognition based on familiarity to perform the DNMS.
True
(T or F) It requires about an hour for DREADDs to be activated.
True
(T or F) Like the MTH system, the cortico-striatal system has return-loop organization.
True
(T or F) Mark Bouton's research found evidence against the associative loss hypothesis.
True
(T or F) Most researchers agrees that the hippocampal component is critical for the initial acquisition and retrieval of episodic memories.
True
(T or F) One can conclude from the animal research that there is a strong extrahippocampal system that can support contextual fear conditioning.
True
(T or F) One interpretation of the animal literature is that the contextual fear conditioning model is inappropriate for evaluating the standard model because it does not depend on the pattern completion processes provide by the hippocampus.
True
(T or F) Optogenetic but not DREADD methods revealed that a contextual fear memory is acquired by the extrahippocampal system even if the hippocampus is functioning normally at the time of conditioning.
True
(T or F) Optogenetics provides strong support for the idea that the contextual fear memory trace depends on the hippocampus for the life of the memory.
True
(T or F) Patients with selective damage to the hippocampus that was sustained in early childhood had normal cognitive function and severe episodic memory impairments. amnesia.
True
(T or F) Pattern completion supported by the hippocampus is only possible because of the return loop in the organization of the neural systems.
True
(T or F) Pattern separation processes enables similar experiences to be stored as unique memories.
True
(T or F) Preventing AMPA receptor endocytosis can prevent spontaneous recovery.
True
(T or F) Rats with damage to the habit system would adapt more rapidly to a discrimination reversal than normal rats.
True
(T or F) Rats with damage to the habit system would adapt more rapidly to a discrimination reversal than rats with damage to the action system.
True
(T or F) Recollection includes content that is supported by the episodic memory system, but familiarity does not.
True
(T or F) Reward devaluation will not influence the behavior if it is controlled by the habit system.
True
(T or F) Rodents can acquire a representation of a context that can be activated by a subset of the features that make up the episode.
True
(T or F) Scoville surgically removed the most of the hippocampus, amygdala, and surrounding cortical regions.
True
(T or F) Sensory information is most abstract and fully integrated at the hippocampus level.
True
(T or F) Spontaneous recovery could be the result of intrinsic mechanism that produce forgetting
True
(T or F) Systems consolidation theory does not assume that repeated recall or repetition contributes to the memory becoming independent of the hippocampus.
True
(T or F) The ITC-b cluster normally inhibits central amygdala neurons.
True
(T or F) The action system adapts rapidly to changes in contingencies.
True
(T or F) The activation of the entire memory by a subset of the original experience is called pattern completion.
True
(T or F) The animal research literature provides no support for the standard model of systems consolidation.
True
(T or F) The content of experiences is stored in neocortical regions
True
(T or F) The delay matching to sample task can be performed without a hippocampus.
True
(T or F) The delay matching to sample task requires the subject to choose the novel object.
True
(T or F) The details that make up an episode and the emotional impact of the experience are stored in different brain regions.
True
(T or F) The dopamine reinforcement hypothesis relates dopamine to Thorndike's idea that rewards strengthen associative connections.
True
(T or F) The episodic memory system must be critically involved in both the storage and retrieval of contextual information.
True
(T or F) The extrahippocampal system acquires a contextual fear memory even if the hippocampus is functioning normally at the time of conditioning.
True
(T or F) The fundamental outcome produced by extinction training is to change synaptic connections that will increase inhibitory control over neurons in the central amygdala.
True
(T or F) The habit system adapts slowly to changes in contingencies.
True
(T or F) The habit system is sensitive to repetition.
True
(T or F) The hippocampus automatically captures information including unintentional, incidental information.
True
(T or F) The patient in Claparède's experiment could not remember that Claparède stuck him with a pin but would not shake hands
True
(T or F) The periaqueductal gray (PAG) produces freezing and analgesia.
True
(T or F) The striatum is a part of the basal ganglia.
True
(T or F) The subiculum is a part of the medial temporal hippocampal system.
True
(T or F) The subiculum is the output region of the medial temporal hippocampal system.
True
(T or F) To generate fear behavior, the neurons in the central amygdala must be depolarized.
True
(T or F) Tolman believed that instrumental behaviors are purposeful and organized around goals.
True
(T or F) Tolman's theory placed a heavy emphasis on the value of the outcome produced by an instrumental behavior.
True
(T or F) in the context preexposure experiment animals spent more time freezing in the context where they were preexposed than they did in context where they were shocked.
True
If the response is controlled by the __________ system, devaluing the outcome should reduce the likelihood that the response will occur.
action
The prelimbic region is critical in the acquisition of the associations that support a(n) __________.
action
According to competitive trace theory memories become _________ as they age.
distorted
According to the __________, with limited training instrumental behaviors are goal directed actions, but with practice instrumental behaviors tend to shift from actions to habits, meaning they become insensitive to reward devaluation.
dominance principle
Damage to the __________ can prevent a behavior from ever becoming a habit.
dorsolateral striatum (DLS)
Damage to the __________ makes rats insensitive to reward devaluation.
dorsomedial striatum (DMS)
According to the predatory imminence gradient, as the predator moves within striking distance, the rat will __________.
flee
According to the predatory imminence gradient, when a potential predator is at a distance the rat will most likely
freeze
__________ is the dominant and most effective defensive behavior in rodents.
freezing
Neurons in the periaqueductal gray (PAG) produce __________ and _________.
freezing and analgesia
If the response is controlled by the __________ system, then reward devaluation will not influence the behavior.
habit
Claparède's patient not shake hands with him because
he really did not know why so he made up a story
In memory retrieval, a subset of the initial input pattern can activate the __________.
hippocampal index
In the case of Henry Malaison, the __________ were bilaterally removed.
medial temporal lobes
According to the standard model of systems consolidation, which of the following statements is false?
memories are permanently stored in the hippocampus
Which of the following is false according to indexing theory?
memory content is stored in the in the hippocampus
The ventral tegmental area is part of the __________ system.
mesolimbic dopamine
Henry Malaison could learn and retain the skills needed to perform the __________ and rotary-pursuit tasks.
mirror-tracing
According to the __________, damage to the hippocampus will disrupt episodic but not semantic memory.
modular view
The idea that the brain sorts memories by their content is called the __________.
multiple memory systems view
According to the standard model of systems memory consolidation, older memory traces are stored in the __________.
neocortex
Information flows to the highest level of integration and then loops back to the __________.
neocortical areas
In the DNMS task, the monkey will find a reward such as a grape or a peanut if it chooses the __________ object.
new
The correct choice on the DNMS task is the ________ object
new
In their review of the human amnesia literature, Nadel and Moscovitch concluded that if the hippocampal system is severely damaged, there is__________ of either remote or recent episodic memories.
no sparing
Habits are
not purposeful
The dopamine neurons are located in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and their fibers project into the __________ of the striatum.
nucleus accumbens
Evidence that the extrahippocampal system acquires a contextual fear memory even if the hippocampus is functional at the time of conditioning was provided by _______ the hippocampus during the retrieval test.
silencing
Temporally graded retrograde amnesia following damage to the hippocampus would support the __________.
standard model of systems consolidation
The __________ is at the center of what is sometimes called the cortico-striatal system.
striatum
The __________ is the output region of the MTH.
subiculum
The information that is processed through the hippocampus is then projected to
subiculum
Mishkin originally used the DNMS task because he believed it
was a measure of episodic memory.
(T or F) A false context fear memory was created by using optogenetic stimulation to activate indexing neurons at the time of retrieval.
False
(T or F) According to the modular view, the entorhinal cortex is on top of the hierarchy for episodic memory.
False
According to the dopamine-incentive salience hypothesis
-dopamine increases the incentive value of cues that signal reward -urges produced by environmental cues can motivate instrumental behavior
The entorhinal cortex projects to two hippocampal regions. What are they?
The dentate gyrus and the CA1 region.
Which hypothesis provides an explanation for drug relapse?
The dopamine-incentive salience hypothesis
(T or F) According to the predatory imminence hypothesis when the prey spots a predatory a distance its first response will be to flee.
False
Where in the neural circuit does the second level of integration take place?
The entorhinal cortex
Which of the following statements about the neural circuit established by extinction is true?
-Excitatory projections from the extinction neurons to the ITC-b cluster are strengthened. -Neurons in the central amygdala will be inhibited by the CS.
which of the following statements is true?
-Extinction neurons project to ITC-b cells. -Fear neurons excite neurons in the central nucleus. -Fear neurons excite neurons in the prelimbic region.
Which of the following statements is false?
-Extinction will erase the fear associations if perineuronal nets are degraded after acquisition training.
Which of the following statements is true?
-Perineuronal nets emerge in rats around three weeks after birth. -Extinction will erase the fear associations if perineuronal nets are degraded before acquisition training. -Extinction training erases fear association in rats less than three weeks old.
Following extensive training, which of the following statements will be true?
-The behavior is supported by the habit system. -The habit system dominates the action system. -The action system still contains the information needed to support the instrumental response.
Which of the following statements is false?
-The central nucleus inhibits neurons in the midbrain.
Which of the following statements is false?
-The neurotransmitter GABA excites neurons in the central amygdala. -intercalated interneurons are excitatory
Which of the following statements are true?
-The thalamus directly connects sensory information with the midbrain. -The periaqueductal gray is associated with analgesia. -The lateral hypothalamus is responsible for changes in heart rate.
Which of the following are true?
-Tolman believed that outcomes provide incentives for behavior -Tolman believed that instrumental behaviors are purposeful
If the infralimbic cortex is lesioned after extensive training, the
-action system will control the instrumental response. -habit system will be dominated by the action system.
Which of the follow are true?
-actions are more flexible than habits -actions but not habits are sensitive to the outcome produced by the behavior
According to Tolman's cognitive theory,
-animals acquire an expectancy. - the role of the reinforcer is to provide incentive for performance.
According to Thorndike's Law of Effect,
-animals learn an S-R habit. -reinforcers strengthen and weaken S-R connections.
Which of the following belong to the standard model's explanation of Ribot's law?
-as memories age they no longer requires the hippocampus -disruptive events primarily impact the neurons in the hippocampus -consolidation in the cortex depends on a functional hippocampus
Optogenetics has revealed that
-directly activating index neurons with light is possible -directly activating indexing neurons can produce false memories -activating indexing neurons in the hippocampus can activate cortical engram neurons
Which of the follow are true? Animal studies reveal that
-enduring contextual fear memories can be established in animals with damage to the hippocampus that occurred prior to conditioning -damage to hippocampus prior to contextual fear conditioning has no effect on retention of the fear memory -damage to the hippocampus following context fear conditioning impairs retention of the fear memory -the extrahippocampal system acquires a contextual fear memory even when the hippocampus is functional
According to the competitive trace theory of systems consolidation
-episodic memories can become distorted as they age -as memory ages contextual details associated with an event become lost or contaminated with false details -memory distortions can be the result of hippocampal cortex interactions that occur over time -memories would remain more veridical over time if the hippocampus was damaged.
According to the conceptual model for actions and habits,
-habits and actions can coexist. -actions must be assembled before a behavior can become a habit.
Clinical evidence
-indicates that complete damage to the MTH produces amnesia for episodic memories regardless of their age -indicates that partial damage to the MTH spared episodic memories
Which of the following IS a property of the episodic memory system?
-it supports conscious recollection -it automatically captures episodic and incidental information -it keeps similar episodes separate
Which of the following is NOT a property of the episodic memory system?
-it supports motor skills and learning
Animal researchers have difficult in confirming a role for the hippocampus in episodic memory because
-nonhumans can't tell us directly what they remember -tasks used by researchers may have solutions that don't require episodic memory
Which are of the following are true? Animal studies...
-permit control over the strength of the memory -permit control over when damage to the hippocampus occurs -indicate that even new context fear memories can be retrieved without a hippocampus
Which of the following are true? Instrumental behaviors...
-produce change in the environment -can be modified by the consequence they produce -can occur with or without intention
Actions are
-purposeful -based on expectancy.
The context preexposure facilitation effect
-requires pattern completion properties of the hippocampus -provides a methodology for studying context memory that depends on the hippocampus -can eliminate the immediate shock effect -can produce a false memory
According to indexing theory
-the engram consist of both cortical and hippocampal neurons -there is no content in the index -memory retrieval occurs when a subset of the original neocortical pattern activates the index
Which of the following are true about the neural system that support episodic memory?
-the hippocampus basically receives information from all neocortical regions -the subiculum is the primary output from the hippocampus -the entorhinal cortex projects into the hippocampus and receives information from it -the system features a return loop from the hippocampus back to the sending units
Which of the following brain regions is associated with the habit system?
-the infralimbic prefrontal cortex - the dorsolateral striatum
Damage to the hippocampus did not impair performance on the DNMS task is because
-the task did required the ability to recollect -recognition memory can be supported by a familiarity signal
What two brain regions are critical to the acquisition and maintenance of habits?
1) Dorsolateral striatum and 2) infralimbic prefrontal cortex.
The basal nucleus contains two types of neurons. What are they and what are their respective functions?
1) Fear neurons that are active when fear behaviors are expressed 2) extinction neurons that are active when a fear has been extinguished. Fear neurons in the basal nucleus provide excitatory projections to the central nucleus and to neurons in the prelimbic region of the prefrontal cortex. Extinction neurons project to ITC-b cells.
What are the five steps through which information flows in the neural system that supports the episodic memory systems.
1) From association cortices to 2) perirhinal/parahippocampal cortex to 3) entorhinal cortex to 4) hippocampus 5) back to the projection areas.
(T or F) According to the unitary view, components of the MTH system are relatively dedicated to specific functions.
False
What are the two important features of the DNMS task?
1) New objects are used on every trial; and 2) the experimenter can vary the interval between the sample and the choice trial.
What properties of the hippocampus make pattern completion possible?
1) Patterns of activity in the neocortex are represented as an index; 2) activation of the index by a subset of this pattern can retrieve the entire pattern.
What three observations support the belief that extinction produces new learning?
1) Spontaneous recovery can occur when there is a long retention interval between extinction and the test. 2) Renewal can occur when the context where extinction trials take place is different from the context in which training takes place, and the test occurs in the training context. 3) Reinstatement occurs if the US is re-presented without the CS.
What are the important properties of the episodic memory system?
1) Support of conscious recollection and storage of temporal-spatial contextual information for later retrieval; 2) ability to automatically capture episodic and incidental information; 3) ability to acquire information about an event that occurs only once, yet protect the representations it stores from interfering with each other.
Identify two problems that make storing memories in the neocortex unfavorable?
1) The associative connectivity problem 2) the interference problem.
Which three components of the amygdala are relevant to the fear system?
1) The basolateral amygdala (BLA), composed of the lateral (LA) and basal (BA) nuclei; 2) the central amygdala, 3) intercalated cells (ITC-a and ITC-b), which release inhibitory neurotransmitters (GABA) onto their targets.
What are the two critical assumptions in the standard model of systems consolidation?
1) The critical interaction between the MTH system and other cortical sites is required for only a limited time after learning, and 2) the MTH system-neocortical interaction is needed only to consolidate
Which three brain regions have been linked to the action system?
1) The dorsomedial striatum, 2) the basolateral amygdala, and 3) the prelimbic prefrontal cortex.
(T or F) A false context fear memory was created by using optogenetic stimulation to activate indexing neurons to a previously experienced context at the time of the shock.
False
Compare the unitary view and the modular view of the medial temporal hippocampal system.
According to the unitary view, the entire system is necessary for both episodic and semantic memory. According to the modular view, the hippocampal formation is not involved in semantic memory.
What are the two categories of instrumental behavior?
Actions & Habits
__________ are goal directed, purposeful, and motivated by an anticipated outcome; but __________ are not.
Actions; Habits
Neurons in the prelimbic region are reciprocally connected to fear neurons in the basal nucleus to amplify the fear signal. What is the evidence for this statement?
Activation of neurons in the lateral nucleus by a cue paired with shocks lasts only a few hundred milliseconds, but prelimbic neurons show a sustained response for the duration of the CS (tens of seconds) that correlates with the duration of the fear response. In addition, inactivating PL neurons greatly reduces the expression of fear behaviors.
What evidence supports the conclusion that the details that make up an episode and the emotional impact of the experience are stored in different brain regions?
An amnesic patient can be reluctant to shake hands without remembering the episode in which they were stung minutes before. H.M. could learn perceptual and motor tasks but could not remember the training sessions.
Describe the methodology behind the Thorndike puzzle box.
An animal was placed into the box and had to learn a particular behavior to escape—for example, to pull the ring attached by a rope to the door. The important feature of this methodology was that it arranged an explicit contingency between the animal's behavior and a change in the environment.
Wiltgen's laboratory use a neuronal silencer called _______ to inhibit indexing neurons.
ArchT
Can you provide examples of how episodes with overlapping information are somehow protected from interference by the episodic memory system?
Being able to remember where you parked today versus yesterday; being able to recall what you had for breakfast every day of the week.
Where are clusters of intercalated cells (ITCs) located?
Between the basolateral complex and the central amygdala.
__________ was responsible for the research on H.M.
Brenda Milner
How can one determine whether the correct response is an action supported by an expectancy or a habit supported by an S-R connection?
By changing the value of the reward.
In R.B.'s case, neuropathological assessment of his brain indicated that the pathology was restricted primarily to the __________.
CA1 region of the hippocampus
What are the components of the basal ganglia?
Caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, nucleus accumbens, and substantia nigra.
(T or F) According to Thorndike's Law of Effect, instrumental behavior is considered purposeful or goal directed.
False
(T or F) According to competitive trace theory episodic memories become enriched with correct contextual details as they age?
False
What is the evidence that midbrain subcortical nuclei are responsible for generating fear behaviors?
Direct electrical stimulation of these brain regions can elicit fear behaviors, and damage to these regions impairs the expression of fear behaviors.
(T or F) According to competitive trace theory episodic memories become more veridical as they age?
False
What is the experimental evidence that the action and habit systems initially compete for control of instrumental behaviors when the requirements of a situation are reversed?
Either the region of the brain that supports the action system or the region of the brain that supports the habit system was inactivated immediately prior to the test session when the response-reward contingencies reversed. Rats with inactivated action systems learned more slowly to make this adjustment. Rats with inactivated habit systems learned faster.
The CS-noUS association can be thought of as a reconfigured fear circuit that allows the extinguished CS to suppress the central amygdala. Explain this assertion.
Extinction training strengthens the synaptic connections that link the context and CS input to extinction neurons in the basal nucleus, to ITCs, and to neurons in the infralimbic prefrontal cortex, which also project to ITCs. Thus, when the CS is presented, ITCs are activated and neurons in the central amygdala are inhibited.
(T of F) Reward devaluation will not influence the behavior if it is controlled by the action system.
False
Name the structures through which information flows into and out of the hippocampus.
Entorhinal cortex --> dentate gyrus--> CA3 --> CA1 --> subiculum --> back to entorhinal cortex.
What is extinction?
Extinction refers to a method—the presentation of the CS without the US—and an outcome—the loss of the conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the CS alone.
The discrimination reversal learning strategy tests the __________ of the system that supports a particular instrumental behavior.
Flexibility
Wiltgen's laboratory used a genetically engineered mouse that would express_______ when they active and off dox.
GFP
According to competitive trace theory what does the hippocampus-neocortical interactions do to the memory as it ages.
Generally speaking it removes the original contextual elements of the memory and introduces distortions.
Behaviors supported by S-R connections are called __________.
Habits
What primary regions that were surgically removed from H.M.'s brain?
His medial temporal lobes were removed, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and some of the surrounding regions of the underlying neocortex (perirhinal cortex and parahippocampus).
What is the evidence that the extrahippocampal system acquires a contextual fear memory even if the hippocampus is functional at the time of conditioning.
If the hippocampus is inactivated during the retrieval test by either pharmacological or DREADD methods, rodents display contextual fear.
According to competitive trace theory episodic memories most veridical _____ after they are acquired?
Immediately
Who is Robert Bolles?
In 1970 he developed the concept of species-specific defensive behaviors to describe the class of innate behaviors that are supported by the fear system.
What is the evidence that rodents can acquire a representation of a context that can be activated by a subset of the features that make up the episode?
In an experiment demonstrating that rats can retrieve a memory of an explored context, control rats displayed no fear in context B, where they were actually shocked, but displayed fear in context A, where they had been allowed to explore but had received no shock.
Initial research with monkeys showed that damage of both the hippocampus and the amygdala was necessary to impair episodic memory. What was wrong with those experiments?
In the process of removing both brain structures, researchers unintentionally damaged another medial temporal lobe structure: the rhinal cortex.
Why is the neural circuit that supports episodic memory described as having a loop-like structure?
Information carried forward to the hippocampus is also then projected back to the sites lower in the hierarchy that initially brought the information to the hippocampus.
Which of the following brain regions is not associated with the action system?
Infralimbic prefrontal cortex
What is the evidence that perineuronal nets support processes that protect from erasure the synapses strengthened by fear conditioning?
Injecting an enzyme that degrades the perineuronal net into the BLA prior to fear conditioning produced this result in adult rodents—following extinction training they did not display spontaneous recovery or renewal. However, injecting the enzyme after conditioning did produce this result—these mice displayed both spontaneous recovery and renewal.
Define the medial temporal hippocampal (MTH) system.
It consists of the perirhinal, parahippocampal, and entorhinal cortices and the hippocampal formation.
Explain the term expectancy.
It is a three-term association (S1-R-S2) that includes a representation of the stimulus situation (S1) that preceded the response, a representation of the response (R), and a representation of the outcome (S2) produced by the response.
Describe the function of pattern separation. What makes it possible?
It keeps representations of similar experiences segregated. It is possible because the similar (but different) inputs from neocortical structures are likely to converge onto different neurons in the hippocampus and similar patterns are likely to create different indices.
A patient with damage to the hippocampus has extensive amnesia for both old and new memories. Is this evidence for or against the standard model? Why?
It provides evidence against the standard model because retrograde amnesia would have to be temporally graded if the standard model were correct
According to index theory what is the role of the hippocampus during memory retrieval.
It supports pattern completion. When activated by a subset of the original pattern occurs, the index will activate the original input pattern.
What is the function of the episodic memory system?
It supports the ability to consciously recollect and report on facts and events that people have experienced.
D-cycloserine (DCS) is an agonist for the NMDA glycine site. When it is given before or after extinction training, it facilitates the processes that produce extinction. How was it used therapeutically in people with acrophobia? What were the results?
It was given as a pill to patients along with exposure therapy, and they reported a decrease in discomfort produced by exposure, their autonomic arousal decreased, and they were more willing to expose themselves to heights compared to patients who received exposure therapy and a placebo pill. These benefits persisted for three months after the treatment.
According to competitive trace theory when are episodic memories most veridical?
Just after they are acquired. As the memory ages it is likely to become distorted.
(T or F) Conscious recollection requires intentional initiation of a search to access our episodic memory system.
True
Cocaine and chronic stress have been found to interfere with the __________ system.
action
What is procedural memory?
Memories that support learned skills (such as bike riding or skiing).
Which brain structures are responsible for generating fear behaviors?
Midbrain subcortical nuclei
Synaptic changes that depend on NMDA receptors play a central role in the new learning that produces extinction. Defend this statement.
NMDA receptor antagonists can prevent extinction, and the partial agonist DCS can facilitate extinction.
What is a one general conclusion one could draw from the animal research centered on contextual fear conditioning.
One could conclude that there is a strong extrahippocampal system that supports contextual fear conditioning.
According to competitive trace theory what should happen to the memory as it ages
Original contextual details will be degraded and/or replaced by incorrect contextual details-become distorted.
Describe Thorndike's Law of Effect theory.
Outcomes produced by behavior ultimately adapt the animal to the situation by strengthening and weakening existing stimulus-response (S-R) connections. Outcomes that are rewarding strengthen S-R connections, whereas nonrewarding outcomes weaken connections.
__________ support processes that protect the synapses strengthened by fear conditioning from erasure.
Perineuronal nets
What are perineuronal nets?
Perineuronal nets surround neurons (especially inhibitory neurons) and have been discovered to be key developmental regulators of plasticity.
What are the four differences between action and habit?
Purpose; sensitivity to outcome; associative structure; flexibility.
Explain the term flexibility in the context of instrumental behavior.
The action system is flexible and designed to rapidly respond to changes in response contingencies. The habit system response adapts more slowly to incremental changes and has to unlearn existing S-R associations and/or slowly acquire new ones.
In indexing theory where is the content of them memory stored?
The content of an experience is stored in neocortical regions of the brain.
According to index theory what is the role of the hippocampus during memory formation?
The hippocampus binds inputs from coactive patterns of neocortical activity to create an index that can project back to the original input pattern. When activation by a subset of the original pattern occurs, the index will activate the original input pattern.
What is the relationship between the hippocampus, learning goals, episodic memory system, automatic capture, and incidental information?
The hippocampus is not driven by our intentions or goals to capture information. It contributes to the episodic memory system by automatically capturing the information it receives as we attend to and explore the world, including incidental information that does not pertain to the task at hand.
What is the multiple memory systems perspective?
The idea that memories are sorted and stored in specific brain regions depending on the content of the experience
Describe the neural components of the fear system in as much detail as possible.
The lateral nucleus receives sensory input from the sensory thalamus,perirhinal cortex, and hippocampus that provides information about the current state of the environment. The basal nucleus contains both fear and extinction neurons. Neurons in the central amygdala control midbrain structures that support the expression of fear behaviors. When neurons in the central amygdala depolarize, they activate the midbrain nuclei to generate defensive behaviors. An ITC-b cluster normally inhibits central amygdala neurons.
Explain the hierarchical structure of the episodic memory system.
The level of integration or abstraction of information increases as it flows from the associative cortices to the perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices to the entorhinal cortex and through the hippocampus.
Rats that had limited training were sensitive to the value of the reward, making fewer lever-pressing responses than the control rats. What conclusions can you make?
The lever press can be considered an action.
Henry Malaison was not the first patient to display amnesia for certain types of information. What was unique about his case?
The location of the brain damage was well recorded, which allowed researchers to better understand what brain areas are responsible for memory.
Where does the first level of integration occur?
The perirhinal and parahippocampus cortices
What is known about the role of the prelimbic prefrontal cortex in instrumental behavior?
The prelimbic region of the brain is important during the initial learning of the associations that support an action. However, once these associations are learned, this region is no longer critical.
Why might the contextual fear model be inappropriate for evaluating the standard model of systems consolidation?
The retrieval of the memory does not require the pattern completion properties provided by the hippocampus.
Why is the reward devaluation strategy used?
The reward devaluation strategy is used to determine if the instrumental behavior is purposeful and goal directed.
What are the differences between the subcortical pathway and the cortical pathway? Which one provides richer representations of the experience?
The subcortical pathway comes directly from the sensory thalamus, which is thought to provide a somewhat impoverished representation of the sensory experience. The cortical pathway carries information from the sensory thalamus to the neocortical regions of the brain including the perirhinal cortex and hippocampus, which also project to the lateral nucleus and provide a richer, more detailed representation.
How are perineuronal nets connected to fear extinction?
These nets are not present during the period early in development when extinction training erases the fear memory but are present later in development when extinction produces new learning.
How did Wiltgen's laboratory confirmed that indexing neurons activated cortical engram neurons.
They infected the hippocampus with a virus containing an inhibitory channel rhodopsin, ArchT, that was expressed in neurons in the hippocampus that were active during conditioning. During the test they stimulated these neurons with green light to inhibit them. They found that many fewer cortical cells co-labeled with GFP and cFos in these mice.
A normal rat will explore a familiar object presented in a different context as if it were novel, but a rat with damage to the hippocampus treats explored objects as familiar. Explain these results.
This means that control animals had a memory of the object and the context in which it occurred, but rats with damage to the hippocampus did not.
How does systems consolidation theory explain Ribot's law?
This theory assumes that events that disrupt memory target the medial temporal hippocampal system. As the memory ages it becomes liberated from this system—no longer dependent on the MTH system. Thus, old memories are less vulnerable than new memories because they no longer depend on this system for retrieval.
The Law of Effect originated with __________.
Thorndike
How was Brian Wiltgen's laboratory able determine that contextual fear conditioning activated neurons throughout the neocortex.
To do this they used a genetically engineered mouse that would only express the GFP marker in neurons if doxycycline (dox) was removed from their water. They were conditioned when off dox but were on dox when tested. He found cells co-labeled with GFP and the immediate early gene, cFos, were distributed throughout the cortex.
How did Brian Wiltgen's laboratory determine that indexing neurons are critically involved in activating engram neurons throughout the neocortex.
To label neurons in the cortex, he used a mouse that would only express a GFP when off DOX. Dox was removed prior to contextual fear conditioning. When tested he infused
According to __________, the associations that make up an expectancy contain information about relationships between stimuli and relationships between behavior and stimulus outcomes.
Tolman
How does Tolman's cognitive expectancy system differ from Thorndike's view?
Tolman believed that our brains detect and store information about relationships among all the events provided by a particular experience. He believed that instrumental behaviors are purposeful and organized around goals.
Which theory of instrumental behavior would be most consistent with the dopamine-incentive salience hypothesis?
Tolman's expectancy theory
(T or F) According to Thorndike's Law of Effect, instrumental behavior should not be considered purposeful or goal directed.
True
(T or F) According to competitive trace theory episodic memories become distorted as they age?
True
(T or F) According to competitive trace theory episodic memories become more semantic as they age?
True
(T or F) According to the modular view, the entorhinal cortex is on top of the hierarchy for semantic memory.
True
(T or F) According to the modular view, the hippocampal formation is not required for semantic memory.
True
(T or F) According to the standard model of systems consolidation, damage to the hippocampus would not cause retrograde amnesia if it occurred weeks after the memory was consolidated.
True
(T or F) According to the standard model of systems consolidation, the hippocampus is only temporarily involved in the consolidation of episodic and semantic memories.
True
(T or F) Actions are supported by expectancies whereas habits are supported by S-R connections
True
(T or F) Behavioral systems are specialized, and each has its own neural components.
True
(T or F) Caroline and Robert Blanchard found that human defensive behavior resembles that observed in animal models.
True
(T or F) Cocaine use and chronic stress could interfere with the action system, and this could result in the habit system controlling instrumental behaviors.
True
(T or F) Competitive trace theory would predict that the veridicality of the memory would be preserved if the hippocampus was damaged after the memory was established.
True
(T or F) Conscious recollection means that you have an awareness of remembering.
True
How are episodic and semantic memory systems similar? How are they different?
We can intentionally retrieve information from both, and in some sense declare we have the memory; but the content of semantic memory is not tied to the place or context where it was acquired.
In the conceptual model of instrumental learning, the habit system is located in __________.
level 1
Describe pattern completion.
When a subset or portion of the experience that originally established the memory trace is encountered, it can activate or replay the entire experience.
What brought Vargha-Khadem and her colleagues to the conclusion that there was a disproportionate sparing of semantic memory compared to episodic memory in patients who suffered selective damage to their hippocampus early in life?
While they all developed normal language and social skills, their memory for everyday experiences was so poor that none of them could be left alone for any extended period of time.
The associations that support action-based behavior are still present even after the behavior becomes a habit. Do you agree with this statement? Why or why not?
Yes, because when the infralimbic function was impaired, the rats became sensitive to the value of the reward.
Did H.M.'s case provide evidence for the multiple memory systems view? Defend your answer.
Yes, he provided the foundation for the theory because his anterograde and retrograde amnesia were restricted to certain kinds of content.
As information is carried forward to the hippocampus it becomes more __________ and integrated.
abstract/ compressed
Cocaine selectively interferes with __________ in spines located on neurons in the region of the brain that supports the action system.
actin reorganization
Mishkin wrongly concluded that both the hippocampus and ______________ were critical for episodic memory
amygdala
The __________ assumes that extinction is due to the CS-alone presentation eliminating or erasing the original CS-US association. Answer: associative loss hypothesis
associative theory
The striatum is the basic input segment of the __________.
basal ganglia
The __________ plays an important role in attaching value to outcomes.
basolateral amygdala
According to the unitary view,
both semantic and episodic memory depend on the entire MTH system.
__________ is the process that initially forms the memory trace.
cellular consolidation
The region of the amygdala that most directly controls defensive responses is the
central region
Neurons in the lateral hypothalamus (LH) produce __________ responses.
changes in automatic
According to the modular view,
components of the MTH system are relatively dedicated to specific functions.
Fear extinction is __________ specific.
context
Semantic memory is sometimes said to be free of __________.
context
The context preexposure paradigm allows researchers to study how rodents acquire __________.
context representations
The episodic memory system must be critically involved in both the storage and retrieval of __________.
contextual information
The feeling of remembering a retrieved memory trace depends on __________.
contextual information
If the partial NMDA agonist DCS is injected either before or immediately after extinction training, the next day the rodents display __________ extinction.
enhanced
Pattern completion means that a subset of the original input pattern can activate the __________.
entire original input pattern
Information flows into and out of the hippocampus through the __________.
entorhinal cortex
Studies of patients with selective damage to the hippocampus reveal that this region is critically involved in __________.
episodic memory
Recollection includes content that is supported by the __________.
episodic memory system
The removal of Henry's medial temporal lobes disrupted what is called the __________.
episodic memory system
In infant rats younger than three weeks, extinction seems to __________ some aspect of the __________.
erase; fear memory
The action system acquires __________, whereas the habit system acquires __________.
expectancies; stimulus-response associations
Fear acquisition training strengthens synapses that link the CS to fear neurons, and fear extinction training strengthens synapses that link the CS to __________.
extinction neurons
In the conceptual model of instrumental learning, the action system is located in __________.
level 2
Competitive trace theory would predict that the veridicality of the memory would be preserved if the __________ was damaged after the memory was established.
hippocampus
Systems consolidation refers to changes in the strength of the memory trace brought about by interactions between the __________ and neocortex.
hippocampus
The __________ sits at the top of a hierarchically organized system.
hippocampus
Which of the following statements about H.M. is true?
his memory was selectively impaired
The idea that the hippocampus binds inputs from coactive patterns of neocortical activity is called the __________.
indexing theory
__________ inhibit the fear response by activating ITC-b cells.
infralimbic neurons
The defensive behavioral system can be activated by __________ or learned danger signals.
innate
Sensory information received by the unimodel associative and polymodal associative areas is not well __________.
integrated
What is the effect of damaging the hippocampus prior to contextual fear conditioning.
it has no effect
Thorndike found that escape latency gradually decreased as a function of trials, indicating that the animal had __________.
learned to escape
__________ and __________ processes provide the primary way to link stimuli to the neural systems that support fear behavior.
learning; memory
In the conceptual model of instrumental learning, performance of the instrumental response depends on the activation of the response representation in __________.
level 1
Instrumental behavior is modified by the __________.
outcome it produces
From the viewpoint of the episodic system, every episode of our lives is unique, even if it contains __________.
overlapping information
The idea that a subset of the original input pattern can activate the entire original input pattern is called __________.
pattern completion
When neurons in the central amygdala are activated, they activate neurons in the lateral hypothalamus and __________ generate fear behaviors.
periaqueductal gray
The lateral nucleus receives sensory input from the sensory thalamus, __________, and hippocampus, which provide information about the current state of the environment.
perirhinal cortex
APV and the selective GluN2B antagonist ifenprodil __________ the extinction of the fear response.
prevent
Damage to the hippocampus _____ contextual fear conditioning does not produce amnesia.
prior to
Mark Bouton's research found evidence that extinction __________.
produces new learning
An important function of the striatum is to __________ the motor cortex.
project back to
__________ tasks require that the subject make a judgment about whether something has previously occurred.
recognition memory
Allowing the monkey to eat either all the peanuts or all the grapes it wants __________ the value of __________.
reduces; one of the rewards
The competing memory hypothesis assumes that the original CS-US association __________ and a new association, called a CS-noUS association, is produced.
remains intact
Which of the following is true?
remembering where an object was experienced requires the hippocampus
Research subsequent to Mishkin's report led to the conclusion that it was the damage to the __________ that drastically impaired performance on the DNMS task.
rhinal cortex
Declarative memory includes episodic memory and __________ memory.
semantic
The control rats in the context preexposure experiment displayed less fear in the context where __________, but they did in the context where they had been _______.
shock; pre exposed
Information processed by the striatum projects back to the motor cortex via the __________.
thalamus
Which of the follow belong the multiple memory perspective
the content of the experience determines where it gets stored
What should be the effect of removing the action system on discrimination reversal learning?
the effect will depend on how much training occurred on the original problem
Which view of the medial temporal hippocampal system is held by researchers who argue that semantic memories can be acquired even when the hippocampus is selectively removed
the modular view
Which brain region can serve to amplify the fear signal?
the prelimbic region
According to Thorndike's Law of Effect
the role of the reinforcer is to strengthen or weaken S-R connection
According to the __________, damage to the hippocampus will disrupt both semantic and episodic memory.
unitary view
A region of the brain that provides dopamine to the striatum is the __________.
ventral tegmental area (VTA)
The dopamine neurons are located in the __________, and their fibers project into the nucleus accumbens of the striatum.
ventral tegmental area (VTA)
