OB - Chapter 5
increasing outcome valences
one size does not fit all when motivating and rewarding people. Organizational leaders need to find ways to individualize rewards or, where standard rewards are necessary, to identify rewards that do not have a negative valence for some staff. Consider the following Canadian story: Top-performing employees in one organization were rewarded with a one-week Caribbean cruise with the company's executive team
distributive justice
perceived fairness in the outcomes we receive compared to our contributions and contributions of others
social cognitive theory
states that much learning occurs by observing and modelling others as well as by anticipating the consequences of our behaviour.56 Although observation and modelling (imitation) have been studied for many years as sources of motivation and learning, Canadian-born social scientist Albert Bandura reframed these ideas within a cognitive (internal thoughts) perspective as an alternative to the behaviourist approach.
practical implications of four drive theory
work places should find ways to provide balanced opportunities for these drives. fulfillment of the drives must be kept in balance drive to bond counter balances drive to acquire drive to defend counterbalances the drive to comprehend
Model of expectancy theory
1. E - P Expectancy Theory - probability that an effort level will result in performance 2. P - O Expectancy - Probability that a specific performance level will result in specific outcomes 3. Valence - anticipated satisfaction from the outcome
maslow's contribution to motivation
1. Holistic perspective - various needs should be studied together 2. humanistic perspective - higher order needs are influenced by personal and social influences not just instincts 3. positive perspective - popularized the idea of self-actualization people are naturally motivated to reach their potential and society has to help this
2 ways that goals help
1. amplifying the instensity and persistence of effort 2. giving employees clearer role perceptions
A-B-Cs of organizational behaviour modification
1. antecedents - what happens before the behaviour 2. behaviour - what the person says or does 3. consequences - what happens after the behaviour
four-drive theory
1. drive to acquire - This is the drive to seek, take, control, and retain objects and personal experiences. The drive to acquire extends beyond basic food and water; it includes enhancing one's self-concept through relative status and recognition in society. Thus, it is the foundation of competition and the basis of our need for esteem 2. drive to bond - This is the drive to form social relationships and develop mutual caring commitments with others. It explains why people form social identities by aligning their self-concept with various social groups. It may also explain why people who lack social contact are more prone to serious health problems 3. drive to comprehend - This is the drive to satisfy our curiosity, to know and understand ourselves and the environment around us.33 When observing something that is inconsistent with or beyond our current knowledge, we experience a tension that motivates us to close that information gap. In fact, studies have revealed that people who are removed from any novel information will crave even boring information; in one classic Canadian experiment, participants deprived of information eventually craved month-old stock reports 4. drive to defend - This is the drive to protect ourselves physically and socially. Probably the first drive to develop, it creates a "fight-or-flight" response in the face of personal danger. The drive to defend goes beyond protecting our physical self.
3 learned needs
1. need for achievement - want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals through their own effort. They prefer working alone rather than in teams, and they choose tasks with a moderate degree of risk (i.e., neither too easy nor impossible to complete). High-nAch people also desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success. Money is a weak motivator, except when it provides feedback and recognition 2. Need for affiliation - refers to a desire to seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation. People with a strong nAff try to project a favourable image of themselves. They tend to actively support others and try to smooth out workplace conflicts. 3. need for power - want to exercise control over others and are concerned about maintaining their leadership position. They frequently rely on persuasive communication, make more suggestions in meetings, and tend to publicly evaluate situations more frequently. McClelland pointed out that there are two types of nPow. Individuals who enjoy their power for its own sake, use it to advance personal interests, and wear their power as a status symbol have personalized power.
limitations of the maslow's hierarchy
1. people do not progress through the hierarchy as labelled 2. there is not a one size fits all hierarchy 3. people have their own hierarchies depending on their social relations, status, etc.
list the hierarchy
1. physiological 2. safety 3. belongingness 4. esteem 5. self-actualization - growth need
SMARTER - goal setting
1. specific 2. measurable 3. achievable 4. relevant 5. time framed 6. exciting 7. reviewed
balanced scorecard
A goal-setting and reward system that translates the organization's vision and mission into specific, measurable performance goals related to financial, customer, internal, and learning/growth (i.e., human capital) processes.
maslow needs hierarchy
A motivation theory of needs arranged in a hierarchy, whereby people are motivated to fulfill a higher need as a lower one becomes gratified.
organizational behaviour modification
A theory that explains employee behaviour in terms of the antecedent conditions and consequences of that behaviour.
behaviour modelling
Along with observing others, people learn by imitating and practising their behaviours. Direct sensory experience helps to acquire tacit knowledge and skills, such as the subtle person-machine interaction while driving a vehicle. Behaviour modelling also increases self-efficacy (see Chapter 3), because people gain more self-confidence after observing others and performing the task successfully themselves. Self-efficacy particularly improves when observers identify with the model, such as someone who is similar in age, experience, gender, and related features.
self-regulation
Along with observing others, people learn by imitating and practising their behaviours. Direct sensory experience helps to acquire tacit knowledge and skills, such as the subtle person-machine interaction while driving a vehicle. Behaviour modelling also increases self-efficacy (see Chapter 3), because people gain more self-confidence after observing others and performing the task successfully themselves. Self-efficacy particularly improves when observers identify with the model, such as someone who is similar in age, experience, gender, and related features.
multisource 360 degree feedback
As the name implies, multisource feedback is information about an employee's performance collected from a full circle of people, including subordinates, peers, supervisors, and customers. Multisource feedback tends to provide more complete and accurate information than feedback from a supervisor alone
challenges with BSC
As with most goal setting and feedback systems, the quality of the process is only as good as the goals established and the feedback available. Some companies choose goals that are easily measured rather than valuable. Others go to great lengths to measure internal processes, but these measures create a paperwork bureaucracy that raises overhead costs and employee resentment for diverting resources from the company's main functions. One report from the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), which has a highly-regarded BSC, warned that people get caught up on the measures whereas they need discipline to focus on achieving BSC goals. The RCMP report also noted that BSC systems suffer when they become overburdened with too many indicators and when those indicators don't resonate with employees
increasing E-P
E-to-P expectancies are influenced by the individual's belief that he or she can successfully complete the task. Some companies increase this can-do attitude by assuring employees that they have the necessary competencies, clear role perceptions, and necessary resources to reach the desired levels of performance. An important part of this process involves matching employee competencies to job requirements and clearly communicating the tasks required for the job
characteristics of effective feedback
Effective feedback has many of the same characteristics as effective goal setting. It should be specific and relevant, that is, the information should refer to specific metrics (e.g., sales increased by 5 percent last month) and to the individual's behaviour or outcomes within his or her control. Feedback should also be timely; the information should be available soon after the behaviour or results occur so that employees see a clear association between their actions and the consequences. Effective feedback is also credible. also should be sufficiently frequent - depending on job cycle
evaluating OB Mod
Everyone uses organizational behaviour modification principles in one form or another to motivate others. We thank people for a job well done, are silent when displeased, and sometimes try to punish those who go against our wishes. OB Mod also occurs in various formal programs to reduce absenteeism, improve task performance and organizational citizenship behaviour, encourage safe work behaviours, and have a healthier lifestyle
common human drives
Individual's emotional and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposive effort towards work-related goals.
employee engagement
Individual's emotional and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposive effort towards work-related goals.
learning behaviour consequences
People learn the consequences of behaviour by observing or hearing about what happened to other people, not just by directly experiencing the consequences. Hearing that a coworker was fired for being rude to a client increases your expectation that rude behaviour will result in being fired. In the language of expectancy theory, learning behaviour consequences changes a person's perceived P-to-O probability.
describe how OB mod affects behaviour
Positive reinforcement occurs when the introduction of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behaviour. An example of this is receiving praise after completing a project. Punishment occurs when a consequence decreases the frequency or future probability of a specific behaviour occurring. Most of us would consider being demoted or being criticized by our coworkers as forms of punishment. A third type of consequence is extinction. Extinction occurs when the target behaviour decreases because no consequence follows it. 4th is negative reinforcement
mccelland's learned needs theory
Psychologist David McClelland further investigated the idea that need strength can be altered through social influences. In particular, he recognized that a person's needs can be strengthened or weakened through reinforcement, learning, and social conditions. McClelland examined three "learned" needs: achievement, power, and affiliation.
increasing P-O
The most obvious ways to improve P-to-O expectancies are to measure employee performance accurately and distribute more valued rewards to those with higher job performance. P-to-O expectancies are perceptions, so employees also need to believe that higher performance will result in higher rewards
evaluating four-drive theory
The translation of drives into goal-directed behaviour originates from considerable research on emotions and neural processes. The theory explains why needs vary from one person to the next, but avoids the assumption that everyone has the same needs hierarchy. Notice, too, that four-drive theory satisfies two of Maslow's criteria for any motivation theory: it is holistic (it relates to all drives, not just one or two) and humanistic (it acknowledges the role of human thought and social influences, not just instinct). Four-drive theory also provides a much clearer understanding of the role of emotional intelligence in employee motivation and behaviour. Employees with high emotional intelligence are more sensitive to emotions generated by the four drives
what happens when there is inequity?
actions to reduce tension 1. change our inputs 2. change our outcomes 3. change other's inputs 4. change others outcomes 5. change our perceptions 6. change comparison other 7. leave the field
equity theory
comparing input/outputs from one to another and what they get out of it
feedback through strengths based coaching
employees describe areas of work where they excel or demonstrate potential
procedural justice
fairness used to decide the distribution of resources
expectancy theory
motivation theory based on the idea that work effort is directed towards behaviours that people believe will lead to desired outcomes. l analysis of what actions would most likely satisfy the underlying needs.