Nutrition Chapter 6

myocardial infaction

-when a thrombus completely blocks blood flow to a section of the heart muscle and causes the muscle to die -heart attack -can result in sudden death

alpha-linolenic acid

-an essential fatty acid -an omega-3 fatty acid -used by cells to synthesize two other omega-3 fatty aids: eicosapentaenoic acid and docasahexenoic acid, which is used by the body to make several compounds that have hormone-like functions

linolenic acid

-an essential fatty acid -an omega-6 fatty acid -can be converted to arachidonic acid, which is used to make several compounds that have hormone-like functions

arterial plaque

-buildup of cholesterol and other substances on arterial lining -contains fat, components of dead cells, cholesterol, and calcium -interferes with circulation in the affected area of the artery, because it narrows and may even block the opening through which blood flows

coronary calcium

-calcium deposits in arteries in the heart later in life -high amounts of this are associated with increased risk of atherosclerosis -computerized tomography scans can detect these deposits

adipose cells

-commonly called fat cells -remove fatty acids and glycerol from circulation and reassemble them into triglycerides for storage -designed to store large amounts of fat -break down some stored triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol molecules when your body needs energy, and releases these substances into your bloodstream

bile salts

-compounds that enhance digestion and absorption by keeping lipids dispersed in small particles, increasing their surface area

pancreatic lipase

-digests triglycerides by removing two fatty acids from each triglyceride molecule -converts triglycerides into monoglycerides

lipoprotein lipase

-enzyme in capillary walls that breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol

lipases

-enzymes that break down triglycerides and phospholipids -includes salivary amylase and pancreatic lipase

monounsaturated fatty acids

-generally lower LDL cholesterol without reducing HDL cholesterol levels -foods rich in this include: peanuts and peanut oil, canola oil, olives and olive oil, almonds, and avacados

monoglyceride

-has a single fatty acid attached to the glycerol backbone of the molecule

embolus

-a thrombus or part of a plaque that breaks free from where it formed and travels through the blood stream -can lodge in an artery and create the same serious consequences as a stationary thrombus

chylomicron

-a type of lipoprotein -too large to be absorbed into the bloodstream -triglycerides coated with a think layer of protein, phospholipids, and cholesterol

choline

-a water-soluble compound that nerves use to produce the neurotransmitter acetylcholine -a vitamin-like nutrient because deficiency symptoms can occur under certain conditions

omega-3 fatty acid

-alpha-linolenic acid, for example -the "3" refers to the position of the first double bond that appears in the fatty acid's carbon chain, when you start counting carbons at the omega end of the molecule

homocysteine

-an amino acid -may be associated with CVD -not found in human proteins and higher-than-normal blood levels of homocysteine can be toxic -high blood levels of this may injure arterial walls and contribute to atherosclerosis

phospholipid

-chemically similar to a triglyceride except that one of the fatty acids is replaced by chemical groups that contain phosphorous and, often, nitrogen -naturally found in plant and animal foods -partially water soluble, and partially lipid soluble -major structural component of cell membranes

acceptable macronutrient distribution range for fat

-20-35% of total calories -people should consume diets that include rich sources of polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, such as fish, nuts, and vegetable oils -adults should consume less than 10% of their total calories from saturated fatty acids, keep their cholesterol intake to as little as possible, while following a healthy eating pattern -trans fat/cholesterol intake should be as low as possible

neurotransmitter

a chemical that transmits messages between the nerve cells

cholesterol

associated with heart attacks, certain cancers, and cardiovascular disease, and stroke

hydrocarbon chain

chain of carbon atoms bonded to each other and to hydrogen atoms

sterols

have carbons arranged in rings, which makes them a more chemically complex type of lipid that a triglyceride or a phospholipid

monounsaturated fatty acid

-a fatty acid with only one double bond between carbons

polyunsaturated fatty acid

-a fatty acid with two or more double bonds between carbons

lipoproteins

-water-soluble structures that transport lipids trhough the bloodstream

2015

-Nutrition Facts panel also provides information about the cholesterol content of food -if a serving of food has less than 0.5g of a specific type of fat, the amount could be reported as 0g

oxidation

-a chemical process that alters the compound's structure -the fat in foods becomes rancid and develops an unapetizing odor and taste -unsaturated fatty acid with cis double-bond arrangement, especially polyunsaturated fats, are very susceptible to this

hypertension

-a chronic condition characterized by abnormally high blood pressure levels that persist even when the person is relaxed -a major risk factor for atherosclerosis and heart disease -the heart of a patient must work harder to circulate blood through abnormally stiff arteries -can cause hardened arteries to tear or burst, causing serious bleeding problems and even sudden death

total cholesterol

-<200 desirable -200-239 borderline high >= 240 high risk

2014

-FDA proposed a new Nutrition Facts panel format that did not indicate calories from fat

atherosclerosis

-a chronic process that negatively affects the functioning of arteries -a buildup of cholesterol and other substances line the inflamed artery, resulting in arterial plaque -this roughens the surface of the lining, making clots easier and more likely to form

lipids

-a class of macronutrients that includes fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol -generall insoluble in water -soluble in organic solvents such as acetone and alcohol -crucial components of the plasma membrane that surround each human cell -subcutaneous layer of fat under your skin stores energy, insulates you against cold temperatures, protects you against minor bruising, and contributes to your body's contours -fat deposit in abdomen cushions your vital organs from jarring movements and damaging blows -enhance intestinal absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and phytochemicals -provide nonnutritional benefits by contributing to the rich flavor, smooth texture, and appetizing aroma of foods

arterioscleriosis

-a condition commonly called "hardening of the arteries" -when plaque reduces the flexibility of arteries -contributes to hypertension

thrombus

-a fixed bunch of clots that remains in place and disrupts blood flow -if it partially closes off the lumen of an artery that nourishes the heart, the affected section of the heart muscle is unable to receive enough oxygen and nutrients to function properly -affected person experiences bouts of chest pain

interesterified oil

-a synthetic lipid -used to replace artificial trans fat in processed food -has undesirable health effects

triglyceride

-has three fatty acids attached to glycerol (a three-carbon compound that is reffered to as the "backbone of the triglyceride) -comprise about 95% of lipids in your body and food -referred to as fats and oils -body stores energy as triglycerides (Fat) -contain mixtures of unsaturated and saturated fatty acids

unsaturated fatty acid

-has two neighboring carbons within the chain that are missing two hydrogen atoms and a double bond holds these particular carbons together -can have one or more double bonds within the chain of carbons

medical testing

-help determine risk of atherosclerosis -check blood pressure and listen to blood flow -lipoprotein profile to assess total serum cholesterol level as well as serum HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglyceride levels

cardiovascular disease

-includes diseases of the heart and blood vessels -ore than one in three adult Americans has one or more forms of this -heart disease/coronary artery disease and stroke are most common forms of CVD and are among top 4 leading causes of death in US -2011, heart disease and strokes were responsible for about 28% of deaths in US

micelle

-lipid-rich particle that is surrounded by bile salts -transports lipids to absorptive cells

plant sterols and stanols

-made by plants -have chemical structures similar to cholesterol -not well absorbed by the human intestinal tract -compete with cholesterol for absorption by digestive tract, which reduces amount of cholesterol that is absorbed -added to certain foods, beverages, and dietary supplements because they may lower elevated blood cholesterol levels -included in cholesterol-lowering margerine-like spreads

fat

-major source of energy -eating too much of this can result in excess weight gain, which is unhealth

very-low-density lipoprotein

-may also contribute to atherosclerosis -carries a larger amount of triglycerides than cholesterol -excessive alcohol and refined carbohydrate intakes stimulate VLDL production in liver -as blood triglyceride levels decrease HDL cholesterol tends to decrease

hydrogenation

-most of the trans fats in processed food results from this process -partial hydrogenation is a food manufacturing process that adds hydrogen atoms to some unsaturated fatty acids in a liquid vegetable oil -this process also converts many of the oil's naturally occurring cis fatty acids into trans fatty acids -vegetable oil can be made into shortening or shaped into sticks of margerine through this process -foods made with partially hydrogenated fat can be stored for longer periods of time because they are less likely to undergo oxidation

essential fatty acids

-necessary in small amounts for good health -lipids that must be supplied by the diet -deficiency symptoms include scaly skin, hair loss, and poor wound healing

atherosclerosis risk factors

-nonmodifiable: family history of CVD and increasing age -modifiable: hypertension, pre-diabetes or diabetes, elevated blood cholesterol (especially LDL cholesterol), excess body fat, physical inactivity, tobacco use or exposure to tobacco smoke

stroke

-occurs when a clot blocks an artery in the brain and brain cells that are nourished by the vessel die

enterohepatic circulation

-process of recycling bile from the intestinal tract -liver uses bile salts to make new bile -can reduce blood cholesterol levels, because the liver must use cholesterol to make new bile salts

prostaglandins

-produce a variety of important effects on the body -stimulate uterine contractions, regulate blood pressure, and promoting the immune system's inflammatory response

fatty acids

-provide energy for muscles and most other types of cells -comprised of a hydrocarbon chain -first part of the molecule is the omega or methyl end -have even members of carbon atoms in nature -short-chain have 2-4 carbons -medium-chain have 6-12 carbons -long-chain have 14-24 carbons -identified by its number of carbon atoms and type of bond between carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain

high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP)

-released by the liver during times of chronic inflammation -people with high levels of this are more likely to develop CVD -elevated hs-CRP may be a marker for atherosclerosis, like homocysteine

phospholipase

-removes to fatty acids from a phospholipid molecule -remaining structure contains the lipid's phosphate region

cholecystokinin

-signals the pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes when the food leaves the stomach and enters the small intestine

omega end

-the first carbon of a fatty acid chain that has three hydrogen atoms attached to it

lecithin

-the major phospholipid in food -egg yolks, liver, wheat germ, peanut butter, and soybeans are rich sources of this

cholesterol

-the most well-known sterol -very important nutrient -a componenet of every cell membrane in your body -not metabolized for energy -used by cells to synthesize a variety of substances, including vitamin D, and steroid hormones such as estrogen and testosterone -used by the liver to make bile -found only in animal founds -rich sources: egg yolk, liver, meat, poultry, whole milk, cheese, and ice cream -body produces cholesterol -excess amounts can increase risk of cardiovascular disease

high-density lipoprotein

-the smallest and densest kind of lipoprotein -transports more protein and less lipids than the others -conveys lipids away from tissues and to the liver, where they can be processed and eliminated -cholesterol carried by these are called "good" cholesterol because they do not contribute to plaque formation

lipoproteins

-transport cholesterol and triglycerides in the bloodstream -play major roles in the development of atherosclerosis -body makes 3 kinds of them, and each type carries different proportions of protein, cholesterol, triglycerides, and phospholipids

adequate intake for linolenic acid

= 17 g/day for men = 12 g/day for women -for ages 19 to 50 -can be met by eating 2-3 tablespoons of vegetable fat daily, including products made with canola and soybean oils, and meals that contain fatty fish, such as salmon and tuna, at least twice a week

low-density lipoprotein

-transports more cholesterol than HDL in the bloodstream -needed to transport lipids to tissues, where the nutrients are used to make cell structures and vital compounds -often referred to as "bad" cholesterol because LDL conveys the lipid to tissues, including cells in the arterial walls that make atherosclerotic plaques -not all forms of this lipoprotein are unhealthy -some are smaller and denser than others -people with high levels of small dense LDLs are more likely to develop atherosclerosis than are people with low levels of these particular LDLs -chemically unstable substances can damage LDL, especially small, dense LDL -damage results in oxidized LDL cholesterol, which is taken up by the plaque forming arterial cells -increased by cigarette smoking

fatty acid deficiency

-uncommon in the US -most Americans eat plenty of fat, especially linoleic acid, which is used for frying food and making margerines and salad dressings -whole-grain products contain linoleic acid as well

trans fats

-unsaturated fatty acids that have at least on trans double bond in their chemical stature rather than the more common cis configuration -the trans double bond enables the hydrocarbon chain to be relatively straight, as opposed to the cis bond which forms a kink in the hydrocarbon chain -whole milk and whole milk products, butter, and meat naturally have small amounts of trans fats -processed foods and margerines contribute the largest share of trans fat in the American diet -structurally resembles a saturated fatty acid and provides properties of long-chain saturated fatty acids to foods that contain them -more solid at room temperature -not essential and do not offer any positive health effects -raise blood cholesterol levels, which may increase the risk of heart disease

hydrophobic

-water fearing -avoids watery substances and attracts oily ones

hydrophillic

-water loving -attracts water

saturated fatty acid

-when each carbon in the chain has two hydrogen atoms attached to it -each carbon is saturated, or completely filled with hydrogen atoms

LDL cholesterol

<100 optimal 100-129 near optimal 130-159 borderline high risk 160-189 high risk >= 190 very high risk

triglycerides

<150 normal 150-199 borderline high risk >= 200 high risk

HDL cholesterol

<40 for men <50 for women: high risk >= 60 low risk

adequate intake for alpha-linolenic acid

= 1.6 g/day for men = 1.1 g/day for women