OB Final
Behavioral Approach
Behavioral approaches: two key aspects of leadership: 1) Task Oriented Leader Behaviors: involve structuring the roles of subordinates, providing them with instructions and behaving in ways that will increase the performance of the group. *Task oriented behaviors are directives given to employees to get things done and to ensure that organizational goals are met. 2) People oriented leader behaviors: include showing concern for employee feelings and treating employees with respect *People oriented leaders genuinely care about the well being of their employees and they demonstrate their concern in their actions and decisions.
Factors of Nonverbal communication
Body language Eye contact Facial expression Posture Touch Space
Adjourning
Debrief: "How did it all go?" "What did we learn?"
Relationship between dependency and power
Dependency: directly related to power. The more that a person or unit depends on you, the more power you have. Scarcity: uniqueness of a resource. The more difficult something is to obtain, the more valuable it tends to be. Effective persuaders exploit this reality by making an opportunity or offer seem more attractive because it is limited or exclusive. Importance: the value of the resource. If the resources or skills you control are vital to the organization, you will gain some power. Substitutability: one's ability to find another option that works as well as the one offered. The harder it is to find a substitute, the more dependent the person becomes and the more power someone else has over them. possessing any of the three aspects of a resource could make other depend on you, two would make you extremely needed, and having all three could make you indispensable. (Scarcity, importance, substitutability)
Gender differences in communication
Different communication cultures. Men tend to jump right in while women ask questions before they begin. Prevent: learn to speak the language of who you're talking to. Understand the differences between men and women. Men focus more on competition, data, and orders in their communications, while women tend to focus more on cooperation, intuition, and requests.
Four leadership styles (path goal theory)
Directive: provide specific directions to their employees. Clarify role expectations, set schedules, and make sure that employees know what to do on a given work day. use when: -employees have high role ambiguity -low abilities -employees have external locus of control Supportive: leaders who provide emotional support to employees. They create employees well, care about them on a personal level, and they are encouraging. use when: -tasks are boring and repetitive -tasks are stressful Participative leaders: Those who make sure that employees are involved in the making of important decisions. use when: -employees have high abilities -the decision is relevant to employees -employees have high internal locus of control Achievement-oriented leaders: Those who set goals for employees and encourage them to reach their goals. use when: -employees have high abilities -employees have high achievement motivation
Negotiation Strategies
Distributive approach, Integrative approach
Email Do's and Don'ts
Don't: 1) send or forward chain emails, 2) put anything in an email that you wouldn't want the world to see, 3) write a message in capital letters--this is the equivalent of shouting, 4) routinely cc everyone. Reducing inbox clutter increases communication, 5) hit the send button before you've spell checked your email. Do: 1) use a subject line that summarizes your message 2) make your request in the first line of your email (and stop there if thats all you need to say) 3) end your email with a brief sign off such as "thank you" followed by your name and contact info 4) think of a work email as a binding communication 5) let others know if you've received an email in error
How to deal with barriers to effective communication
Filtering, selective perception, workplace gossip & grapevine, semantics & jargon, information overload, emotional disconnects, gender differences in communication, differences in meaning, lack of source familiarity or credibility, biased language.
Leaders
Formal Leaders: hold a position of authority and may utilize the power that comes from their position, as well as their personal power to influence others. Informal leaders: are without a formal position of authority within the organization but demonstrate leadership by influencing others through personal forms of power Leaders: 1) inspire and motivate 2) manage people 3) decisive 4) create a vision
Cohesion and High Team Performance
High task commitment, high group cohesion
Conceptual Decision Making
High tolerance for ambiguity, value orientation are people and social concerns. Conceptual decision makers are generally very broad in their approach and consider all available alternatives. They are long-term oriented and are usually capable of formulating creative solutions to problems.s
Analytical Decision making
High tolerance for ambiguity, value orientation is tasks and technical concerns. Careful decision makers that like to be well informed and thoroughly assess their options. They usually have the ability to adapt or cope with unique and challenging situations.
Sequential Interdependence
In a team, when one person's output becomes another person's input.
Boundaryless Organization Advantages & Disadvantages (CANT FIND THESE)
Modular organization: an organization where all the nonessential functions are outsourced Strategic alliance: a form of boundary less design where two or more companies find an area of collaboration and combine their efforts to create a partnership that is beneficial for both parties. example: starbucks and pepsi with frappuchinos
Biased Decision Making
Overconfidence bias: occurs when individuals overestimate their ability to predict future events. Hindsight bias: the opposite of overconfidence bias, as it occurs when looking backward in time and mistakes seem obvious after they have already occurred. Anchoring: The tendency for individuals to rely too heavily on one piece of information. Framing bias: the tendency of decision makers to be influenced by the way problems are presented.
Asch Study
Participants are asked one by one to say which of the lines on the right matched the line on the focal line on the left. While a is an exact match, many participants conformed when other unanimously chose B or C. 2 interesting patterns using this study: 1) Since the 1950s, conformity has been decreasing. 2) STudies done in collectivistic countries such as Japan showed more conformity than those done in more individualistic countries such as Great Britain.
The 4 Decision Making Models
Rational decision making model, bounded rationality model, Intuitive Decision-making model, creative decision making process
Which Decision Making Model should be used when
Rational: use when 1) Information on alternatives can be gathered and quantified. 2) The decision is important 3) You are trying to maximize your outcome Bounded Rationality: use when 1) The minimum criteria are clear. 2) You do not have or you are not willing to invest much time to make the decision 3) You are not trying to maximize your outcome Intuitive: use when 1) Goals are unclear 2) There is time pressure and analysis paralysis (too much info, too much time spent gathering info, no decision made) would be costly. 3) You have experience with the problem Creative: use when 1) Solutions to the problem are not clear 2) New solutions need to be generated 3) You have time to immerse yourself in the issues
Zimbardo Study
Researchers picked 24 volunteers w/o mental diseases or a history of drugs or crime. They picked 18 individuals to the role of prisoner or guard. The guards in the experiment were told to keep order but received no training. Zimbardo was showed with how quickly the expected roles emerged. Prisoners began to feel depressed and helpless. Guards began to be aggressive and abusive. The original experiment was supposed to last 2 weeks, but he cut it short after 6 days because of how deeply entrenched in their roles everyone, including himself, had become.
Emotional disconnect
Sender and receiver must be open to speak and listen despite differences in opinion or personality. One or both parties may have to set their emotions aside to achieve the goal of communicating clearly.
Who are the best people for a team?
Task roles, social roles (cooperative, trust, cohesiveness)
Designing Effective Teams
Team composition (who are the best individuals for the team), team size (how large should my team be), team diversity (how diverse should my team be?)
Reciprocal Interdependence
Team members working on each task simultaneously
Power
The ability to influence the behavior of others to get what you want. (human, informational, and material resources). "The ability to GET THINGS DONE the way you want them to be done". It's not power over others.
Contingency Model for Selecting Communication Media
The higher the complexity of the situation, the more rich the communication medium needs to be. Oversimplication zone = the complexity of the situation is too high for the medium of communication Overload zone = the communication medium is too rich for the complexity of the problem/situation
Distributive approach
The traditional fixed-pie approach in which negotiators see the situation as a pita that they have to divide between them. **common mistake in negotiation bc limits the creative solutions possible
Which style is best?
There is no single "right way" to deal with conflict. Although many people have a single method they use most frequently, the best conflict handlers will adapt their style to the situation.
Milgram Study
This is an illustration of the setup of a Milgram experiment. The experimenter convinces the subject (Teacher) to give what are believed to be painful electric shocks to another subject, who is actually an actor. Many subjects continued to give shocks despite pleas of mercy from the actors.
Types of Teams
Traditionally Managed Teams, Self-managed Teams, Self-directed team
Trait Approach
Trait approaches: 1) "Great man" approach: attempt to identify relatively stable, enduring dispositional attributes that leaders possess. 2) Leader prototypes: Mental representations of the traits and behaviors possessed by leaders 3) Emotional Intelligence: ability to manage oneself and one's relationships in mature and constructive ways 6 Traits: Intelligence, integrity, self-esteem, open to experience, conscientious, extraversion. Limitation: ignored the situation in which leadership occurred. It is more useful to specify the conditions under which different traits are needed.
Contemporary Leadership
Transactional Leadership: Employees demonstrate the right behaviors because the leader provides resources in exchange. (Appeals to what followers want..rewards*) Transformational Leadership: employees focus on company's well being rather than individual pursuits (appeal followers values, beliefs, self-concept)
Transformational Leader Methods
Transformational leaders lead employees by aligning employee goals with the leader's goals Charisma, inspirational motivation (vision that is inspiring), intellectual stimulation (challenge organizational norms and status quo, encourage employees to think creatively), individualized consideration (show personal care and concern for the well being of the followers). **very powerful and better than transactional leadership
Biased Language
Words and actions that stereotype others on the basis of personal or group affiliation. Prevent: consider using non-gendered, general titles that don't stereotype people, alternating the use of he or she, relying on human resources-generated guidelines, remembering that terms that feel respectful or comfortable to us may not be comfortable or respectful to others.
Why does social loafing occur?
a matter of perceiving that one will receive neither one's fair share of rewards if the group is successful nor blame if the group fails. Perceptions of fairness are also related to social loafing. Teams deemed more fair should also see less social loafing.
Advantages of a flat organization
able to build an employee attitude of job involvement and ownership. Also provides employees with greater need satisfaction and levels of self-actualization.
Group Decision Making
advantages: 1) draws from the experiences and perspectives of a larger number of individuals 2) have greater potential to be more creative which can lead to a more effective decision 3) groups make the task more enjoyable for members 4) members will be more invested in the decision Disadvantages: 1) takes longer 2) group dynamics such as groupthink can occur 3) social loafing--harder to identify responsibility for decisions
Individual Decision Making
advantages: 1) typically faster than group decision making 2) best individual in a group usual outperforms the group 3) accountability is easier to determine disadvantages: 1) fewer ideas 2) identifying the best individual can be challenging 3) possible to put off making decisions if left alone to do it
Workplace gossip
also known as the grapevine is a lifeline for employees seeking information about their company. Prevent: Managers who understand the grapevine's power can use it to send and receive messages of their own. They can also decrease the grapevine's power by sending official messages quickly and accurately.
Verbal Communication
better way to convey feelings. Use when: conveying emotion and feeling the message does not need to be permanent there is time urgency you need feedback the ideas are simple or can be made simple with explanations
Cohesion
cohesive groups are those in which members are attached to each other and act as one unit
Interpersonal
conflict between two people
Intrapersonal
conflict within a person. It arises when a person is uncertain about what is expected or wanted, or has a sense of being inadequate to the task.
Intragroup
conflict within groups
Written Communication
do a better job of conveying facts Use when: conveying facts the message needs to become part of a permanent file there is little time urgency you do not need immediate feedback there ideas are complicated
Learning Organization Advantages & Disadvantages (CANT FIND THESE)
example: xerox corporation uses anthropologists to understand and gain insights into how customers are actually using their office products. They vigorously learn from others and study competition, market leaders in different industries, clients, and customers. IBM is a company that started to set up a structure in which failure is tolerated and risk taking was encouraged, the company took big step toward becoming a learning organization.
Selective perception
filtering what we see and hear to suit our own needs. prevent: by rewarding employees who clearly convey information upward, regardless whether the news is good or bad.
Social Loafing
refers to the tendency of individuals to put in less effort when working in a group context. "others aren't pulling their weight so why should I?"
Participative Management
the process whereby employees play a direct role in: -setting goals -making decisions -solving problems -making changes in the organization Participative management can promote innovation and increased efficiency, timeliness, employee satisfaction and motivation, product quality, less supervision requirements, better grievance redressal, hiring flexibility.
self-directed team
the team makes all decisions internally about leadership and how work is done, potential for high autonomy
self-managed teams
the team managed itself but still has a team leader, potential for low, medium, or high autonomy
Dysfunctional conflict
threatens organization's interests 1) typically person-focused 2) breeds hostility 3) stifle communication
Active Listening
giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to understand points being made, asking questions as needed, and not interrupting at inappropriate times. How to listen actively: 1) Listen for message content 2) Listen for feelings 3) Respond to feelings 4) Note all cues 5) Paraphrase and restate
Delegation
granting decision-making authority to people at lower levels. barriers to delegation: 1) belief in the fallacy "if you want something done right, do it yourself" 2) lack of confidence/trust in lower levels 3) low self-confidence 4) fear of being called lazy 5) vague job definition 6) fear of competition from those below 7) reluctance to take risks involved in depending on others 8) lack of controls that provide early warning of problems with delegated duties 9) poor example set by bosses who do not delegate
Conflict
is a process that involves people disagreeing.
Diversity and team performance
(more than 10 tend to be harder to coordinate and often break into sub teams to accomplish work) more diverse team = more perspectives/alternatives and better decision making
Principles of Influence
1) Liking: the more we like the other person, the more likely we'll comply with their requests. 2) Reciprocity: The belief that both good and bad deeds should be repaid in kind. 3) Social proof: role models and peer pressure are powerful forces 4) Consistency: once individuals have stated a commitment they tend to act in accordance with that commitment. 5) Authority: people tend to defer to and respect credible experts. Scarcity: requests that emphasize scarcity or the fact that some object, opportunity, or outcome will soon no longer be available, are difficult to resist.
Contemporary forms of Structure
1) Matrix organizations: balance a traditional functional structure with a product structure 2) Boundaryless organizations: eliminate traditional barriers between departments and the external environment. 3) Learning Organizations: actively seeks to acquire knowledge and change behavior as a result of the newly acquired knowledge.
Traditionally managed team
leader resides outside the team, potential for low autonomy
Decision making tools and techniques
1) Nominal Group Technique: a technique designed to help with group decision making by ensuring that all members participate fully 2) Delphi Technique: group process that utilizes written responses to a series of questionnaires instead of physically bringing individuals together to make a decision. 3) Majority Rule: each member is given a single vote, majority rules 4) Consensus: groups use when the goal is to gain support for an idea or plan of action. This decision making rule is inclusive, participatory, cooperative, and democratic. (If concerns still exist, plan is modified to accommodate them). 5) GDSS: interactive composed based systems that are able to combine communication and decision technologies to help groups make better decisions. 6) Decision Trees: diagrams where answers to yes or no questions lead decision makers to address additional questions until they reach the end of the tree.
"Soft" Influence Tactics
1) Rational Persuasion: using logical arguments and facts to persuade another that a desired result will occur 2) Inspirational appeal: arousing enthusiasm by appealing to one's values and beliefs 3) Consultation: asking for participation in decision making or planning a change 4) Ingratiation: getting someone to do what you want by putting that person in a good mood or getting him or her to like you
Response to influence tactics
1) Resistance: occurs when the influence target does not with to comply with the request and either passively or actively repels the influence attempt. 2) Compliance: occurs when the target does not necessarily want to obey, but they do. 3) Commitment: Occurs when the target not only agrees to the request but also actively supports it as well.
Communication Freezers
1) Telling the other person what to do 2) Threatening with "or else" implied 3) Making suggestions or telling the other person what they out to do 4) Attempting to educate the other person 5) Judging the other person negatively 6) Giving insincere praise 7) Psychoanalyzing the other person 8) Making light of the other person's problems by generalizing. 9) Asking excessive inappropriate questions. 10) Making light of the problem by kidding.
Approaches to Studying Leadership
1) Trait approaches 2) Behavioral approaches 3) Contingency approaches
Lewin's Three-Step Model of Planned Change
1) Unfreeze: ensure that employees are ready for change 2) Change: execute the intended change 3) Refreeze: ensures that the change becomes permanent
Tips for managers whose employees are having a personality conflict
1) all employees need to be familiar with and follow company policies for diversity, anti discrimination, and sexual harassment. 2) investigate and document conflict 3) if appropriate, take corrective action 4) if necessary, attempt informal dispute resolution 5) refer difficult conflict to human resource specialists or hired counselors for formal resolution attempts and other interventions.
tips for third-party observers of a personality conflict
1) all employees should be familiar and follow company policies for diversity, anti discrimination, and sexual harassment 2) Do not take sides in someone else's personality conflict 3) suggest the parties work things out themselves in a constructive and positive way 4) If dysfunctional conflict persists, refer the problem to parties' direct supervisors
Tips for employees having a personality conflict
1) all employees should be familiar and follow company policies for diversity, anti discrimination, and sexual harassment 2) communicate directly with the other person to resolve the perceived conflict 3) avoid dragging coworkers into the conflict
Prepare employees for change
1) communicate a plan for change 2) develop a sense urgency 3) build a coalition 4) provide support 5) allow employees to participate
Contingency approach for Situational leadership styles (match to followers readiness)
1) directing: employees are committed but need constant direction. 2) coaching: leaders encourage and collaborate to gain results 3) supporting: Leaders provide guidance and employees make decisions 4) Delegating: Leaders assign and make employees responsible
How to minimize mistakes in negotation
1) focus on agreement first 2) be patient 3) whose reality? 4) deadlines 5) be comfortable with silence
Causes of conflict
1) organizational structure 2) limited resources 3) task interdependence 4) incompatible goals 5)personality differences 6)communication problems
How to improve written communication
1) picture the receiver in your mind before you being to write. 2) choose simple words. 3) be polite and clear 4) make your message brief and direct by trimming redundant words or phrases. 5) choose strong, active verbs
Refreezing and Making Change Part of the culture
1) publicize success (share concrete results with employees) 2) Reward change adoption (publicly recognize those who are giving support to the change effort)
Direction of Influence
1) upward influence: is the ability to influence those in positions higher than yours. 2) downward influence: is the ability to influence those in positions lower than yours. 3) effective peer influence: occurs when individuals are not destructively competitive.
Minimizing intergroup conflict
1) work to eliminate specific negative interaction between groups 2) conduct team building to reduce intragroup conflict and prepare employees for cross-functional teamwork 3) Encourage personal friendships and good working relationships across groups and departments 4) Foster positive attitudes toward members of other groups 5) avoid or neutralize negative gossip across groups or departments
Conflict Handling Styles
Accommodation, avoidance, compromise, collaboration, competition
Matrix Organization Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages: 1. Structures are created in response to uncertainty and dynamism of the environment 2. May increase communication and cooperation among departments 3. Increases the frequency of informal and formal communication within the organization. 4. Provides quick responses to technical problems and customer demands Disadvantages: 1. Two managers per individual can result in power struggles. 2. more effort is required to coordinate work flow 3. potential for interpersonal conflict with team members as well as with leaders 4. can create role ambiguity and role conflict
Integrative approach
An approach to negotiation in which both parties look for ways to integrate their goals under a large umbrella *****WIN-win approach
Decision Making Styles
Analytical, Directive, Conceptual, Behavioral
Intuitive decision-making model
Arriving at decisions without conscious reasoning. The model argues that in a given situation, experts making decisions scan the environment for cues to recognize patterns. Managers make decisions under challenging circumstances, including time pressures, constraints, a great deal of uncertainty, changing conditions, and highly visible and high-stakes outcomes. Flaws: 1) only one choice is considered at a time 2) novices are not able to make effective decisions this way because they do not have enough prior experience to draw upon Strengths: are able to go through decision process quickly and with success because of prior experience, training, and knowledge use when: 1) goals are unclear 2) there is time pressure and analysis paralysis would be costly 3) You have experience with the problem
Leader Decision Making (behavioral approach)
Authoritarian decision making: leaders make the decision alone without necessarily involving employees in the decision making process Democratic decision making: employees participate in the making of the decision Laissez-faire décision making: Leaders have employees alone to make the decision; the leader provides minimum guidance and involvement in the decision
Escalation of Commitment
when individuals continue on a failing course of action after information reveals it may be a poor path to follow. Driven by an individual's desire for consistency, intention is to avoid making a mistake. Why: 1st; decision makers may not want to admit that they are wrong (personal pride, afraid of the consequences of an admission). 2nd; decision makers may incorrectly believe that spending more time and energy might somehow help them recover their losses. Minimize this by: 1) set minimum targets for performance , and have decision makers compare their performance with these targets. 2) have different individuals make the initial and subsequent decisions about a project 3) encourage decision makers to become less ego-involved with a project 4) provide more frequent feedback about project completion and costs 5) reduce the risk or penalties of failure 6) make decision makers aware of costs of persistence
Pooled Interdependence
when team members may work independently and simply combine their efforts to create the team's output.
Information overload
when the information processing demands on an individual's time to perform interactions and internal calculations exceed the supply or capacity of time available for such processing. prevent: stop soaking up so much information and focus only on that one idea.
Groupthink
when you feel pressure to conform and agree and are unwilling to realistically view alternatives
Semantics
words can mean different things to different people, or they might not mean anything to someone else. In business, there is a code by which colleagues speak which is known as jargon. Prevent: When communicating with people outside of your own discipline, such as IT, refrain form using jargon and speak standard english. Also, speak to your audience instead of speaking about yourself.
Forces Creating Cohesion
Collective identity; share a mutual bond; share a sense of purpose, work together on a common task; and they establish a structured pattern of communication. 1) Similarity: the more similar in terms of age, sex, education, skills, attitudes, values, and beliefs, the more likely they will bond. 2) Stability: longer you stay together, more cohesive you become 3) Size: smaller groups tend to have more cohesion 4) Support: when group members receive coaching and are encouraged to support their fellow team members, group identity strengthens 5) Satisfaction: Cohesion is correlated with how pleased group members are with each other's performance, behavior, and conformity to group norms.
Bases (sources) of power
1) Legitimate: power that comes from a role or position 2) Reward power: the ability to grant a reward 3) Coercive power: the ability to take something away or punish someone for noncompliance 4) Expert power: knowledge and skills 5) Information power: special access to specific information 6) Referent power: stems from personal characteristics of the person
Behavioral Decision Making
Low tolerance for ambiguity, value orientation are people and social concerns. Work well with others, are open to suggestions, and are concerned about the achievements of their team. They generally try to avoid conflict and place importance on their acceptance by others.
Directive Decision making
Low tolerance for ambiguity, value orientation is tasks and technical concerns. Efficient, rational, and logical in their way of thinking. They focus on the short term and are quick to make decisions, usually resulting in a decision that has been made with minimal information and not carefully analysing other alternatives.
Threats to Group Effectiveness
1) Asch Effect 2) Groupthink 3) Social Loafing
Prevent social loafing
1) Carefully choose the number of individuals you need to get the task done. (more people = higher social loafing) 2) Clearly define each member's tasks in front of the entire group (create accountability) 3) Design and communicate to the entire group a system for evaluating each person's contribution (increase accountability) 4) Build a cohesive group 5) Assign tasks that are highly engaging and inherently rewarding 6) Make sure individuals feel that they are needed (members will feel discouraged otherwise)
Building Blocks of Structure
1) Centralization: the degree to which decision making authority is concentrated at higher levels in an organization. Decentralized companies give more authority to lower level employees, resulting in a sense of empowerment. 2) Formalization: the extent to which policies, procedures, job descriptions, and rules are written and explicitly articulated. 3) Hierarchical Levels: -Tall structures: 1. several layers of management between frontline employees and the top level 2. fewer employees report to each manager 3. greater opportunities for managers to supervise and monitor employee activities -Flat Structures: 1. few management layers 2. larger number of employees reporting to each manager 3. can lead to greater levels of freedom for each employee 4) Departmentalization -Functional Structures: grouping of jobs based on similarity in functions -Divisional structures: grouping of jobs based on the products, services, customers, or geographic locations the company is serving
Barriers to effective teams
1) Challenges knowing where to begin 2) dominating team members, 3) poor performance of team members, 4) poorly managed team conflict.
Executing and Facilitating Change
1) Continue to provide support 2) Create small wins 3) eliminate obstacles
Why do people resist change
1) Disrupted Habits 2) Personality 3) Feelings of uncertainty 4) Fear of failure 5) Personal Impact of Change 6) Prevalence of Change 7) Perceived loss of power
"Hard" Influence Tactics
1) Exchange: Promising some benefits in exchange for complying with a request 2) Coalition Building: persuading by seeking the assistance of others by noting the support of others 3) Legitimating: pointing out one's authority to make a request or verifying that it is consistent with prevailing organizational policies and practices. 4) Pressure: Seeking compliance by using demands, threats, or intimidation
Common Mistakes in Negotiation
1) Failing to negotiate/accepting the first offer 2)letting your ego get in the way 3) having unrealistic expectations 4) getting overly emotional 5) letting past negative outcomes affect the present ones
Cultural Hurdles in Interpersonal Communication
1) High context culture: high value on establishing relationships prior to working with others and tend to take longer to negotiate deals. ex: china, korea, and japan Low context culture: "get down to business" and negotiate quickly. ex: germany, scandinavia, and the U.S. 2) Body language 3) Personal space 4) Ethnocentrism
When group decision making should be used
1) If additional information would increase the quality of the decision 2) If acceptance is important 3) If people can be developed through their participation
Too much cohesion
1) Internal pressure to conform may cause members to modify their behavior to adhere to group norms 2) Cohesive groups will often disapprove of members who dare to disagree 3) Groupthink: group pressure phenomenon that increases the risk of the group making flawed decisions
Nonverbal Communication
55% of communication comes from nonverbal cues like facial expressions, body stance, and tone of voice. 7% of a receiver's comprehension of a message is based on the sender's actual words 38% is based on paralanguage or the tone, pace and volume of speech
Groupthink
A group pressure phenomenon that increases the risk of the group making flawed decisions by leading reduced mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgement. 8 symptoms of groupthink: 1) illusion of invulnerability 2) collective rationalizations 3) an unquestioned belief in the group's inherent morality 4) stereotyped views of out groups 5) direct pressure 6) self-censorship 7) illusions of unanimity 8) the emergence of self-appointed mind guards How to avoid: Groups should: 1) Discuss the symptoms of groupthink and how to avoid them. 2) Assign a rotating devil's advocate to every meeting 3) Invite experts or qualified colleagues who are not part of the core decision making group to attend meetings and get reactions from outsiders on a regular basis and share these with the group 4) Encourage a culture of difference where different ideas are valued. 5) Debate the ethical implications of the decisions and potential solutions being considered. Individuals should: 1) monitor personal behavior for signs of groupthink and modify behavior if needed 2) check for self-censorship 3) carefully avoid mind guard behaviors 4) avoid putting pressure on other group members to conform 5) remind members of the group rules for avoiding groupthink if they get off track Leaders Should: 1) Break the group into two subgroups from time to time. 2) Remain impartial and refrain from stating preferences at the outset of decisions 3) create an anonymous feedback channel through which all group members can contribute if desired. 4) have more than one group work on the same problem if time and resources allow it. this makes sense for highly critical decisions. 5) set a tone of encouraging critical evaluations throughout deliberations.
Rational Decision Making Model
A series of steps that decision makers should consider if their goal is to maximize their outcome and make the best choice. Flaws: 1) assumes that people understand what the decision to be made is 2) assumes that people know all their available choices 3) assumes the people have no perceptual biases 4) assumes that people want to make optimal decisions Stages: 1) Identify the problem 2) Establish decision criteria 3) weigh decision criteria 4) generate alternatives 5) evaluate the alternatives 6) choose the best alternative 7) implement the decision 8) evaluate the decision Strength: you find the best solution use when 1) Information on alternatives can be gathered and quantified. 2) The decision is important 3) You are trying to maximize your outcome
Managers
Managers: 1) accountable 2) execute 3) manage resources 4) plan, organize, direct, control
How to enhance organizational creativity
Brainstorming: group process of generating ideas that follow a set of guidelines, no criticism during process, no idea is too crazy Ideas quotas: Set number of ideas a group must reach before they are done with brainstorming Wild storming: the group focuses on ideas that are impossible and then imagines what would need to happen to make them possible Team Composition: -Diversity your team to give them more inputs to build on and more opportunities to create functional conflict while avoiding personal conflict -Change group membership to stimulate new ideas and new interaction patterns -Leaderless teams can allow teams freedom to create without trying to please anyone up front. Team Process: -Engage in brainstorming to generate ideas. Remember to set a high goal for the number of ideas the group should come up with, encourage wild ideas, and take brain writing breaks. -Use the nominal group technique in person or electronically to avoid some common group process pitfalls. Consider anonymous feedback as well. -Use analogies to envision problems and solution Leadership: Challenge teams so that they are engaged but not overwhelmed. -Let people decide how to achieve goals, rather than telling them what goals to achieve. -Support and celebrate creativity even when it leads to a mistake. Be sure to set up processes to learn from mistakes as well. -Role model creative behavior Culture: -Institute organizational memory that individuals do not spend time on routine tasks -Build a physical space conducive to creativity that is playful and humorous--this is a place where ideas can thrive. -Incorporate creative behavior into the performance appraisal process.
Intergroup
Conflict that takes place among different groups, between a union, and management or between companies, such as companies that supply the same customer
Contingency Approaches
Contingency approaches: 1) Fiedler's Contingency Theory: Premise; There must be a match between the leader's style and the demands of the situation for the leader to be effective. Assumption; Leadership style does not change. If a mismatch occurs between style and the situation, change the situation. 2) Situational Leadership Premise; Leaders choose from four basic situational leadership styles (directing, coaching, supporting, and delegating behavior) as defined by Blanchard and Hersey. Assumption; the style that a leader chooses is determined by situational factors such as employee readiness. 3) Path-goal theory of leadership: Influenced by expectancy theory of motivation. -Their effort will leader to high performance -Their high performance will be rewarded -The rewards they will receive are valuable to them = employees are motivated if confident. 4) Vroom and vet ton leadership decisions: the decision tree approach is a guide leaders can use to decide how participative they should be given decision environment characteristics -Decision significance -Importance of commitment -Leader expertise -Likelihood of commitment -Goal alignment -Group expertise -Team competence
Transactional Leadership Methods
Contingent rewards (rewarding for accomplishments)-Passive management by exception (leaving employees alone, but the manager waits until something goes wrong before coming to the rescue)-active management by exception (involves leaving employees to do their jobs without interference, but at the same time proactively prediction potential problems and preventing them) The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX MODEL) Assumption: Leaders do not treat all employees in the same way-it is based on their one-on-one relationship. -In group exchange: a partnership characterized by mutual trust, respect, and liking -Out-group exchange: a partnership characterized by a lack of mutual trust, respect, and liking. Antecedents: 1) Leader fairness 2) Leader delegation 3) Effort in building good relationships 4) Employee feedback seeking 5) Employee flattery of the leader 6) personality similarity 7) Liking leader-member exchange Consequences: 1) job satisfaction 2) organizational commitment 3) job performance 4) citizenship behaviors 5) lower turnover 6) buffer against stressors 7) high performance ratings 8) favorable interpretations of behavior
Creative Decision Making Process
Creativity: the generation of new, imaginative ideas. Step 1: problem recognition Step 2: Immersion: the stop in which decision maker consciously thinks about the problem and gathers information. Step 3: Incubation: sets the problem aside and does not think about it for a while. Step 4: Illumination: insight moment when the solution to the problem becomes apparent to the person, sometimes when least expected Step 5: Verification and application: decision maker consciously verifies the feasibility of the solution and implements the decision strengths: flexibility: how different ideas are from one another. fluency: number of ideas a person is able to generate. originality: how unique a person's ideas are. use when: 1) solutions to the problem are not clear 2) new solutions need to be generated 3) you have time to immerse yourself in the issues
Performing
Individual: "How can I best perform my role?" Group: "Can we do the job properly?"
Forming
Individual: "How do I fit in?" Group: "Why are we here?"
Norming
Individual: "What do the other expect me to do?" Group: "Can we agree on roles and work as a team?"
Storming
Individual: "What's my role here?" Group: "Why are we fighting over who's in share and who does what?"
Bounded Rationality Model (add more?)
Individuals knowingly limit their options and choose the best alternative without conducting an exhaustive search for alternatives + satisfying may occur which refers to accepting the first alternative that meets the minimum requirement = a "good enough" decision is made. Flaws: 1) assumes that people understand what the decision to be made is 2) assumes that people know all their available choices 3) assumes the people have no perceptual biases 4) assumes that people want to make optimal decisions strengths: save cognitive time and effort use when 1) the minimum criteria are clear 2) you do not have or you are not willing to invest much time to make the decision 3) you are not trying to maximize your outcome
Third Party negotiations
Intended to help avoid a formal trial or hearing. 1) Arbitration: a process that involves bringing in a third party, the arbitrator, who has the authority to act as a judge and make a binding decision to which both parties must adhere. 2) Mediation: an outside third party (the mediator) enters the situation with the goal of assisting the parties to reach an agreement. 3) Arbitration-mediation: an arbitrator makes a decision and places it in a sealed envelope. Both parties then work through mediation. If they cannot reach an agreement, the arbitrator's decision becomes binding.
Conflict
Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Intergroup, Intragroup
Organization Politics
intentional enhancement of self-interest
Lack of source familiarity or credibility
sender and receiver lack common context. similarly, if the sender lacks credibility or is untrustworthy, the message will not get through. prevent: hire employees with credibility
Process of communication
sender encodes message (translating idea into words), creates message, transmitted on medium, the receiver decodes the message, creates meaning and noises anything that distorts the message being transformed.
Functional Conflict
serves organization's interests 1) typically issue-focused 2) stimulates creativity
How large should a team be?
smaller teams are more cohesive, cooperative, and prevent social loafing. Might lead to groupthink.
Compromise
style is a middle group style, in which individuals have some desire to express their own concerns and get their way but still respect the other person's goals. "Maybe we can both agree to give a little."
Accommodation
style is cooperative and unassertive. "If it's important to you, I can go along with it"
Collaboration
style is high on both assertiveness and cooperation. "Let's look at the bigger picture and find out how we can both get what we want".
Avoiding
style is uncooperative and unassertive. "I don't think there's any problem. I feel fine about how things are."
Competition
style want to reach their goal or get their solution adopted regardless of what others say or who they feel. "This is what I want, and I am going to fight for it".
Asch Effect
the distortion of individual judgement by a unanimous but incorrect opposition
Filtering
the distortion or withholding of information to manage a person's reactions. Prevent: by rewarding employees who clearly convey information upward, regardless whether the news is good or bad.
Sources of Organizational politics
uncertainty triggers political behavior. Sources of uncertainty: 1) Unclear objectives 2) Vague performance measures 3) Ill-defined decision processes 4) Strong individual or group competition 5) Any type of change Antecedents of Political Behavior: Individual: 1) Political skill (a person's interpersonal style, ability to relate well to others, self monitor, alter their reactions depending on the situation, and inspire confidence and trust) 2) Internal locus of control 3) Investment in the organization 4) Expectation of success Organizational: 1) Scarcity of resources 2) Role ambiguity 3) Performance evaluations 4) Promotions 5) Democratic decision making Minimize organizational politics by: overcoming ineffective politics: 1) Creating a thematic goal 2) Create a set of defining objectives 3) Create a set of ongoing standard operating objectives 4) Create metrics to measure them Keeping organizational politics within reasonable bounds: 1) Screen out overly political individuals at hiring time 2) Create and open-book management system 3) Make sure every employee knows how the business works and has a personal line of sight to key results 4) Have non financial people interpret periodic financial and accounting statement for all employees 5) Establish formal conflict resolution and grievance processes 6) As an ethics filter, do only what you would feel comfortable doing on national television 7) Publicly recognize and reward people who get real results without political games