OCS 1005 - EXAM 1, Oceanography Exam 2, OCS 1005 Test 4 Chemical Oceanography (LSU), OCS 1005 final exam- Sutor

live within the sediment

infauna

under what level of disturbance do you find the most diverse communities?

intermediate

What is melting point of water? (solid to liquid) Same as freezing point (liquid to solid)

0 degrees C

What is a Sverdrup equivalent to in terms of water flow?

1 million cubic meters of water per second

You are boiling water for pasta. You have a thermometer in the water. The water starts off at a temperature of 20 degrees C. You turn on the burner and observe that the temperature changes rapidly, then it stops changing, then you observe steam rising from the pot. 1) at what temperature does the water stop changing temperature? 2) if there are 10 grams of water, how many calories did it take for the water to change from 20 degrees to it's final temperature? 3) what is happening when the water does not change temperature before you see the steam, but heat is still being applied by the burner?

1) 100 degrees C 2) 800 calories (1 calorie to raise 1 gram 1 degree C), The latent heat of vaporization takes a large absorption of heat to change liquid water to vapor (a change in state) but there is no change in temperature

What are the 3 forms of carbon compounds in seawater?

1. Carbonic acid 2. Bicarbonate 3. Carbonate ion

At what pH do each of the carbon compounds dominate?

1. Carbonic acid dominates lower pH 2. Bicarbonate dominates average seawater pH 3. Carbonate dominates higher pH

Ions in seawater change the physical properties of water in what 4 ways?(with increased salinity)

1. Heat capacity/boiling point decreases with increased salinity 2. Freezing point decreases with increased salinity (acts as antifreeze) 3. Seawater evaporates more slowly (dissolved salts want to hold onto water molecules) 4. Osmotic pressure increases with increased salinity

3) You should know the sequence of events that leads from a question to the formation of a theory or law

1. Problem 2. Collect information 3. Hypothesis 4. Test hypothesis 5. Theory → see definition for explanation 6. Law → see definition for explanation

What are 3 methods to measure/determine salinity?

1. Silver nitrate method 2. Salinometer 3. Refractometer

At what temperature do hydrogen bonds break in h2o?

100 degrees C

What is the angle degree in h2o?

105 degrees caused by the way the oxygen electrons are distributed

History of Oceanography

12 questions

Plate Tectonics

13 questions

how long have estuaries been around?

15,000 years

What is the speed of sound in the surface ocean? Why does the speed decrease with increasing depth to a certain point?

1500 meters per second. The speed decreases with depth as the temperature of the water decreases. (NOTE: at a certain point, increasing pressure causes the sound speed to increase again)

What is mixing time of the ocean?

1600 years, thorough mixing of major constituents. It has been mixed with hundreds of thousands of times..:(

When was he killed and how?

1794, he was guillotined

How big is a proton in reference to an electron?

1836 times larger than an electron

Ocean Basins

19 questions

What does a water molecule consist of? What is the angle

2 hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom; 105 degree angle

Sediments

20 questions

Compare the number of nuclides to the number of elements that exist.

2500 nuclides and only 103-110 elements -- more than one nuclide per element

Scientific Method

3 questions

all reefs are located between what range of the equator

30 degrees north and 30 degrees south

5) You should know the average depth of the oceans

3800 m (12465 feet)

Origin of the Earth and Oceans

5 questions

Introduction to Oceanography

6 questions

How many major circulation cells are there on the Earth?

6, 2 Hadley cells near the equator, 2 Ferrel cells in the temperature latitudes, and 2 polar cells

What is the average pH of pure water?

7

Structure of the Earth and Continental Drift

7 questions

5) You should know what percentage of the Earth's crust is in the oceans

70.8 percent (71%)

2) You should know what percentage of the Earth is covered by the Ocean

71% of the earth's surface is ocean • 97% is salt water • 2.5 is fresh water (69% is in glaciers, 30% in ground water, >1% is in permafrost {the icy layer of soil we find in the arctic)

What are the three main gases that make up the atmosphere and their percent composition?

78% Nitrogen, 20% oxygen, 1 % other

If you add 90 calories of heat to 1 gram of liquid water that is at 0 degrees C, what will it's new temperature be?

90 Degrees C

What is the composition of seawater?

96.5% water, 3.5% dissolved substances (mostly salts)

at what population density do we see the maximal growth rates in a population?

intermediate density

What is the symbol for mass number?

A

What is storm surge?

A bulge of water that is formed under the low pressure center of a tropical cyclone and is then driven ashore by the forward movement of the storm

3) You should know what the earliest life form was in the fossil record and how long ago it lived

A chain of Bacteria 3.5 billion years ago -- Didn't require oxygen -- Photosynthetic using light to create energy and food -- Released oxygen

What is a gyre?

A circular flow of water around an ocean basin

3) What is the chronometer, how does it work, and why is its invention significant?

A clock that uses a spring instead of a pendulum and It makes the accurate calculation of longitude at sea possible

What is a disturbing force? A restoring force?

A disturbing force is an energy force that causes waves. A restoring force is an energy source that returns the water surface to flatness after a wave has passed

What is a front? When do we define a front as being a cold front or a warm front?

A front is a boundary between air masses of different density. It is a cold front if the cold air is lifting the warm air mass and it is called a warm front if the warm air does the lifting

What is a wave train?

A group of waves with the same wavelength

What is the difference between a hydrogen bond and a covalent bond?

A hydrogen bond connects a hydrogen atom of one water molecule to an oxygen atom of another water molecule----> christmas tree effect ----> adhesion A covalent bond is the sharing of electrons between an oxygen atom and a hydrogen atom in a singular H2o molecule.

What is sensible heat loss or gain?

A measurable decrease or increase in heat--there is a change in temperature

What is an amphidromic point?

A point of no tidal motion which a tidal crest rotates around

What is La Nina?

A return to normal conditions after El Nino that at first results in colder than normal conditions

What is a seiche? What causes it (disturbing force was discussed in a previous lecture segment)?

A seiche occurs when water sloshes back and forth in a closed basin, like a lake. It occurs due to changes in atmospheric pressure (most common), storm surge, or a tsunami

What is a standing wave? How is it created?

A standing wave is a wave that oscillates around a single node--the wave has crests and troughs in a fixed position. This occurs when a wave strikes an obstacle directly and the reflected waves interfere with the oncoming waves

What is the shorthand notation to designate a specific nucleus? What is the name for a specific nucleus?

A upper left Z lower left N lower right Chemical symbol in the middle. nuclide, (2500 known)

What is a hydrogen bond?

A weak bond that forms between the positively charged hydrogen of one water molecule and the negatively charged oxygen of another water molecule

What is the equation for mass number?

A= N+Z

In a simplified circulation cell, describe how air is moving from the equator, to the poles, and back and what is driving that circulation.

Air at the equator is heated by energy from the sun and rises, it moves towards the poles where it is cooled, sinks, and flows along the surface of the Earth back towards the equator

Describe the Seawater buffer system. What is it also known as?

Aka Carbonate Buffer System The ocean is a sponge for CO2. Buffering capacity is enhanced by the amount of CO compounds present. The system can remove or release H ions to prevent broad swings in pH-3 different levels of compounds "Main buffer system of the ocean"

What is the SOFAR layer?

An area in the ocean where sound speed is the lowest and sound that is generated in the layer is refracted from the top and bottom of the layer and so travels further than is would in another part of the ocean. Sound fixing and ranging layer

What is an ion?

An atom that has an unbalanced electrical charge because it has gained/lost one or more electrons

What is a warm core ring?

An eddy, a spinning parcel of water that has pinched off a meandering current and has a core of warm water in the center

What is an ionic bond?

An electrostatic attraction between ions of opposite charge. Has to do with the number of electrons in the outer shell. (Not a hydrogen bond)

What is a trace element in seawater? Define

An element that has concentration of less than 1 ppm. However, crucial to life processes

What is a polar molecule? What makes the water molecule polar?

An molecule with positive and negative charged ends. Hydrogens on one side are positive and oxygen is negative on the other side

2) You should know when the Earth and oceans formed

Approximately 5 billion years ago shortly after the solar system was formed

How do seasonal changes in sea ice cover provide a global thermal buffer?

As ice changes state from solid to liquid, large amounts of heat are required to undergo the latent heat of fusion during which there is no temperature change. The Earth can absorb large amounts of heat and experience no change in temperature because the heat is 'used' to convert ice to liquid water (the reverse process buffers against large drops in temperature as the Earth loses heat)

What is residence time?

Average length of time an element (pure) or atom (within a compound) spends in the ocean.

1) You should know what bathymetry is and three ways it is measured

Bathymetry- the contours of the ocean floor. • Historically, sounding were taken lowering the weight on a marked line to measure the depth in a particular location. • The "steam wench" and a marked line was used in the challenger expedition to measure bathymetry. • The sinking of the titanic in 1912 prompted the invention of the sonar devices to detect ice burgs in front of ships. This technology was then adapted into what we use today to measure the depth of the ocean - echo sounders. Echo sounders- generally mounted on the hull of a ship, it sends out a pulsive sound and when that sound wave hits an object like the bottom, it is reflected back and the echo sounder detects the returning echo. • Depth= V (t/2) where "t" is the time it takes for the echo to return to the echo sounder. The reason it is divided by 2 is because the sound travels the entire depth of the water column twice • V=1500 m/s in sea water ; T=2 → depth= 1500 (2/2) • Echo sounders are very useful in finding precise depth at a single point or a long straight line Multi-beam sonars - extend the range over which depth can be recorded for a single ship. The beams extended out in a fan from the echo sounder at the bottom of the ship and this allows data to be recorded along a wider slot along the ships track. o Different colors represent varying heights • The crew for the USS guardian had three version of charts for the area in the pacific where they were operating. TWO of these were updated with the latest information but the third one was not. They were using the un updated chart. o They also didn't compare the different chart versions to see that the location of this particular pristine coral reef was different by 8 miles o The bad charts along with human error led this multi-million dollar mind sweeper on this reef where it eventually had to be cut into pieces to be salvaged Satellite Altimetry- measure variations in the elevation of the surface of the ocean. o There are slight variations in the elevation of the surface of the ocean due to the underlying bathymetry. This is because the pull of gravity varies slightly across the earth. o The satellite can measure these variations in surface elevation Gravity from the seamount pull water in to its side and so forms a small mound of water over its top. o Can collect data over a much wider area and can do so continually as they rotate the earth • Putting together all our information we now have a detailed view of the ocean basin • The ocean floor is NOT smooth • The topography across north America is compared to the bathymetry across the Atlantic ocean o North America is dramatic including the rocky mountains and the sierra Nevada mountains but these features are dwarfed compared to what we see crossing the Atlantic ocean o Atlantic ocean has the most prominent feature being the mid ocean ridge • Most of the surface of the earth is in the oceans • Over 50% of the surface area of the earth is in the ocean at a depth of 3000 meters • Over half of the surface area of the earth is what we might call the deep sea

Why does seawater have colligative properties?

Because it is a solution, not pure water. Pure water has no colligative properties

Why does a dome of water form in the center of a gyre?

Because since water moves at a 90 degree angle to the right, which goes into the center of the gyre, a dome pressure gradient is created.

What wavelength (color) of light penetrates deepest in the ocean? Which is attenuated most rapidly in the surface?

Blue light penetrates deepest, red light is absorbed at the shallowest depths

2) You should know the types of waves in earthquakes and their relative speed of travel in relation to each other

Body Waves: P waves and S waves only they travel through the planet. o P waves- primary waves - move particles forwards and backwards • Can travel through both solid and liquid matter. • Travel faster and they will arrive at a seismograph the instrument that measures the waves in the earth with earthquake activity faster than the secondary waves • As they encounter different densities within the earth there speed changes and they become bent. o S waves- secondary waves - portion of the wave in which particles are being moved up and down • cannot travel through liquid, only through solid matter o Surface waves- moves the surface of the crust up and down 1. The focus is the point at which the earth quake is generated 2. surface waves are traveling along the earth 3. and the same time both primary and secondary waves move out from the focal point Seismograph o 0 point being the moment that the earth quake happens o P wave → S wave → Surface wave • Scientist were able to use this information about earthquakes in terms about what we know about the waves and how they travel and what they can travel through to determine what the structure of the earth was

5) You should be able to define buoyancy and isostatic equilibrium and know how these forces affect the lithosphere

Buoyancy is the ability of an object to float in a fluid by displacing a volume of the fluid that happens to be equal in weight to the objects weight • Reason why mountains don't sink • Reason why the hard, rigid, outer lithosphere layer doesn't just sink down into the pliable, semi liquid asthenosphere layer o Example: how a ship floats on water: Empty ship floats higher because it weighs less compared to a ship containing cargo where the water is displaced a greater volume of water and still being able to float due to the forces of buoyancy. o Buoyancy keeps the lithosphere floating above the asthenosphere we talk about it in terms of isostatic equilibrium. Isostatic equilibrium (The balanced support of lighter material in a heavier, displaced supporting material) is that there has to be an overall equilibrium across a lithosphere plate. If one part of the plate is heavier it will sink down deeper than another part of that plate. o But if erosion occurs and that material from the mountain gets moved around that portion of the plate will rise up some while another potion will sink down. The entire plate at any given time is in isostatic equilibrium. • Isostatic equilibrium is in flux o Erosion causes the mountain to become lower and takes the material that used to make up that mountain and deposits it on either side of the continental crust then we will have UPLIFT of the lithosphere underneath the mountain and subside on either side so the plate is having to sink down deeper o Overall we have the SAME equilibrium we have just redistributed it causing certain portions of it to uplift and other portions to subside

How does the amount of CO2 in seawater relate to depth?

CO2 increases with depth due to respiration of animals/bacteria (CO2 given off). Solubility is increased with depth and decreasing temp.

What type of wave has the smallest wavelength? What are its disturbing and restoring forces?

Capillary waves. Disturbing force is wind and restoring force is the cohesion of water molecules

What isotope is commonly used as a tracer bc of its long half life? (5730yrs)

Carbon 14

What is the latent heat of fusion or vaporization?

Changes in heat (gain or loss), but no change in temperature

Describe how to determine salinity from chlorinity

Chlorinate = total mass of all halogens (Fluoride, Cl, Br, I) Salinity = 1.8 X chlorinity (ppt). International Agreement/Standard

what is an example of a non-renewable resource?

petroleum

What is water?

Compound molecule made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Molecular weight varies depending on oxygen and hydrogen isotopes involved.

7) You should know the theory of continental drift, the early evidence for it, and the mechanism that drive it

Continental Drift - theory there was once one super continent (Pangea) that split/drifted o hypothesis proposed by Alfred Wegner o His evidence: the shape of the continents and fossils o Once the structure of the earth was known and there was a plausible mechanism for this drift, his hypothesis became a theory. Drift - the movement of the solid plates in the lithosphere. o The heat source is the radioactive decay at the center of the earth it heats up the liquid part of the mantle the asthenosphere, some of that material rises up it cools as it nears the surface of the lithosphere and drops back down to the core where its reheated and this can cause the actual movement of the plates on the surface of the earth. Convection- a circular current in which water is heated from the heat source at the bottom, rises up and is cooled at the top, then falls back down and that creates the circle. o This is what we think is going on in the earth! The heat source is the radioactive decay in the center of the earth. It heats up the liquid part of the mantle in the asthenosphere and some of that material rises up. It cools as it's near the surface of the lithosphere and drops back down to the core where it's reheated. CAN CAUSE THE ACTUAL MOVEMENTS OF THE PLATES ON THE EARTH. o Convection currents are large and slow moving mantle plumes but the material in the mantle the pliable asthenosphere is heated near the core and rises up is cooled as it moves along the lithosphere and then drops back down where its then again heated at the core and this is the mechanism for the drift of the plates Fossil evidence that showed that at one time the landmasses had been joined. o Dinosaur that was called Mesosurus that was found only in Southern South America (Argentina) and southern Africa in areas that would have joined each other if the continents were fitted together. o Fossil ferns, Glossoptoris, were found in south America, Africa, India and Antarctica all the southern land masses

3) You should know the different types of continental margins and their characteristics

Continental margins- submerged outer edge of a continent, areas of the oceans that are adjacent to the continents. o Passive margins --> face divergent plate boundaries • Little earthquake activity • Atlantic • There is a divergent plate boundary in the middle of the ocean where the mid-Atlantic ridge is formed. The margins on either side are facing this divergent plate boundary o Active margins --> face convergent boundaries • Earthquake and volcanic activity • Pacific • An example of an active margin is found on the west coast of South America along the Pacific Ocean these margins face a convergent plate boundary. This is an ocean-continent convergent boundary and the denser oceanic plate is sub ducted below the continental plate forming a trench. There is earth quake activity associated with the subduction and the partial melting of the subductive plate fuels volcanic activity on the continental plate • Extends from the beginning of the continent out to the the beginning of the deep ocean floor

4) You should know the different parts of a continental margin (continental shelf, continental slope, etc.) and their characteristics

Continental shelf- submerged outer edge of the continent and is still composed of the same type of crust as the rest of the continental plate o Shallow submerged extension of a continent o The width is determined by how close it is to a plate boundary o Most of the material composing the shelf comes from the adjacent continent o The weight of these sediments depresses the weight of the continental shelf and that is why its submerged o Continental shelves are affected by sea level. In the past, sea level was much lower than the present sea level. Sea level will affect how much of the continental shelf is exposed and can be eroded by wind and waves. The sediment can then be transported away • Extends from the shore to an abrupt transition called the shelf break where we move from the continental shelf to the continental slope. Continental Slope- This is a relatively steep area with a rapid change in depth. o Transition between continental shelf and deep-ocean floor o Steeper grade that continental shelf o Slopes at active margins are generally steeper than at passive margins o Formed of sediments that reach the edge of the shelf. Continental Rise- LARGE accumulation of sediments here o Only found at a passive margin o Formed by accumulated sediments at the base of the continental slope o Most sediment is transported by turbidity currents and then shaped by deep ocean currents Deep ocean basins- areas away from the margins that are characterized by grid systems, sediment covered plains,

What is a covalent bond? Where is this bond found in a water molecule?

Covalent bonds hold two atoms together by sharing electrons. In the water molecule, covalent bonds hold the oxygen and hydrogen atoms together

What is Westward intensification and what causes it?

Currents flowing from West to East at higher latitudes (in either hemisphere!) have water deflected more quickly and strongly towards the center of the gyre than currents flowing form high latitudes towards the equator because the Coriolis force is greater near the poles. This leads to an asymmetrical gyre and explains why western boundary currents are fast and deep while easter boundary currents are the opposite

What are the most important dissolved gases in seawater?

Dissolved O2, Dissolved CO2, N2

What controls the vertical stratification of the oceans?

Density

4) You should be able to define density and know how it affects the transmission of waves in earthquakes

Density: the mass in any given unit of volume • If your planet has a density gradient then the waves become bent • If there is a change in density meaning that there is more mass in a given unit of volume then the speed of the waves will change and they will become bent or refracted as they move from something of one density to an area of another density and there speed is changed.

What was Lavoisier credited with?

Discovering that water can be subdivided into two gases in 1783

What is dispersion? Why does it happen?

Dispersion is the process of wave separation by size (wavelength). This happens because waves with greater wavelengths move faster--the speed of the waves are controlled by their wavelength

What is dispersion of waves? When this occurs, which waves do you expect to reach an observation point first?

Dispersion is the separation of waves by their size (wavelength). Waves with greater wavelength travel faster and so the waves with the greatest wavelength will reach an observation point first

What are the three basic types of tides? Give a brief description of each.

Diurnal tides, one high and one low tide every 24 hours. Semidiurnal tides, two high and two low tides every 24 hours of equal magnitude. Mixed tide, two high tides and two low tides every 24 hours of differing magnitude

2) You should know the different types of plate boundaries, be able to characterize the features of that boundary, and give an example geographically of each type of boundary

Divergent- where two plate boundaries are moving apart magma from the asthenosphere rises and creates new crust. o EX: Mid Atlantic ridge where two plates are moving apart and new crust is being formed o New crust is formed as the plates move apart, a ridge forms and there are many small volcanoes. The mid-atlantic ridge 1) at a crack in the lithosphere, magma rises to create new basaltic crust 2) the rift continues to open and there are volcanoes and earthquakes associated with this area 3) the rift continues to widen and is submerged, creating a new ocean basin o This is occurring at the rift valley in Africa is thought to be formed as lithosphere is being pushed upward by a super plume of magma and then cracks and pulls apart. o As the crust continues to pull apart the red sea becomes wider and a portion of the continent will break away by the rift valley. • Marie Tharp - her vision and common sense intuition revealed the Mid-Atlantic Ridge was a divergent boundary and so changed the debate on plate tectonics -the axis of spreading cannot occur in a straight line on a curved surface and a fault forms where two plates move past each other Convergent- where two plates are moving towards each other and interact either one plate moves underneath the other plate or the two plates collide and mountains form o EX: Plate boundary on the west coast of south America- one plate is slipping below the other 1) Ocean continent Convergence- lighter continental lithosphere rides up over the denser oceanic lithosphere and a trench is formed and crust is recycled o The denser oceanic plate is subducted below the continental plate, a trench forms and there are deep earthquakes as the plate subsides. The partial melting of the plate in the asthenosphere causes magma to ride and volcanoes sometimes form on the continental plate. This is occurring off the west coast of south America o The denser oceanic plate dives under the continental plate causing a trench, deep earthquakes, and the formation of volcanoes on the continent. Western south america, Pacific Northwest USA o At constructive boundaries, new crust if formed. At destructive boundaries, plate is destroyed 2) Ocean-Ocean Convergence- the older, cooler, denser oceanic crust will be subducted under the other plate and deep ocean trenches and island arcs are formed o The plate that is denser is subducted, this will be the older plate. Because it has had more time to cool, it is denser than a younger warmer plate. Ex: convergent boundary near Japan o As the subducted plate is melted magma rises and volcanos form. This time on an oceanic plate and creates an island arc such as the Japanese islands o Maga may also rise due to the melting plates some distance away from the isands and cause a divergent boundary to form o Tells us the location of the subduction plates which tells us the shallow earthquakes occurring at the location of the boundary where the trenches formed and deeper earthquakes occurring farther away as the plate is subducted deeper 3) Continent-Continent Convergence- the two plates of equal density are compresses and folded and mountains form o Example: Himalayas where India is colliding with Asia Transverse (transform) - where two plates slide laterally past each other. o Ex: San Andreas Fault on the west coast of the United States o Crust is neither created nor destroyed as the plates move past each other. San Andreas fault, mid-ocean ridges Breakup of Pangea - Plate tectonics led to the breakup of Pangea, the original supercontinent - Ocean basins formed at divergent boundaries - Mountain ranges and trenches formed at convergent boundaries

What is transported by waves?

Energy

Estuaries are highly productive communities, but primary production is highly variable. What is the other source of food that supports the high secondary production (growth of consumers)?

Estuaries have large amounts of organic matter (detritus). Some is brought in by rivers and some is produced in the estuary

What makes up the 3.5% of seawater that is dissolved salts (inorganic substances)?

Every element that is present in earth's crust/atmosphere is also in the oceans. Only 14 constituents have a concentration greater than 1ppm

1) You should know what the Big Bang is and when it happened

Explosion that catalyzed the formation of the universe 13.7 billion years ago

Where (include both the front and the circulation cells) and why do extratropical cyclones form?

Extratropical cyclones form at the boundaries between polar cells and Ferrel cells (the polar front) because the air masses of different densities moving past each other start to twist. In the northern hemisphere, they twist counterclockwise, against the Coriolis effect, and in the southern hemisphere they move clockwise.

T/F there is only one nuclide per element.

False, there are more than one nuclide per element

T/F: Only ionic molecules are solutes in seawater.

False. Both ionic and nonionic molecules are solutes in seawater

T/F: Cold water holds less gas in solutions

False. Cold water holds more gas in solutions.Water at poles holds/dissolves the most gases

T/F: Organisms can freely use N2 dissolved in seawater as a nutrient

False. Special organisms must first "fix" N2 for other organisms to use.

How do El Nino conditions affect fisheries production? Why?

Fisheries production is reduced during El Nino conditions because the lack of high nutrient water in the absence of upwelling means that plankton production is also low and because plankton are the base of the food chain, this results in lower fish production

What are the three different flow phases of a tide in and out of an enclosed area like a river mouth?

Flood current--water rushing in, Ebb current--water rushing out, and slack water--a time of no currents

The time it takes a radioactive isotope to reach a stable nucleus ratio is determined by what?

Half life

11) You should know how the Hawaiian islands were formed

Formed as the oceanic plate there on moved over the stationary hotspot

You are sailing from Europe to North America, and then back again. To take advantage of the prevailing winds, what latitude do you want to be south of on the outbound journey but north of on the return journey? Why?

Going outbound, you want to be of 30N to avoid the Westerlies. Returning, you want to be of 30S to utilize the Westerlies.

5) What areas did the Vikings colonize and explore?

Greenland and north America

What is a molecule?

Group of atoms held together by chemical bonds. Can be made up of one or more elements .

Give 3 examples of a compound?

H2o (water) Co2 (carbon dioxide) C6H12O6 (sugar)

Explain why hydrogen bonds make ice less dense than water

Hydrogen bonds are formed between the positive part of the water molecule (the hydrogen atoms) and the negative part of another molecule (the oxygen atom). Because the molecules have this polar attraction, when they slow down due to the removal of heat, they arrange themselves in a lattice structure that has more space between the molecules than if they were moving freely as in liquid water

What are the 4 most important isotopes?

Hydrogen- 3 isotopes Carbon- 13 isotopes Nitrogen- 12-14 isotopes Oxygen- 12-14 isotopes

What is interference? What are the possible outcomes?

Interference occurs when two wave trains interact. The waves can either cancel each other out (destructive interference) or add together to create even larger waves (constructive interference)

Where are some of the largest waves in the world found? Why are they found here (what are the forces that affect wave size)?

In the Southern Ocean. The Southern Ocean has the longest fetch of any of the world oceans and also some of highest most sustained winds.

Why can't scientists find salinity by evaporating water from a sample of seawater and measuring the solute?

Inaccurate. Some salts will not release all associated H2O molecules

7) What is the major finding of the Fram expedition?

Initiated polar oceanography and demonstrated that there is no landmass in the Arctic

Why would low light limit the growth of coral reefs?

They symbiotic zooxanthellae require light to photosynthesize and this provides nutrition to the corals

What holds NaCl together?

Ionic bonds. Na+ attracts Cl-

Name two ways in which turbidity is an important physical factor for organisms living in estuaries

It attenuates light and so reduces the light available for primary production and visual predation

What are three things that can happen to light as it enters water?

It can be refracted, absorbed, or scattered

Why is water known as a universal solvent?

It can eventually dissolve any substance

Why is the trace element gold not mined from the ocean?

It costs more to extract it than what it is worth.

How does the gravitational pull of the moon in combination with the Earth's motion affect the oceans on Earth?

It creates a bulge in the oceans in the direction of the moon and on the opposite side of the Earth

How has tidal friction affected the Earth over time?

It has slowed the rotation of the Earth from 22 hours/day to 24 hours/day

What is the overall direction of net transport in an Ekman spiral in the Southern hemisphere?

It is 90 degrees to the left of the prevailing wind direction

You are in a small boat fishing just offshore. You set out several hours before dawn and you notice that you have to periodically row back toward shore to get back to your fishing spot because you are being blown further offshore. By the time you are eating your lunch around noon, the situation has changed and you have to periodically row away from the beach because you are being blown toward shore. What kinds of winds are you experiencing and what is driving them?

Land-breezes is cooler air from over the land moving you further off shore and sea-breezes, or cooler air is moving you towards the land are the winds that you are experiencing. They are driven by differential heating.

Under what conditions does Langmuir circulation occur? What part of the water column does it affect? What does it do to floating particles?

Langmuir circulation occurs when there are steady winds in one direction. It occurs in the upper 20 m of the water column. The opposing vortices concentrate floating particles in lines between them and creates surface slicks or concentrations of these particles

What two major factors determine the amount of heat reaching the Earth's surface?

Latitude and season

You are having sushi with friends and at the end of the meal someone puts their chopstick in their water glass and remarks "I've always wondered why something looks broken or offset when you stick it in water". You now know the answer, what do you say?

Light travels slower in water than air because it is more dense, it is refracted and it makes something like a chopstick look offset or broken

What are two ways the oceans moderate global temperature?

Liquid water has a high heat capacity, or thermal inertia so the ocean can absorb and lose large amounts of energy, without changing temperature. Also, the polar ice caps melt, and freeze again each year. The latent heat of fusion that is necessary to change ice to water and water to ice exchanges large amounts of energy without any change in temperature

What are the effects of an El Nino event?

Low productivity and higher sea surface temperatures in the Eastern Pacific (also higher sea level and greater and more intense storms in the Eastern Pacific)

What are the 3 sources of the ocean's salts? Major/minor

Major: 1. weathering of crustal surface rocks 2. excess volatiles Minor: 3. rainfall, man-made activities

10) You should know what a mantle plume and hotspot are

Mantle Plumes: continent sized columns of superheated mantle originating at the core mantle interface o These plumes may be responsible for some of the epic eruptions of lava that occurred in the past over India and in the Pacific Northwest and led to one of the greatest mass extinctions in history o Using earthquake wave velocities, the mantle plume below the Hawaiian hot spot has been mapped Hot Spot: the surface expression of a stationary source of heat in the mantle (like a plume) o Magma flows from the crust forming volcanoes and islands o Hotspot below Yellowstone national park which fuels the hydrothermal activity in the park including the famous geysers

10) What oceanographic variables do satellites measure?

Measure surface temperature, florescence (chlorophyll), sea surface height, ect.

Where are monsoon winds found? Briefly describe the air circulation and resulting climate conditions in both winter and summer

Monsoon winds are found in Asia, primarily over India and Southeast Asia. In winter, the land cools more than the ocean and this cool air sinks and moves toward the ocean, resulting in dry conditions. In summer, the land heats more than the ocean and as this warmer air rises, the cooler, moister air from over the ocean moves over the land resulting in wet rainy conditions.

What is an air mass?

a large body of air with nearly uniform temperature and humidity (density)

What is the most abundant molecule in sea water?

NaCl (salt)

What is used to collect seawater samples? Give 3

Nansen bottle, Nisken bottle, bucket (surface samples)

What are the characteristics of a Western boundary current? Name an example

Narrow, fast, deep currents on the western side of a geostrophic gyre that carry warm water towards the poles. They transport large amounts of water and are nutrient poor. Examples are the Gulf Stream, Kurishio, Brazin, Agulhas, and East Australian currents

Briefly explain what a neap tide is. How are the Earth, the moon, and the sun aligned?

Neap tides have the smallest difference between the high and low tides tides. The sun and moon are at a 90 degree angle in relation to the Earth to produce a neap tide.

Geographically on the globe, where do most tropical cyclones form? Why?

Near the equator because this is where there are consistently high sea surface temperatures

Where is dissolved O2 most abundant?

Near the surface. It decreases with depth. Related to the amount of sunlight (needed by ocean algae/plants)

How does water dissolve NaCl?

Negative part of water molecule (o) attracts +Cl ion, Positive part of water molecule (h) attracts -Na ion, breaks apart ionic bonds.

In a wave train, what happens as the leading waves are drained of energy and disappear?

New waves are created at the end of the wave train

8) You should know how old the oldest ocean sediments are and why there are no sediments older

No existing crust older than this because the plates interact at convergent boundaries and are subduted and eventually recycled.

2) You should know what an ocean basin is

Ocean basin is the sea floor beyond the continental margin where the transition from thick to thin denser granite occurs.

9) You should know what the differences are between the bathymetry of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise and why

Ocean ridges- mountainous formations at spreading centers • average spreading rate for the Mid Atlantic Ridge is 3 cm per year • average spreading rate for the East Specific Rise is about 18 cm per year (slower spreading rate) • the rate of spreading determines the bathymetric features o In a fast spreading system will look smoother like the East Pacific rise because the features are spread over a greater distance. No pronounced central rift valley o Slower spreading rate of the Mid Atlantic Ridge concentrates the features in a smaller area, it also, has a more pronounced central rift valley. Looks smoother sue to the accumulation of sediments. Mid Atlantic ridge- sediment accumulation changes the surface expression of the ridge. There is greater sediment accumulation the farther you get away from the spreading center because the crust is older and has had more time to accumulate sediments. • Spreading at a divergent boundary does not happen in a straight line because the earth is not changing in size, as the spreading occurs, it must be broken by transform faults • Ridge system must occur in segment's offset by transform faults

What is a refractometer?

Optical device that measures the bending of light (refraction) in a seawater sample compared to a standard salinity sample (not very accurate)

What does it mean for the Earth to be in thermal equilibrium?

Over a long period of time, the amount of heat coming in is equal to the amount of heat going out.

What are 2 major constituents of seawater?

Oxygen and Hydrogen (96.5% total--water!)

Why are the SURFACE ocean waters in the tropics less salty than in temperate regions?

Precipitation greatly exceed evaporation and this leads to fresher surface waters

You measure the difference between the high and low tide levels at three locations in an ocean basin. The differences at each of the three points is A=2 feet, B=3 feet and C=5 feet. Which point is closest to the amphidromic point? Why do you know that?

Point A is closest to the amphidromic point. The difference between the high and low tide levels increases with distance from the amphidromic point

You are shown some data collected on a research cruise. You can see that when the temperature was measured, it did not change much at all from the surface to the deep ocean and it was relatively low. You know immediately what part of the world the cruise took place in. What is it?

Polar regions, north or south.

1) Who were the groups of people who are considered early ocean explorers? What was the library of Alexander?

Polynesians (20,000 years), Vikings (1000 CE (AD), & Chinese (1400 CE (AD) o People were first driven to learn more about the ocean and the size and shape of the earth due to MONEY. o The establishment of trade routes and the discovery of new wealth required better navigation and understanding of currents and winds o The Library at Alexandria in Egypt during the 3rd century BC was a meeting place for scholars, explorers, and merchants to exchange information.

Why are surface ocean salinities lower at the equator than in temperate zones?

Precipitation exceeds evaporation and the excess precipitation lowers the surface salinity due to the input of freshwater via rainfall

What causes coastal upwelling off the Oregon coast?

Prevailing winds are from the north and the Coriolis force deflects water to the right, away from the coast. This induces water from below to be upwelled to fill the space along the coast.

What are colligative properties?

Properties that depend and change based on the concentration of solute molecules or ions

What are the three isotopes of hydrogen?

Protium Deuterium Tritium (radioactive)

What makes up the overall mass of an atom?

Protons and neutrons (nucleons)

What is the pycnocline? The thermocline? The halocline?

Pycnocline: the zone where density increases rapidly with depth. Thermocline: zone where temperature changes (usually decreases) rapidly with depth. Halocline: zone where salinity changes (usually increases) rapidly with depth

What is the formula for residence time? (RT)

RT = amount of element in ocean ------------------------------- input or removal rate

What affects residence time? What determines long RT versus short RT?

RT depends on biochemical activity of the element. Low geochemical & biochemical reactivity= long RT High geochemical & biochemical reactivity = short RT

You have a spectral light detector that can detect the different wavelengths (colors) of light. You fix it to a submersible and descend into the ocean. Immediately, one color is no longer detected. As you continue to descend other colors are also not detected until only one remains. Which color was no longer detected first and which was the last to be detected?

Red light is the first to be absorbed and so would be the color immediately not detected. Blue light penetrates deepest and would be the last color detected.

What is a solute?

Solid or gas that is dissolved by the solvent, less abundant constituent

9) What are some of the new technologies that oceanographers are using today?

Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs)

What causes decrease in O2 levels below the sunlit layer of the ocean?

Respiration of marine animals and bacteria. O2 is consumed by both and not replenished.

Describe weathering of crustal surface rocks to derive salts

River water and ground water carry dissolved material to oceans--not the only source (river water is not same composition as ocean water)

How does salinity affect the freezing point of seawater?

Salinity lowers the freezing point, the higher the salinity, the lower the freezing point

What are two major factors forecasters look at to predict tropical cyclone formation and strength and how do these factors act to aid in the formation of these storms?

Sea surface temperature is important to the formation and strength of tropical cyclones as the warmer the water, the greater the energy source for the storm. Atmospheric dust is also important as it acts as a nuclei for water droplet formation and thus accelerates the release of the latent heat of vaporization

In what state are most hydrogen bonds found?

Solid, forms crystal structure

14) You should know what a seamount and guyot are and how they are formed

Seamounts- volcanic projections that do not reach the ocean surface o Formed near spreading centers, the volcanic activity, the magma chamber with passages of magma coming up though the plates can form these volcanoes o As the plates move apart the seamount is carried away and is submerged and is no longer active because it is not loner near the active magma chamber o As the mountains move away from the spreading center if there's enough sediment accumulations it could become an abyssal hill → increased fish activities Guyots- former seamounts that have flat tops and may have reached the surface and been eroded

What are conservative constituents of the ocean?

Seawater constituents that are in constant proportion or change very slowly over time. (Long RT/low g&b activity)

What are nonconservative constituents of the ocean?

Seawater constituents tied to biological or seasonal cycles (Short RT/ high g&b activity)

12) You should know how sediment accumulation affects the bathymetry of a spreading center

Sediment accumulation changes the surface expression of the ridge. There is greater sediment accumulation the farther you get away from the spreading center because the crust is older and has had more time to accumulate sediments.

What are the 2 components of a solution?

Solvent and solute

Compare the speed and distance that sound travels in the ocean versus air

Sound travels faster and farther in the ocean than in air

Describe the Silver Nitrate Method

Silver Nitrate is used to measure chlorinity, then uses tables to convert to salinity

You live in the state of Maine, 'off the grid' in a house with solar panels. Your twin also lives in a similar house in Costa Rica. You consistently produce less power with your solar panels than your twin does and the amount of power you generate in the summer is greater than in the winter. Explain why this is

Since Maine is much further North of Costa Rica and Costa Rica is close to the equator, it gets a stronger power from its solar panels because the suns rays reaches it more directly. In the winter, Maine is in the Northern Hemisphere and since the earth is tilted on its axis and the earth is rotating around the sun which gives us seasons, the strength of suns rays are weakened during winter months.

How does Forchhammer's Principle help determine salinity?

Since RATIO of salts or solids is always the same we can determine sea water salinity from determining chloride ion concentration. Ratio is always the same, even if the salinity % varies.

What are thermohaline currents?

Slow, deep currents (below the pycnocline) driven by the density of water masse

Briefly describe solar convection. You need to identify why it happens and what occurs during a full convection cycle.

Solar convection is the movement of air from the source of heat (radiator or sun) which warms air particles near by, which become less dense, the particles become far apart, and moves quickly away from the source of heat towards cooler air (the Poles or closed window) the air then becomes cooler and heavier and moves back towards the equator.

20) You should know what stratigraphy and paleoceanography are

Stratigraphy- analysis of layered sedimentary deposits Paleoceanography- study of the oceans past o Important when looking at how the earth has changed due to past climatic histories • At the end of the cretaceous period a huge meteor impacted the Gulf of Mexico. Cores taken from this region, a distinct layer called the ejectolayer, this layer is the layer that was ejected directly from the impact of the crater and laid down within just a few days of the impact. o Fireball layer - as it concocts of dust and ash fallout from the impact o By dating the core we can get a precise time on when the event occurred.

What is the force that drives surface currents? What is the force that drives thermohaline currents?

Surface currents are driven by wind and thermohaline currents are driven by the density of water masses

3) You should know what the pattern of earthquake location and depth tells us about plate boundaries

Tells us the location of the subduction plates which tells us the shallow earthquakes occurring at the location of the boundary where the trenches formed and deeper earthquakes occurring farther away as the plate is subducted deeper

In what regions of the Earth do SURFACE ocean temperatures fluctuate the most over the year?

Temperate regions

What physical property of water can sound be used to measure?

Temperature

What does the dynamic theory of tides take into account?

That tides are waves and so have certain behaviors in shallow water and that continental also have an effect

Where are the 'horse latitudes', or subtropical highs? Briefly describe the atmospheric circulation here and the resulting climatic effects.

The 'horse latitudes' are located at 30 degrees N and S, where the Hadley and Ferrel cells meet. Air is sinking here and since that air has lost most of it's precipitation, these ares are often dry resulting in desserts like the Sahara (and also higher ocean surface salinity because there is more evaporation than precipitation!)

What is the Coriolis Effect? How does it behave in each hemisphere?

The Coriolis Effect is the effects on solar convection from the Earth rotating eastward on its axis which deflects moving air and water. Air moves to the right, or clockwise in the northern hemisphere and moves left, or counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere.

Why are ocean gyres asymmetrical?

The Coriolis force is greater near the poles than the equator

If the bulge in the oceans remains stationary over 24 hours, what causes high and low tide to occur at a fixed point on the Earth?

The Earth is rotating under the bulges so a fixed point on the Earth is moving from being under a bulge (high tide) to away from the bulge (low tide)

Why are there seasons at the temperate and polar latitudes? (why is the solar energy reaching the Earth in these areas not the same throughout the year?)

The Earth is tilted on it's axis and so as it orbits around the sun, the temperate and polar latitudes are exposed to varying amounts of solar energy which dictates the different seasons

In which direction does the Earth rotate? If you don't remember, you can figure it out by thinking about time zones in the US, where does night happen first....

The Earth rotates to the East

What is different about the movement of the ITCZ over Asia than over the Pacific over the course of the year? Why?

The ICTZ over Asia zone moves much further north in the summer and south in the winter because there is much more temperature fluctuation over a large land mass than there is over water. Since the Pacific is surrounded by a large ocean, the temperature is controlled better, or does not fluctuate as much, so therefore the zones has a north south movement is less over area of large open ocean because of heat capacity of water, which is moderating the temperature.

How will rising global temperatures affect the ocean conveyor? What major climate affect will this initially have?

The North Atlantic will get fresher as more Arctic ice melts and this will prevent downwelling. Europe will get colder as the Gulf stream will circulate back towards the equator sooner

Where are the Polar fronts located? Briefly describe the atmospheric circulation here and the resulting climate conditions.

The Polar fronts are located at 60 degrees N and S, at the convergence of the Ferrel and Polar Cells. Air is rising here resulting in a stormy, cloudy climate and relatively high precipitation year-round

Where are the trade winds located and what is their prevailing wind direction in each hemisphere?

The Trade winds are located between the equator and 30 degrees N and S. The prevailing direction is to the Northeast in the Northern hemisphere and to the Southeast in the Southern hemisphere

What is a calorie?

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree C

What is the Coriolis effect?

The apparent deflection of objects (including air!) from their initial course

What is the Intertropical Convergence Zone? Why does it experience a greater change in its North-South position over Asia than over the Pacific Ocean?

The area around the equator where the Hadley cells meet. It is characterized by low wind activity. It's seasonal NS position changes more over Asia because there is more land surface and less ocean surface and so there is less of a buffering effect from seasonal temperature changes because there is less buffering due to the heat capacity of water.

What is one of the largest and strongest upwelling zones on the Earth? What drives the upwelling here?

The area around the equator. The Southeast trade winds blow along the equator and the Coriolis force deflects water to the right North of the equator and to the left south of the equator. This causes the surface waters to essential part a the equator and induces water from below to be upwelled to fill the space

What is the average pH of seawater? What controls the pH for the most part?

The average is 8, is controlled mostly by CO2 dissolved in the water

You are snorkeling and notice that there are patches of coral that are white. What has happened? You need to use the specific term for this phenomenon.

The corals have expelled their zooxanthellae due to some stressor. This is called coral bleaching

How does the Coriolis force affect the movement of surface currents in each hemisphere? Be specific about the angle

The coriolis force deflects water at a 45 degree angle from the prevailing wind direction--to the right in the Northern hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere

What is low atmospheric pressure associated with? High atmospheric pressure?

The correct answer is: Low pressure is associated with air rising and high pressure is associated with air sinking

What is the wavelength?

The distance between the peak of two adjacent crests

What is wave height?

The distance from the crest to the trough of a wave

Describe the circulation of a Hadley cell. What causes the air to circulate and move in the direction that it does? How does it move in the Northern and Southern hemisphere?

The energy of the sun causes the heating that causes air to rise and drives the circulation. In a Hadley cell, the air rises and moves towards the poles, as the air cools and falls back toward the equator, air is deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere and the left in the southern hemisphere

what is the base of the food web in the seagrass area of an estuary?

detritus

What are the changes in ocean circulation that occur during an El Nino?

The flow of water from the East to the West is decreased as the trade winds weaken and the pool of warm water in the west flows to the east as there is now not enough force to keep the thermocline tilted. The typical upwelling conditions off South America are changed to downwelling conditions

Consider a single point on Earth along a coastline over a 24 hour period. What makes high and low tides evident at this point over the 24 hour cycle?

The gravitational pull of the moon (and sun) causes the ocean to bulge and the rotation of the Earth under the bulges causes the high and low tides to occur

How are estuarine organisms adapted to changing salinity?

The have reduced permeability to seawater (shells), active membrane pumps that regulate their internal salinity, and they can migrate-move up and down the estuary to stay in the same salinity over a tidal cycle

What is a spring tide?

The highest and lowest tides, when the sun and moon are in alignment with the Earth

Why is ice less dense than liquid water?

The hydrogen bonds between the water molecules force the molecules to form a lattice structure when water freezes and fewer water molecules can fit into the same space, making ice less dense

What provides the energy for a tropical cyclone?

The latent heat of vaporization of water

Why is there less biological zonation on a mud flat than a sandy beach?

The lower slope means there is less zonation in water retention of the substrate and so fewer physical differences

What is heat capacity? Does water have a high or low heat capacity? What does that mean?

The measure of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree C. Water has a high heat capacity. That means it takes a large gain or loss of heat for water to change it's temperature

In the Northern hemisphere, in what direction does Ekman transport occur in relation to the prevailing winds? What force makes this happen?

The net transport of water is 90 degrees to the right of the direction of prevailing winds. The Coriolis force is what makes this happen

What is wave frequency?

The number of wave crests that pass a fixed point each second

How do oceans resist broad changes in pH when acids or bases are introduced?

The ocean is buffered.

What significant thing happens at a depth of approximately 1/2 the wavelength?

The orbital path of water particles is essentially negligible. This is the depth where wave motion generated at the surface is no longer occurring

As deep-water waves move into shallower water, how does their period, speed, and wavelength change? If a deep-water wave has a wavelength of 6 feet, at what water depth will this begin to happen?

The period stays the same but the speed and wavelength decrease. This will happen when the water depth is 3 feet

What is the photic zone? How deep is it in coastal waters versus the open ocean?

The photic zone is the upper layer of the ocean that is well-lit and where most primary production occurs. It is approximately 40m deep in coastal waters and 100m deep in the open ocean

What causes waves approaching shore at an angle to refract?

The portion of the wave in shallow water (less than L/20), encounter the friction of the bottom and slow down, while the rest of the wave in deep water continues at its original speed, this causes the wave to bend or refract

What forces are responsible for the flow of water from east to west along the southern edge of the North Atlantic gyre?

The pressure gradient set up by the domed water in the center of the gyre forces the water to flow away from the dome toward the south and the Coriolis force deflects the water to the right

San Francisco and Norfolk are both cities on the coast. Why does Norfolk have much greater temperature fluctuations through the seasons?

The prevailing winds are to the East and so the air the flows over Norfolk is influenced by land temperatures while the air the flows over San Francisco is moderated in temperature by flowing over the ocean which experiences fewer temperature fluctuations over the seasons in comparison to land

What is wave diffraction?

The propagation of a wave around an obstacle, like an island

Why is there such high diversity on coral reefs?

The reef is structurally complex and organisms can occupy a variety of ecological niches and so not compete directly with each other

What does the equilibrium theory of tides assume?

The seafloor does not influence tides and there are no interfering continents

2) What do the Polynesian stick maps show?

The shells represent islands the distance between the shells is not the actual distance between islands but a relative distance that takes into account the prevailing currents and winds. We might say the distance between shells represents the travel time between the islands.

What is Stokes drift?

The small net transport of water in the direction of a wave

What is a neap tide?

The smallest changes between high and low tide (the lowest high tide and highest low tide) when the sun and moon are in a perpendicular to each other

How does the speed, wavelength, and wave height of deep-water waves change over long distances?

The speed, wavelength, and wave height of deep-water waves remain relatively constant over long distances

What causes a tsunami?

The sudden, vertical movement of tectonic plates along fault lines

Sound pulses are projected across 1000 km in two different areas of the ocean. At area A, the pulse takes 20 seconds to travel the distance. At area B the sound pulse takes 30 seconds to travel the distance. How can you compare the temperature at the two sites?

The temperature is higher at point A because as temperature increases, sound can travel faster.

How does the vertical profile of temperature in polar regions differ from the profiles in tropical and temperature regions?

The temperature is low and changes very little between the surface and the deep waters

What is thermal inertia?

The tendency of a substance to resist a change in temperature with a gain or loss of heat energy

What is cohesion?

The tendency of water molecules to stick together. It is due to the hydrogen bonds between the molecules

What are the characteristics of an Eastern boundary current and what is an example?

These are broad, shallow currents on the Eastern side of a geostrophic gyre that carry cold water toward the equator. They have a lower flow than western boundary currents and are higher in nutrients. Examples are the Canary, Benguela, West Australian, Humboldt, and California currents

What is the wave period?

The time it takes for a wave crest to travel one wavelength

Describe the Principle of Constant Proportions. What is it known as?

The total AMOUNT of dissolved solids (salinity) might vary, but the RATIO of the major salts was constant. Known as "Forchhammer's Principle"-although salinity may be different in samples, RATIO will always be the same.

What is fetch?

The uninterrupted distance over which wind blows

What is the mixed layer?

The upper layer of the ocean where temperature and salinity are relatively constant with depth

Why are upwelling zones often highly productive areas?

The water that is upwelled is generally rich in nutrients

What is the thermocline?

The zone in the ocean where temperature decreases rapidly as you go down deeper (affects nutrient movement)

Why is light refracted when it enters water from air?

There is a change in density, the water is more dense than the air and the light travels more slowly and is refracted

What causes El Nino? Give a brief description of what occurs in atmospheric circulation and the resulting ocean circulation events.

There is a change in position of high and low pressure areas and this weakens the flow of the trade winds. The pool of warm water that has been pushed to the Western Pacific by the trade winds now flows back to the East and causes El Nino conditions off South America.

What changes in atmospheric circulation cause El Nino?

There is a change in position of the low and high pressure areas in the Pacific with the Low pressure area in the Western Pacific moving to the central Pacific and a high pressure area developing the Western Pacific. This causes a weakening of the trade winds and a reversal in their flow in the Western Pacific

what are the abiotic marine resources?

petroleum, methane hydrates, sand and gravel, salt, and magnesium

What are stable isotopes?

They are found in nature and do not change much over time

What are the three main ways that estuaries are ecologically important?

They are nursery grounds for many species, they provide flood control and they filter pollution from runoff

How do amphipods on a sandy beach avoid predators and being swept away by the tide?

They are only active at low tide at night

Why do tropical cyclones weaken as they move over land?

They encounter the friction of moving over land and they lose the energy from the latent heat of vaporization without access to warm surface water

Where and how do extratropical cyclones form?

They form at the Polar front (between the polar and Ferrel cells) and they form when the air masses of different density moving past each other twist (Counter clockwise in the NH and Clockwise in the SH)

What type of wave has the longest wavelength? What are its disturbing and restoring forces?

Tides. Disturbing force is the gravitational attraction of the moon and sun and the rotation of the Earth. The restoring force is gravity

To what depth does Ekman transport affect water movement? Why does the effect not extend deeper?

To about 100 m. Friction reduces the overall movement of the water with increasing depth

In the example of the tropical cyclone that is moving to the northeast, on which side of the storm will there be the greatest destruction from wind?

To the East of the storms eye because this is where there are the highest winds. The winds are on the western side of the storm are slowed down by the forward movement of the storm, but those on the Eastern side are not impeded in this way

In what direction are objects deflected in the Northern Hemisphere? In the Southern?

To the right (clockwise) in the Northern hemisphere and to the left (counter clockwise) in the Southern hemisphere

What are transverse currents? What drives their flow? Give an example

Transverse currents link Eastern and Western boundary currents. They are driven primarily but the Trade winds and the Westerlies. Examples are the North and South Equatorial currents, the North Pacific, North Atlantic, and Antarctic Circumpolar currents

Do tropical cyclones form between air masses or within one air mass? Which direction do they rotate in each hemisphere?

Tropical cyclones form within one warm, humid air mass. They rotate counterclockwise in the NH and clockwise in the SH

T/F: No marine plant can manufacture enough CO2 to support its own metabolism

True.

T/F: Marine animals cannot break down H2O molecules to get O2

True. O2 from the atmosphere diffuses into the water , plus tiny drifting plants use photosynthesis to put dissolved O2 into the water

T/F: Adding too much CO2 to the ocean can affect the organisms.

True. This is because adding CO2 can change the pH, which will negatively affect the organisms.

4) What are the inventions of the early Chinese explorers?

Undertook planned expeditions utilizing many new technological advances like the central rudder (allowed greater maneuverability of large ships) and compass (gave them an accurate sense of direction).

What is upwelling? What causes it?

Upwelling is the upward movement of water induced by the horizontal movement of surface water

What is a solvent?

Usually a liquid, most abundant constituent

Describe excess volatiles that contribute to ocean's salts

Volcanoes and rift vents in ocean floor add chemical constituents to ocean

What drives the global thermohaline circulation?

Water at the poles is cooled and it's salinity increases due to the exclusion of salt as seawater freezes making it dense and it sinks (down wells)

What are internal waves? Where would you find them?

Waves that form at the boundary between water layers of different densities. You would find them along a pycnocline, or boundary between water masses of different densities

Describe how the ocean maintains chemical equilibrium

We have a steady-state ocean--chemical species added to oceans at same rate they are being removed (taken in by organisms, bound in sediments)

What atmospheric circulation cell are the Westerlies associated with? What latitude range do they occur in? What is the direction of prevailing winds in each hemisphere?

Westerlies are associated with Ferrel cells and located between 30 and 60 degrees N and S. The winds blow from the Southwest in the Northern hemisphere and from the Northwest in the Southern hemisphere.

When does a deep-water wave become a shallow-water wave?

When it is in water where the depth is less than 1/20th of its wavelength

When do waves begin to break?

When their height becomes 1/7 of their wavelength (or when the ratio of their height to wavelength is 1/7)

What is a fully-developed sea?

When we observe the maximum wave size possible for the winds speed, duration, and fetch

What are surface currents?

Wind driven movement of water at the surface, primarily in the upper 400 m of water above the pycnocline

What factors affect wave size?

Wind speed, wind duration, and fetch

Besides tides, what type of wave accounts for most of the energy in the surface ocean? What are its disturbing and restoring forces?

Wind waves. Disturbing force is wind an the restoring force is gravity

Why does upwelling occur along the Oregon/California coast?

Winds blowing from the north create surface currents and Ekman transport that moves surface waters away from the coast. Water from depth is upwelled to take it's place

At what point are red light waves almost completely absorbed?

Within the first few meters of the ocean's surface (biologically important)

You are digging for clams that you can only access at low tide at 10 am on a Sunday. If you want to dig more clams on Monday, what time should you get to the beach? Why is the time not the same?

You should get to the beach at 10:50 am. Tides follow the lunar day, which is longer than a solar day, it is 24 hours and 50 minutes

What is a covalent bond?

a bond in which atoms share electrons

why does the temperature vary more in an estuary then the coastal ocean?

a smaller body of water heats up and cools down more quickly

How are tracers applied to water resources?

a. monotor surface water runoff (oxygen and hydrogen) b. mixing rates and source identification of different water masses in the ocean -----> tropical mass over polar mass

A substance that releases a hydrogen ion in a solution is known as a/an ______________________

acid (acidic solution) excess H+ makes solution acidic

what is the largest fishery in terms of fish caught?

anchovy

what is the ecological importance of estuaries?

are important nursery ground for fish and other organisms, provide flooding control, and filter pollution

a horse-shoe or ring-shaped island reef that grows up from the rim of a sunken volcano

atoll

What is the ocean's salinity by weight?

average 3.5% (35/ppt, 35K/ppm)

what are some advantages of aquaculture?

avoids by catch and environmental destruction from trawling

what do many of the deposit and suspension feeders rely on as a food source in the sandy beach/mudflat habitat?

detritus food

accumulation of sediments creates sandbars and barrier islands which restricts mixing of oceanic and fresh waters

bar-built estuaries

a reef that is separated from the mainland by a channel

barrier reef

A substance that combines with a hydrogen ion in a solution is known as a/an ____________________

base (alkaline solution) excess OH- makes solution alkaline hydroxide ion

what are some adaptations to temperature and salinity fluctuations?

being tolerant, light coloration, mobile animals can seek out wet areas where fluctuations are not as great

Why is Deep Cold Seawater less than 7.5?

below 4500 meters, mostly carbonate ions and more available H+--->pH goes down---> more acidic

live on surface of sediment

benthic

what are the primary producers of sandy beaches? is this a high production area?

benthic diatoms, dinoflagellates, cyanobacteria. no

what are the primary producers of mud flats? are they more or less productive than sandy beaches?

benthic diatoms, macroalgae, seagrasses, chemosynthetic bacteria. more

can tolerate high salinity, found in the higher intertidal region where seawater is left standing after high tide

black mangrove

what are some adaptations to low oxygen conditions in the subtidal zone?

building permanent burrow that allows fresh water to flow through, have increased oxygen carrying pigments in their blood

how are estuaries classified?

by how they are formed

what is the main way the decreasing pH in the ocean will affect organisms?

dissolution of calcium carbonate and other compounds that animals use to build shells- death and extinction

What is the simple equation that relates wavelength (L), wave period (T), and the speed (c) of a deep-water wave?

c=(L/T)

how do corals compete with each other for space on the reef?

can out shade each other and can exude chemicals to attack neighboring corals

How are tracers used to detect environmental pollution?

carbon and nitrogen isotopes indicate man made pollution of atmosphere and coastal waters

the rising concentration of what greenhouse gas is highly correlated with rising global temperatures?

carbon dioxide

where are most of the plastics in the ocean concentrated?

center of ocean gyres

where do we see the greatest human impacts on the oceans?

coastal areas

rising sea level after the last ice age inundated lowlands and river mouths

coastal plain or drowned river valley estuary

What four things are hydrogen bonds of water responsible for?

cohesion adhesion capillary action pale blue color

what controls the zonation of organisms in the intertidal zone?

combination of physical and biological stresses

elimination of one species by another due to competition

competitive exclusion

why is there such a high diversity on coral reefs?

competitive exclusion is avoided because there are so many different niches

What does the pH scale measure?

concentration of H+ in a solution. 1pH unit = tenfold change in H+ concentration

when corals expel their zooxanthellae due to some sort of stress

coral bleaching

what is the major effect of rising ocean temperatures at the poles?

decreased ice cover

feed on organic material located on or in the sediments

deposit feeders

what are the four types of estuaries?

drowned river valley, bar built, tectonic, and fjord

the particular space and food resource that an animal utilizes

ecological niche

how a community forms after a disturbance

ecological succession

how does turbidity affect organisms living there?

effects light penetration so can affect visual predators and primary photosynthetic producers

what are the physical stresses of living in the intertidal zone?

emersion, temperature ad salinity fluctuations, and wave action

what are the two main types of extractive resources?

energy and biological

Dissolved inorganic carbon species ______________ buffering capacity of the ocean.

enhance

What are 4 ways we use tracers?

environmental pollution water resources radiocarbon dating monitor the carbon cycle

live on surface of another creature

epiphytic

a semi-enclosed coastal body of water with a free connection to the sea and in which seawater is dilutes by freshwater from the land

estuary

an organisms that can tolerate a wide range of salinities

euryhaline

a symbiont that does not completely depend on its partner and can survive outside of the symbiotic relationship

facultative symbiont

glaciers cut deep, coastal valleys which were submerged when sea level rose

fjords

why are the oceans becoming acidic?

increased amount of carbon dioxide in atmosphere leads to more carbon dioxide dissolved in the ocean overloading the buffering capacity

What holds a nucleus together?

forces of nature

where is the mudflat zone of an estuary?

found in the subtidal and lower intertidal zones

a reef that is directly in the subtidal coastal zone

fringing reef

Lower pH = __________________ _______________________

greater acidity

what controls the zonation of organisms on a mudflat?

has very little to no zonation

what is an adaptation to avoid predation?

have a diel activity pattern

how are estuarine organisms adapted to changing salinity?

have reduced permeability, active membrane pumps, can migrate up and down in estuary to stay in same salinity over tidal cycle

What is the energy source that drives atmospheric circulation?

heat from the sun

how does rising ocean temperature affect corals?

high temperatures cause stress and leads to coral bleaching

what does particle size determine on a sandy beach or mudflat?

how much space there is between grains and how much substrate will shift around

What is the most abundant atom in the universe?

hydrogen

When water molecules attract each other, it is know as what?

hydrogen bonding--> form a web of H2O molecules

What causes water to have a pale blue color? explain

hydrogen bonds/polarity; water molecules vibrate, absorbing small amounts of red light which leaves blue light to scatter back to our eyes

where are kelp forests found and how are they ecologically important?

in temperate waters with rocky bottoms. highly productive and provide important habitat

where is the seagrass zone found in an estuary?

in the intertidal and subtidal areas

where is turbidity highest in an estuary and why?

in the upper part b/c sediments are delivered by rivers

where is the salt marsh zone of an estuary?

in the upper region

where are coral reefs found?

in tropical, well-lit waters

animals that live in the water spaces between sand grains

interstitial fauna

zone between the tides, area of shoreline between the high tide line and low tide line

intertidal zone

How are tracers used in monitoring the carbon cycle?

investigate trophic levels and food chain of marine organisms with carbon isotopes

What type of bonds are in salts?

ionic bonds, salts are commonly known as ionic compounds

What allows water to be a universal solvent?

its polarity-- the + end of the molecule attracts particles with a negative charge and vice versa, separating them

not vascular plants, no true roots or vascular system

kelp

what are some examples of subtidal communities?

kelp forests, sandy beaches and mudflats, and reefs (rocky and coral)

a predator whose effect on its community is proportionally greater than it's abundance

keystone predator

in the subtidal zone, what are some adaptations organisms have to wave action?

live deep enough in sediment to not be affected and/or be able to burrow quickly after a wave disturbance

where is oxygen low in an estuary?

low below the thermocline in a highly stratified estuary b/c water below thermocline does not mix with oxygen rich surface waters. also in sediments b/c lots of deposition occurs and fine grain sediments do not allow much oxygen exchange

do sandy beaches and mudflats have primary production?

low primary production

what limits the growth of coral reefs?

low temperatures, low salinity, low light, and high turbidity that reduces light and can smother polyps

biological stresses are more important in what part of the intertidal zone?

lower

Where is Z notated for an element?

lower left corner

what benthic organisms make-up the estuarine fauna?

macrophytes, mollusks, crustaceans, polychaetes

How big is a neutron in relation to a proton?

mass equals the mass of a proton

where fresh and marine waters mix, strong physical, chemical, and biological gradients

mixing zone

what are some adaptations to deal with emersion (air exposure)?

mobile animals can move to wet areas. sessile animals can close their shells, live in groups to maintain moisture, or be tolerant of water loss

Describe middle/deep water.

more CO2 present due to colder temps, source is respiration of animals/bacteria and decay of organisms, no plants to remove CO2. pH less than 8.5

what is the source of most of the oil in the ocean?

natural seeps

from mouth of estuary out to seaward edge of tidal plume

nearshore turbid zone

Can H2S form a hydrogen bond? What is it?

no, gas at room temperature. cannot act like h2o

What is an Isotope?

nuclei that contain the same number of protons but different number of neutrons for a given element.

What causes an atom to have a net charge of zero?

number of protons equals the number of orbital electrons

5) You should know how the early atmosphere is different from the atmosphere today

o Early atmosphere had no oxygen • Lack of oxygen was critical to allow the formation of complex, organic molecules (amino acids), the building blocks of life • Composed of Carbon dioxide, nitrogen, water vapor, ammonia, and methane

1) You should be able to define experiment, hypothesis, theory, and law

o Experiment - a test that simplifies observation in nature or in the laboratory by manipulating or controlling the conditions under which the observations are made o Hypothesis - informed guess. A speculation about the natural world that can be tested or verified or disproved by further observations and controlled experiments. o Theory - a statement of a relationship that is accepted by most scientists ~ ~ Theories are strengthened when new facts support them and modified or rejected when facts contradict them. o Law - principles explaining events in nature that have been observed to occur with unvarying uniformity under the same conditions.

1) You should know the 4 different disciplines of Oceanography

o Physical - the study of currents and tides o Geological - the study of plate tectonics and the layers of sediment we find at the ocean floor o Chemical - the study of water chemistry such as what kinds of nutrients are dissolved in the oceans and how organisms use them o Biological - the study of all the organisms that live in the ocean

12) European Explorers: (4) The Basque sailors of Spain were fishing for cod off Newfoundland in the 1300's; Columbus sails to north America in 1492, nearly 200 years later

o Prince Hennery of Portugal • Promoted and taught navigation o Christopher Columbus • "first" European to visit North America though he mistook his location for India o Ferdinand Magellan • His crew circumnavigated the globe in 1522 • Proved that the oceans were connected and that it was possible to sail completely around the globe o James Cook • Mapped New Zealand, the great barrier reef, south Georgia (nearly Antarctica), west coast of North America, and "found" Hawaii

What are the major sources of O2 and Co2?

o2- photosynthetic activity and diffusion of o2 from the atmosphere co2- respiration of marine animals and bacteria

a symbiont that depends on its partner and cannot live outside the symbiotic relationship

obligate symbiont

what are some adaptations to wave action in the intertidal zone?

organisms can be flexible, have strong attachments, and live in groups to decrease the wave force

organisms that cannot regulate their internal ion concentration

osmoconformers

organisms that can maintain their internal ion concentration over a wide range of salinities

osmoregulators

What makes up half of the Earth's crust by weight?

oxygen

Which oxygen isotope has the longest half life?

oxygen 15 (converts to nitrogen 15)

What factors can cause seawater pH to vary? Give 3

plant growth, water temperature, respiration by animals/bacteria

What are some properties determined by a water molecule's angular shape?

polarity universal solvent adhesion cohesion capillary action pale blue coloring can exist in three physical states

how do corals feed?

polyps capture zooplankton and coral benefit from the nutrition they get from symbiotic association w/ zooxanthellae

What is polarity of a water molecule?

positive and negative end oxygen side- negative' hydrogen side- positive

What are the major components of an atom?

positively charged nucleus negatively charged electron cloud

what are the biological stresses of the intertidal zone?

predation, competition(food and space), and reproductive success

Components of the nucleus:

protons (+) and neutrons (no charge)

What are nucleons?

protons and neutrons (bc they are found in the nucleus)

Stability is related to the ratio of ______________________ to _____________________.

protons to neutrons

What does Z represent? What does N represent?

protons; atomic/proton number neutrons; neutron number

Describe surface water

rapid plant growth/CO2 taken up, H+ removed, warm water = less CO2 can dissolve; approx 8.5 pH pH increases

What are radioactive isotopes?

ratio of protons to neutrons is not stable. They must undergo nuclear change to reach a stable ratio.

grows at the waters edge, can tolerate fairly high salinity

red mangrove

what is one of the major effects of melting polar ice caps?

rising sea level

what are the different substrates make-up intertidal zones?

rock, sand, mud

what is the main source of pollution in the ocean?

runoff from the land

how does salinity change in the water column and the sediments of an estuary with the tidal cycle?

salinity increases with high tide in water column but remains fairly constant in the sediments

what are the important abiotic factors that organisms who live in estuaries must be adapted to?

salinity, temperature, turbidity, and oxygen

dominated by rooted, flowing grasses in temperate regions and mangroves in tropical regions. the plants trap detritus and is one of the most productive ecosystems on earth

salt marsh

how does the grain size of a sandy beach/mudflat affect the productivity in an estuary?

smaller grain size=higher productivity

What are the two types of isotopes?

stable radioactive

an organism that can tolerate a narrow range of salinities

stenohaline

What is a compound?

substance/molecule that contains 2 or more different elements in a fixed proportion

all area below the low tide line

subtidal zone

animals that filter particles out of the surrounding water

suspension feeders

t/f: poorly sorted sediments allows almost no water exchange

t

t/f: well-sorted, coarse sediments allow a lot of water exchange

t

t/f: well-sorted, fine sediments allow poor water exchange

t

land subsides and sinks below sea level

tectonic estuary

what are the general physical characteristics of sandy beach/mudflat?

temperature and salinity are fairly constant with depth, but oxygen decreases with depth

what is the most northernly coral reef on earth?

the Flower Garden Banks in the Gulf of Mexico

what controls the amount of oxygen in the sediment?

the amount of water exchange, which is determined by particle size

How is water an example of a covalent bond?

the electrons are shared between two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.

You are working as a forecast at the National Hurricane Center. You have just compiled data that shows that sea surface temperatures are relatively high and there is a large amount of atmospheric dust. A reporter stops you in the parking lot on your way home to ask if you predict there is a good chance of having relatively strong hurricanes this year. What do you say? Why is that true?

the presence of the atmospheric dust means there are many nuclei for water droplet formation. This means that large amounts of water vapor will be converted to rain and the release of the latent heat of vaporization will create powerful storms.

what are examples of non-extractive resources?

transportation and deposition

what controls the zonation of organisms on a sandy beach?

the tidal range

what is a disadvantage of aquaculture?

the waste produced by the fish can pollute the environment

what is the main environmental issue with using large, mid-water trawls for fishing?

they are not selective so there is a lot of by catch

why do estuaries have low diversity?

they have high disturbance and they are also geologically young and organisms have not had time to adapt to that environment

upper estuary, low salinity but subject to tidal influences

tidal river zone

a behavior where an organism moves up in the water column on a flood tide and down in the water column on an ebb tide in order to try and maintain its position in the estuary

tidal streaming

What is half life?

time it takes for 1/2 of the radioactive atom to disappear (nuclear change; turn into another element)

how do intertidal organisms ensure their planktonic larvae will end up in a suitable habitat when they are mature?

timing the release of larvae when physical conditions in the open ocean are suitable for the return of the larvae to shore

What is salinity?

total concentration of dissolved inorganic (not living) solids in water

animals in which part of the intertidal zone experience emersion for a longer period of time?

upper

physical stresses are more important in what part of the intertidal zone?

upper

what part of the estuary has greater temperature fluctuations?

upper part

How are tracers used for radiocarbon dating?

use c14 to date dead organic components of costal and marine environments ex. shells

What is a salinometer?

uses electrical conductivity to determine chlorinity, then uses tables to convert to salinity

What is adhesion?

water molecules stick to other materials - causes wetting (water droplets on windshield) -helps dissolve materials

What is cohesion?

water molecules stick together - high surface tension -surface skin (bugs walking on water)

what physical factors are most important for organisms living on the sandy beach and mudflat?

wave action, particle size, and slope of beach

how is wave energy both beneficial and detrimental to reefs?

waves bring nutrients and zooplankton but can physically damage corals if the wave energy is too great

What is capillary action?

when water spreads throughout a material - wetting a paper towel - caused by cohesion and adhesion

seedlings cannot tolerate flooding by seawater, found inland

white mangrove

what is an example of a renewable resource?

wind or tidal energy

Can you use stable and radioactive isotopes as tracers?

yes, but you need to alter the stable isotopic ratios first

specialized dinoflagellate that has adapted to live as a symbiont in corals and some anemones and giant clams

zooxanthellae

3) You should know what percentage of total water on the Earth is contained in the Ocean

• 97% of total water is in the ocean (salt water)

6) What is the significant contribution to science that Eratonthese make?

• Calculated the size and shape of earth and invented latitude o Latitude: he drew evenly spaced lines parallel to the equator, though his placement was not always quite right. Measured as the angle between a line from earth's center to the equator and a line from earth's center to the measurement point. o Longitude: much more difficult because the distance between the lines varies with latitude. Measured as the angle between a line from earth's center to the measurement point and a line from earth's center to the prime meridian (runs through the north and South Pole directly through Greenwich, England. Could be determined using a clock and observing shadows. • Realized that the earth was CURVED • Celestial navigation • Cartography

13) You should be able to give a short description of each phase of the Wilson cycle and cite an example

• A summary of plate movement that describes how ocean basins open and close Stage One: EMBRYONIC o Divergent plate boundary formation of a rift valley. The ocean basin itself has not started to form o Motion: Rift flank uplift, rift valley subsidence o EX: East Africa Rift Valley Stage Two: JUVENILE o Divergence (spreading) o Features: narrow sea with matching coasts (because little time for erosion), ocean ridges formed o EX: red sea Stage Three: MATURE o Motion: divergence spreading o Features: ocean basin with continental margins. Ocean continues to widen at oceanic ridge. o EX: Atlantic ocean, Arctic ocean Stage Four: DECLINING o Motion: convergence (subduction) o Features: Subduction begins. Island arcs nd trenches form around basin edge o EX: Pacific ocean Stage Five: TERMINAL o Motion: convergence, collision, and uplift o Features: oceanic ridge subducted. Narrow, irregular seas with young mountains o EX: Mediterranean sea Stage Six: SUTURING o Motion: convergence and uplift o Features: mountains form as two continental crust masses collide, are compressed, and override o EX: inda-eurasia collision, Himalayas

13) You should know what turbidites are and how they are deposited

• A type of pelagic sediment • Deposits formed by the action of turbidity currents • Graded layers of terrigenous sand embedded with smaller particle sediments • Episodic events so we end up with different size particles

9) You should know where rates of sediment accumulation are high

• Amount of marine sediments does not always correspond to the size of the area of the ocean • Areas that may be small in size might have a lot of marine sediments • Continental slopes have the greatest accumulation of sediments about 41 percent and also the area where sediments are the THICKEST

6) You should know what keeps portions of the interior of the Earth liquid or pliable

• Asthenosphere- plastic/ pliable layer of the earth that Is hot partially melted rock • If the earth had simply cooled from the time it was a molten mass, it should be completely cooled and is solid today • Radioactive decay (the action of atoms splitting apart) is the source of heat that keeps the asthenosphere pliable. o Radioactive decay us happening all the time in the core of the earth and every time these atoms split or decay heat is released so we have a continual source of heat in the earth the keeps the asthenosphere pliable.

12) You should know what a terrane is and how it is formed

• At an oceanic- Continent convergence, the plate is subducted • Areas of shallower bathymetry (plateaus, ocean ridges, island arcs) can be squeezed and sheared onto the continental plate to form terranes o Areas of shallower bathymetry (lower density rock) are sheared off on the continent and not subducted o Over time, material is accreted at the edge of the continent o Over time, the location of the subduction zone and the trench will change as more material is added to the continental plate o Sometimes portions of denser ocean crust are deposited (ophiolites) o Almost the entire state of Alaska has been built from terrains

7) You should know where we find the least accumulation of sediments in the ocean and why

• At divergent boundaries, the seafloor is new and there is little accumulation of sediment • Sediments are subducted at convergent boundaries

4) You should know the four different sediment by source types and their basic characteristics

• Biogenesis o These are sediments that have an organic source such as the shells of marine organisms. ONE of the two most dominant sediment types o Oozes o Dominant in the deep ocean floor o Biological origin mostly plankton o Composed of silica and calcium compunds o Form natural gas deposits over time o More abundant in areas where there is high planktonic production in the water column -continental margins -upwelling areas • Hydrogenous o Sediments that are formed from the precipitation of dissolved minerals often due to the activity of bacteria o Not common and are found in smaller quantities along with the dominant sediment type in the given location o Formed from minerals precipitated from seawater o Sources include: -hydrothermal vents -leaching of minerals from rocks and fresh crust -Substances transported to the ocean by rivers o Authigenic sediments- formed in the place they now occupy. o Ex: manganese nodules - precipitate onto a sediment grain on hard objects. Over time the accumulation grows. First discovered on the challenger expedition. o Form due to chemical reactions occurring on particles of the dominant sediment • Evaporites o Different salt compounds that from at different points during the evaporative process (as salinity increases) • Ooliite sands o Formed by precipitation of calcium carbonate o In shallow, warm waters with high productivity o Autotrophs (plants) use up carbon dioxide and make seawater less acidic o Found in the Bahamas • Cosmogenous o Derived from dust from space and debris from meteorites o Rare but clearly distinguished by their extraterrestrial materials o Extraterrestrial origin -interplanetary dust -impacts by comets and meteors -micro tektites o Ex: tektite spheres 5) You should know how terrigenous sediments are transported • Derived primarily from erosion of the land or continents. The dominate type in the continental margins but are also a large component of sediments in the abyssal plains As their transported their off the continental slope • Transported: o Sediments are eroded from the continent by wind and rain and are carried via rain water to rivers and streams and then into the ocean where they are deposited on the continental shelf. THEN are transported to the continental slope and the abyssal plain. At convergent plate boundaries the sediments are subducted and recycled as their melted into the mantle and can return to the continent through volcanic activity. o Transported by RIVERS (most common) ex: Mississippi delta o Transported by wind (Sahara desert) transported by wind and then deposited into the ocean • ONE of the two most dominant sediment types

14) You should know what oozes are, the different types, and what they are composed of and where they are found

• Biogenous sediments • Composed of the rigid remains of organisms (primarily plankton) • If a sediment contains at least 30 % biogenous material, it is termed an OOZE • Accumulation rates of 1-6 cm every 1000 years o Depends on the balance between abundance of the organisms that contribute to oozes and the rate of accumulation of terrigenous material. 1. Calcareous Oozes : EXAMPLE: white cliffs of Dover in the United Kingdom formed by thick deposits of calcareous oozes hat went under lithification and were lifted by plate tectonics o Primarily found in pelagic deep sea areas o Form primarily from foraminifera and coccoliths o 48% of the surface of the deep seabed is covered by calcareous oozes. o Shells containing calcium dissolve at greater depths due to - increased ocean acidity by a greater amount of carbon dioxide being dissolved at depth -increased solubility of calcium carbonate under pressure and in cold water o CCD determines pattern of accumulation of calcareous oozes o Example is near Antarctic an arctic ocean: - At depths above the CCD calcium carbonate sediments can accumulate and the rate of accumulation is GREATER than the rate of dissolution - Below the CCD no calcareous oozes will be found because the rate of dissolution is equal to the rate of accumulation - Shallower at the poles because the water here is colder and because the water is more acidic because cold water can absorb more carbon dioxide. 2. Silicious oozes • Dominate in highly productive ocean areas such as the southern ocean, the equator, and the upwelling areas such as off the coast of south America • Formed from radiolarians and diatoms • 14 % of the surface of the deep seabed is covered by silicious oozes • Predominate at greater depths and polar regions • Silicia does not dissolve as quickly as calcium carbonate • Diatom oozes are found in areas where there is high diatom production (Southern Ocean near Antarctica) • Radiolarian oozes more common in equatorial upwelling regions this region while production has generally lower nutrient levels that the Southern Ocean • Transport to the seafloor o Compaction into fecal pellets speeds the sinking rate of these particles to the seabed

17) You should know what seismic surveys are and what they can tell us about sediments

• Conducted frequently in the Gulf of Mexico a ship tows a seismic array. The array has an instrument on it that sends out an explosive burst of air and sends out a loud noise, the rest of the array has a serious of hydrophones that detect the returning echo from the sound pulse - by noting the time difference between different echoes we can make a map of the layers of sediments below this is how potential petroleum deposits are detected.

6) You should have a basic understanding of what oceanographers do, what a career in oceanography is like

• Conducting data and samples at sea o Working at sea can range from deploying small instruments to measure temperature and salinity to deploying large troll nets to catch fish or perhaps installing booies to measure wind speed and wave height • Conducting laboratory experiments to study specific processes o Identifying organisms captured at sea o Using a microscope or working on a computer to enter or analyze data • Create models to simulate physical and biological processes so that we can determine if we actually understand those processes o Use these simulations to possibly make future predictions about things like ocean temperature • Inventors • Servants such as the rush to aid in the deep horizon ocean spill

6) You should know why the continental shelf of the Gulf of Mexico has pits or pockmarks and why these are important

• Continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico is broad with a large amount of sediment • Located at a passive margin which is typical because they are relatively far away from the plate boundary which is a divergent boundary . • Mississippi river has transported sediment and built up the shelf causing salt deposits from 180 million years ago • The weight of the sediment causes salt domes to rise, spread out, dissolve, and collapse • These formations cause oil and gas to rise up closer to the surface leading to lots of exploration and drilling for oil near the gulf

11) You should know where the thickest sediments are found within the continental margin and which ocean has the thickest sediments and why

• Continental slopes have the thickest sediments • Near the mount of the Mississippi river in the gulf of Mexico and the mouth of the Ganges river in the Indian Ocean • Makes sense because rivers are the most important mode of transport for terrigenous sediments • Thinnest sediment accumulation is near spreading centers like near the Mid Atlantic Ridge

16) You should know what the CCD is and what controls the deposition of calcium carbonate in the oceans

• Depth at which the rate of calcareous sediments supplied to the seabed equals the rate at which they dissolve. • Affects it: increased acidity , pressure, temperature

3) You should know how we discovered the internal structure of the Earth

• Earthquake waves passing through a homogeneous planet meaning that the density of the earth was the same throughout the entire sphere then if an earthquake happened the waves would travel out from the source in very straight lines the speed would never change and you could predict exactly when these waves would arrive at a seismograph at any point on the earth. • If the planet does have a density gradient as ours does then the waves are going to become bent • P waves passing through the earth are bent and there speed was changing as they moved through the earth (there is a solid inner core because the p waves travel just a little faster than if the core was completely solid) • Discovered a shadow zone on one side of the planet opposite of the focal point of earthquakes where s waves are concerned • S waves cannot pass through the liquid outer core o Scientist determined there had to be a liquid outer core to the earth that absorbed the s waves and did not allow them to pass through o This information was confirmed in 1964 with an earthquake in Alaska. The earthquake was so large it could be felt everywhere on the earth. And they were able to use this data to confirm the structure of the earth based on the time of arrival of these different types of waves. o Detailed structure of the earth figure 3.8 in the book WILL BE ON EXAM • Recap: earth has solid inner core and a liquid outter core, we know that because P waves and S waves travel through the earth o The fact that S waves are absorbed and cannot actually travel through the liquid outer core o Different speed in P waves taught us that there is density differences in the earth and there is a solid inner core because the P waves travel a little bit faster than if the core was just liquid

16) You should know how much of the Earth the abyssal plains cover and where in the ocean basins they are located

• Exists between the spreading center and the continental margins • Cover about ¼ of the earth's surface (abyssal plains and hills) • Flat, featureless areas • More common in the Atlantic Ocean • Smooth, even surface due to accumulation of terrestrial sediments o Abyssal hills -small, sediment covered mountains (extinct volcanoes) that have moved away from a spreading center

18) You should know at what type of plate boundary are island arcs formed

• Features of ocean basins also occurring on the edge of the abyssal plains near continental margins • Convergent pate boundaries where trenches form where one plate is subducted under the other • On the coast of south America where we have a trench there is a Collison of an ocean and continent plate so the oceanic plate dives underneath and we get a trench • Island arcs are formed in areas only when TWO ocean plates converge an done plate subducted beneath the other o Islands of japan were formed in this way

8) What is the significance of the Challenger expedition? What was a major finding of the expedition?

• First sailing expedition devoted to science • Proved there was indeed life in the deep sea

8) You should know what authigenic sediments are

• Formed in the same place they now occupy • Minerals expelled at hydrothermal vents that are also found at the same vent site

8) You should know where submarine canyons are located and their orientation relative to the continental shelf

• Generally align at right angles to the shelf edge • Formed by turbidity currents • Submarine canyons cut through continental shelf and slope (EX Hudson canton off of long island New York) o Usually these canyons are adjacent to the mouth of a river o Hypothesized that when sea level was lower the rivers had cut the canyon and now sea level was higher and the canyon was submerged but it was shown that sea level was never low enough to have cut the canyons. o Deep sea fan or alluvial

18) You should know two types of samplers for sediments and what types of samples you can collect with them

• Grab o Grab or clamshell sampler o The instrument is lowered to the bottom in the open position when it hits the bottom it closes and takes a sample of the surface sediments o Used to extensively sample sediments from the bottom • Corer o The instrument is lowered to the bottom (piston corer) it is then drilled into the sediment it then closes and the samples are retrieved bringing back with it stratified core sediments that allows scientist to look at the different sediment layers. • Joint ocean drilling project was formed this project is a global collaboration to obtain cores and then to house them in core libraries. The cores are openly available to any scientist who wants to conduct research on them. The cores can be analyzed at the library of shipped out for analysis.

1) You should know how sediments are classified

• Grand Canyon is the southwest United States - many layers of rock in this cross-section, although, at one point all of these layers were sediments that were laid down and compacted and became rock through the process called lithification. o Each layer has characteristics that can tell us about the conditions at the time the sediments were deposited. Many of the rocks at the Grand Canyon were derived from marine sediments because this area was once a shallow sea in the past. o As the Colorado River cut through these layers and formed the Grand Canyon, the different layers were exposed and we could essentially go back in time by examining the increasingly older layers as we move deeper into the Canyon. • Definition of sediments o Particles of organic and inorganic matter that are accumulated in a loose, unconsolidated form o Particles are derived from erosion of rocks, living organisms, volcanic eruptions, and chemical processes o Rates of accumulation vary greatly • Different levels of accumulation o Low sediment accumulation- rocks protruding and a sea anomie is on top of one of the rocks. Near the Mid Atlantic Ridge spreading Center. The crust here is relatively young and there has been little time for sediment to accumulate o High sediment accumulation- adjacent abyssal plain there has been much more time for the sediment to accumulate and smooth out the features. • Current patterns Shape sediment surface o Can be shaped by currents

15) You should know what controls the rate of deposition of oozes

• Higher rates of deposition on the continental shelf than the deep ocean • Higher rates near river mouths (1m every 1000 years) -Estuaries trap sediments and can reduce this rate - Big factor in Louisiana's costal land loss

10) You should know where the Mid-Atlantic ridge intersect land and the characteristics of this area

• Iceland • The Mid-Atlantic Ridge "comes ashore" • Large amounts of thermal and volcanic activity

15) You should know what is significant about the Trieste

• In 1959, Jaques Piccard and US navy Lieutenant Don Walsh became the only humans to descend to the bottom of the Mariana trench • It has been visited twice since that time with ROVs • March 25, 2015 is the only person to solo dive into the Mariana trench o Dive lasted about 7 hours o He collected a lot of interesting footage

1) You should know why the different plates on Earth interact with each other

• In areas where one plate slips below another a subduction zone where the deep earthquakes occur. The west coast of South America is a good example. • The reason plates interact is because the size of the earth is not changing so when plates move, they either .interact (convergent) or new crust is formed (divergent) • At divergent boundaries where plates move apart, magma from the asthenosphere rises and creates new crust • At convergent boundaries where the plates interact either one plate moves under the other plate or the two plates collide and mountains form.

1) You should know the structure of the Earth and be able to point out the aesthenosphere and lithosphere and know their basic properties

• Inner core (dense/solid), outer core (liquid), mantle (liquid), and crust • Denser potions went towards the center so earth became density stratified. • Lower mantle this is the potion of the mantle that extends down to the core and • Asthenosphere and this is a liquid or some might call it plastic and pliable layer of the earth because it is a hot partially melted rock and it is movable and playable • Lithosphere this is the cool rigid outer layer of the earth; the layer in which we live and are the most familiar with. -- The lithosphere (or the crust underneath the ocean) is different in composition then that of the Continents • The crust in the continents is primarily made of Granite and sinks a little bit deeper into the asthenosphere the crust under the ocean is primarily a salt that is cooled lava which is relatively new crust and it tends to ride a little bit higher.

11) You should know the lead scientist who discovered hydrothermal vents

• Jack Corliss, a marine geologist noticed that rocks he was analyzing from the Mid Atlantic Ridge had chemical signatures that indicated that they had been exposed to hot maybe even boiling water. o He then realized that water had to be circulating at these spreading centers and he and fellow scientist Dr. Jack Diamond both postulated the theory that water must be circulating through rocks at spreading centers and the cold ocean water that went in was emerging as heated water around the spreading center. o The theory was good enough to be funded by the national science foundation or NSF o This lead to a cruise, with the research submersfal Alvin to the East Pacific rise. o At the East Pacific rise they found the circulating water that they had expected and also found areas teaming with life around the vents that they had never expected or seen before.

19) You should know what the deepest trench is and how deep it is

• Mariana trench in the Pacific • 11,000 meters deep • Off the coat of guyuam

7) You should know what turbidity currents are

• Occurs when Turbulence mixes sediment from the bottom into the water above a sloping bottom and this now denser mixture is pulled downhill by gravity, cutting the canyon • EX: Denser mixture of water and sediment that is traveling down the sloping bottom. • Turbidity currents can be super powerful especially when moving down a steeper slope

6) You should know where some of the oldest oceanic crust is and how old it is

• Older crust is at a greater distance from the spreading center. But the oldest crust oceanic crust be approximately 160 - 180 million years old • Near subduction zones, the oldest is in the western Pacific near Japan. It is the farthest distance from a spreading center

19) You should know where the oldest sediments are, how old they are, and why there are no older sediments

• Oldest sediments 180 million years old • This is because the oldest oceanic crust on earth is 180 million years old • While there have been continental and oceanic plates since the earth cooled and the lithosphere formed, due to tectonic plates the plates are constantly being moved at spreading centers and recycled at subduction zones. • Oldest oceanic crust is in the western pacific this is because the spreading center where this is formed, the East pacific rise in south America, is incredibly far away

4) You should know the three major oceans and how they are related in terms of size

• Pacific - largest ocean both in terms of surface area and amount of water. It's over twice as large as the Atlantic ocean and the Indian ocean and also has the greatest mean depth and contains some of the deepest areas of the world's oceans • Atlantic and Indian - similar in size and volume and have a similar mean depth

4) You should know how the Earth, moon, and oceans formed

• Scientist have used scientific method to state testable hypothesis based on observations of the earth and the solar systems • These hypothesis have been supported by further observations and experiments, but much work remains to explain all the details of the formation of the Earth o The earth formed as particles congregated together, as the earth grew in size the force of gravity began to compress it and over time denser material like iron moved to the center and lighter materials like silica moved to the outer layers o The Moon was formed when a smaller planetary body (about the size of mars) hit the earth. Rocky debris from the impact was thrown out and formed a ring around the earth. This material eventually condensed together over time and formed the moon. o The oceans formed when water vapor from the erupting volcanos condensed, fell as rain, and gradually filled the ocean basins -- 100% of the surface of the earth may have been covered by the oceans at one time, no one knows for sure.

11) What are the major US oceanographic institutions?

• Scripps 1903 • Woods Hole 1930 • University of Washington 1930, 1951 • Lamont-Dohtery 1950s • COAS, Oregon State 1959

10) You should know what pelagic and nertitic sediments are and where they are located

• Sediment distribution (see below) o Clay is the dominant sediment type in most of the open ocean -38 percent of the deep seabed is covered by clays - Average rate of accumulation is 2 mm every 1000 years (slows) -Terrigenous sediments • Neritic sediments o Overlay continental margins o Mostly terrigenous o There also biogenesis sediments as these are areas of high pelagic production o Larger particle size deposited nearshore (sand) o Smaller particle size deposited offshore (silts and clays) o Ice shelves and icebergs and turbidity currents can disrupt this sorting pattern. Ice shelves and ice bergs: sediments of larger particle size can be deposited on the ice. The ice can then extend out from the continent or float away. As the ice melts the sediment can be deposited this can lead to sediments with larger particles to be laid down offshore where they would not normally be transported o Historical changes in sea level are evident in these sediment records. -for example: if sea level was higher than present we may see sediments with a larger grain size • Pelagic sediments o Overlay the continental slope, rise, and deep-ocean basin o High proportion of biogenesis sediments than neritic sediments, but still the majority of the volume are terrigenous sediments o Sediments of the slope, rise, and deep-ocean floor o Thickness is highly variable -thickness on the abyssal plains and thinnest on the ridges o Average thickness in the Atlantic is greater than the Pacific -more rivers feed the Atlantic -The Atlantic is geographically smaller -Specific has more subduction zones

12) You should know what the process of lithification is

• Sediments are converted into sedimentary rock by pressure - induced compaction or cementation • These formations can be lifted above sea level through the action of plate tectonics o Mt. Everest o Colorado plateau

2) You should know the difference between a testable and untestable hypothesis

• Testable - must have the ability to find an answer that will support it or disprove it not just one of those two options. • Untestable - cannot be used to learn anything about the world. "somewhere"

9) You should be able to define paleomagnetism and briefly describe how it has been used to determine the rate of seafloor spreading

• The 'fossil' magnetic field frozen in cooled magma that shows the polarity of the Earth at the time the rock was formed by examining the direction the magnetite is aligned. We use it to calculate the rate of spreading at divergent boundaries Paleomagnetism- is the study of the record of the earth's magnetic field in rocks, sediment, or archeological materials. o The earth's magnetic field is caused by movement of molten metal in the outer core- this field reverses every few hundred years. o Iron bearing minerals (magnetite) will align themselves along the lines of magnetic force o As molten magma cools, the magnetite's align themselves in the direction of the magnetic field o The alignment will not change and becomes a "fossil" of the magnetic field known as Paleomagnetism. o Surveys to measure the magnetic field on either side of the spreading center like the Mid Atlantic Ridge revealed bands of a salt that we term having a normal magnetic field because they match the magnetic field of the earth today. The alternating bands with a reversed magnetic field are shown in color. o By dating the rocks in the different bands we can determine when they were formed o Because we know the time that the earth's polarity changed (when the north and south poles became reversed referring to their magnetic fields) we can use this information along with how wide these alternating bands are and calculate the rate of spreading.

4) You should know why divergent boundaries are offset by transform faults

• The axis of spreading cannot occur in a straight line on a curved surface and a fault forms where two plates move past each other • The Mid Atlantic ridge is broken periodically by transform faults this happens because the earth is curved.

5) You should know what dictates how dense a plate is and how the density of the plates that interact determines what the outcome is

• The denser oceanic plate is subducted below the continental plate, a trench forms and there are deep earthquakes as the plate subsides. The partial melting of the plate in the asthenosphere causes magma to ride and volcanoes sometimes form on the continental plate. This is occurring off the west coast of south America • The plate that is denser is subducted, this will be the older plate. Because it has had more time to cool, it is denser than a younger warmer plate. EX: convergent boundary near Japan • It's temperature. Older plates are cooler and denser than younger, warmer plates

3) You should know how size affects settling rate

• The smaller the particle the smaller the settling rate and the longer it will take for the particles to sink to the bottom. Important because it dictates how sediments are deposited and re-suspended in the water column. • Decrease in steam velocity from larger to smaller particles • For any particles larger than sand the settling velocity is very fast and not reported • Stream velocity- how fast the water is moving. This erodes the particle and brings it out sediment and into the water column. The particle can then be transported as long as stream velocity remains above some minimal level • Increase from sand to clay because although clay particles are smaller, they can pack together more tightly and it requires more energy to initially erode them and bring them into the water column.

13) You should know the basic water circulation at hydrothermal vents

• Vents occur where there are fissures in the crust that allow seawater to seep in and be drawn down towards the spreading center. The heat from the magma rising in the spreading center heats the water and it moves back up with minerals dissolved in it from the crust. Specifically, different sulfur compounds. The sulfur compounds support life at these vent systems. • One of the dramatic geological features are black smokers o Chimneys that build up over time as Minerals in the hot water is rising from the bottom build up. Overtime chimneys are formed and the hot water full of minerals continues to escape from the top o Some chimneys can appear white due to different minerals being dissolved in them o Bacteria and organism are thriving

7) You should know how sediments are classified based on sorting and under what conditions we find these different classes of sediments

• Well sorted sediments o Sediments composed primarily of particles of one size o Found where energy fluctuation occurs in a narrow range • Poorly sorted sediments o Sediments composed of particles of a range of sizes o Found where energy fluctuations occur over a wide range

17) You should know the characteristics of the bathymetry of the abyssal plains

• between ridge systems and continental margins • They are generally smooth and featureless due to the accumulation of sediments