oral comunication 104

Ch.4. The structure of argument The purpuse of definution

"Arguments often revolve around definition of crucial terms." Definition are an important part of society/societies. As human beings, we define the things around us (ideas, concepts, objects, etc...) Texbook example: "Democrecy" What does this mean to you? What does it mean to someone who comes from a country that does not have democracy?

Appeals to needs and values

"In making value and policy claims, an appeal to the needs and values of your audience is absolutely essential to the success of your argument" Appeals to needs Appeals to values

Definingnthe terms in your argument:

"In some arguments you will introduce terms that require definition Write and reader must agree on definitiins of key terms. If there is no agreement, there is no argument. WHY

Defending a claim of policy

1 -convince your audience that a problem exists 2- make your proposal clear ( precisely defined). 3 if necessary, establish that there is a need for a change. 4- consider the opposing arguments. Yo may want to state the opposing arguments in a brief paragraph in order to anwer them in the body of your argument. 5- devote the major part of your essay to providing that your proposal is an answer to the opposing arguments and there are distinct benefits for your readers in adopting your proposal 6- support you proposal with solid data, but don't neglect the moral considerations and the commom- sense reasons, which may be even more persuasive

Activity Which of sentences make(s) a good claims.

1- Teachers are posed with many problems today. 2-polls show that today more minorities own businesses than ever before. 3- we must strive with every ounce of our national vigor to ensure that America has a bright future and that trufh and justice will abide with us forever 4- ophelia is my favorite character in Ham let because she is most interesting 5- though they seem innocuous, Hollywood movies are partially responsable for reinforcing cultural stereotypes in America.

five steps for using Rogerian argumentation

1-Give a brief objective statement of the issue under discussion. 2- Summarize in impartial language what you perceive the case for the opposition to be, the summary should demonstrate that you understand their interests and should avoid any hint of hostility. 3- Make an objective statement of your own side of the issue, listing your concerns and interests, but avoiding loaded language or any hint of moral superiority. 4- Outline what common ground or mutual concerns you and the other person or group seem to share; if you see irreconcilable interests, specify what they are. 5- Outline the solution you propose, pointing out what both sides may gain from it.

Forms of persuasive communication in propaganda

1-Named calling-linking a person or idea-to a negative symbols. 2-Glilteing generalities-using virtue words the opposite of name calling heroism. 3-transfers linking the authority or prestige of something well-respected and reverend, such as a church or nation, to something they would have us accept (political, activist, closing and informatory speech with a prayer 4-testimonial-a celebrity promoting or endorsing a product, policy, or political candidate (an athlete photo on a cereal) 5-Plain folks- conducing the audience that a person or ideas is of the people (famous actress shopping for groceries) 6-bangwagon-making the appeal that everyone else is doing it and so should you. 7- fear playing on deep-seated fears, saying disaster will result if you do not follow a particular cause of action (an insurance company pamphlet that includes pictures of house destroyed by floods)

1-strategies to help you comprehend the essential point of the text

1-Reread the introduction and conclusion after you have read the text once or twice, it is important that you read the first and last few paragraph to understand what the author is trying to impress upon the reader.

Methods for defining terms

1. Stipulation- writer asks the reader to accept a definition that may be different from the conventional one ( this is done to limit or control the argument) 2- negation- defines something by what it is NOT 3- examples- the use of real and hypothetical examples 4- extended exemples- refer to not only length but to the variety if methods for developing the definition (acquired meanings "Materalism")

2- strategies to help you comprehend

2-For difficult text, you may want to list all the subheading or the topic sentence of each paragraph

3- strategies to help to comprehend

3-Remember that summarizing requires attention to overall meaning and not to specific details. therefore, avoid including many specific examples or concrete details from the text you are summarizing and try to let your reader know what these examples and details.

Goog claim

A goog claim is logical; it emerge from a reasonable consideration of evidence. A good cleam is debatable. Claim that are purely factual and claims that are only opinion fail this requirenent. (Coca cola) A good claim is typucally hypotactic. Simple sentencds rarely

What is propaganda

A specific class of communication, seeks to achieve a response what proper and desired outcome log the propagandists, in plain language means to disseminate or promote or promote particular idea.

cast in the form of a Toulmin outline, the argument look like this: Claim

Advertising of cigarettes should be legally banned

the following syllogism summarizes a familiar argument. Major Premise

Advertising of things harmful to our health should be legally banned

cast in form or a toulmin outline, warrant

Advertising of things harmful to our health should be legally banned.

Appeals to needs

Appeals to needs Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 1- physiological needs 2- safety needs 3- social ( belongingness and love needs) 4- (self) esteem needs 5- self actualization needs - fulfillment in realizing one's potential

Appeals to values

Appeals to values Needs give rise to values Like needs, values can and are arranged in hierarchy Values-the principles by which we judge what is good or bad, beautiful or ugly, worthwhile or undesirable. Groups and systems of values People and institutions

Aristotelian Rhetoric

Aristotle defined rhetoric as all available means of persuasion .

Change in the definition of "POVERTY"

Article name "A revised Definition of piverty may raise number of U.S. Poor" The office definition of piverty used by the federal government fit three decade is based simply on cash income before taxes. But a report to be issued on wenesday, a panel of experts covenced by the |natioal| academy of science three years ago at the behest of congress says the Government should move toward a concept of piverty based on disponsable income, the amount left after a family oays taxes and essential dxpe ses"

Claims of values

Attempt to prove that some thing are more or loss desirable that other (value based) example. Military loot camp is a degrading and humanity experience. It is immoral to participate involuntary suicide. The hunting of animals is barbaric.

quoting

Can assist you and establish your argument/paper in several ways

the warrant

Certain assumptions underlie all the claims we make .

minor premise

Cigarettes are harmful to our health

cast in form of Toulmin outline: support (evidence)

Cigarettes are harmful to our heatrh

Cclaim of fact:

Claim of fact- assert that a condition has existed, exists, or will exist and that their support consists of factual information. Information such as statistics, examples, and testimony that most responsible obsevers assume can be verified Common knowledge Secondary sources (atlas, reference books, etc) we must trust the observer who reports it.

Example of support

Claim: The Civil War was caused by slavery. Reason:..because the Nirther states rejected the Souther states reliance on slavery. Suppot: The recorded debate in newspapers and state legislatures in the North focused on the South's reliance on slavery, not economics. Warrant: the record of debates in newpaper and legislature is an accurate guide to determining the cause of conflict

Example of suppor

Claim: recent tax cuts should be abandoned. Reason:.. because they only benefit the rich. Support: statistics show that the majority of the tax cuts are targeted at upper middle class und upper class families, not poor familues and individuals. Warrant: tax cut that only benefit the rich aremunfair?

Claims if fact examples

Claims of fact example and how we prove them Claim: Most of students in this class come from within fifty miles if woodland hills Claim. More students entering Pierce College this fall had AP credit for one or more courses than in any past year. Claim: The dodgers will win the pennant this year (opinion based claim that focuses on the future but can be verified in the future)

Claims of policy

Claims of policy argue that certain conditions should exist. The might be due to problems we encounter in our lives Claim voluntary prayer should be permitted in publuc school Claim: dress code should be introduced for all public high schools Claim: a law should permit sixteen-year-olds and parent to "divorce each other in cases of extreme incompatibiluty Claim: mandatory jail terms ahould be impised for drunk driving violations

Claims of value:

Claims of values- make a judgment, express approbal or desapprobal, attempt to prove some action, belief, or ugly, worthwhile or undeserable. Claim: democracy is superior to any other form of government Claim: killing animal for sport is wrong Claim the sam rayburn building in Washington is an aesthetic failure

Claims

Definition: A claim states your position on the issue you have chosen to write about A good claim is nit obvious. Why bother proving a point nobody could disadree with? A good claim is engaging. Consider your audience's attention span and make interesting claims which point out new ideas; teach the reader something new. A good claim is not overly vague. Attacking enormous issues whole leads only to generalizations and vague assertions; refrain from making a booksize claim.

Evaluation of appeals to needs and values

Evaluation of appeals to needs and values: 1- have the values been clearly defined? 2- are the needs/values to which you apoeal prominent in the reader's hierarchy at the time you are writing? 3- is the evidence in your argument clearky related to the needs and values to which you appeal?

Evaluation of statistics

Evaluation of estatistics: 1- do the statistics come from trutworthy sources? 2- are the terms clearly defined? 3- are there comparisons between comparable things? 4- has any significant information been omitted?

Research skill: evaluation of evidence

Evaluation of factual evidence: 1- is the evidence up to date? 2- is the evidence sufficient? 3- is the evidence relevant? 4- are the examples reoresentative? 5- are the examples consistent with the experence of the audience? ( unfamiliar or extreme, reader/audience will probably reject your conclusion)

Evaluation of opinion

Evaluation of opinion: 1- is the source of the opinion qualified to give an opinion on the subject? ( credibility) 2- is the source biased for against his or her interpretation? 3- has the source bolstered the claim whit sufficient and appropriate evidence?

Factual evidence

Facts - are statement possessing a high degree if publuc acceptance ( some facts can be verified by experience alone) EXAMPLES HYPOTHETICAL EXAMPLES: cfeate imaginare situations for the audience and encourage them to visualuze what might happen under certain circunstances can also be effective . Statistics - express information in numbers Mode Median Mean

compare contrasting of two arguments

In case of compare and contrasting of two arguments, there will be two basic patters to choose from "point-by point" and parallel order". Point by point comprehension, discusses each point about subject A and B together before moving on to the second point, where both subjects are discussed.

Inferences

Inference is "a statement about the unknown on the basic of the known" Inference is an interpretation or an opinion Cause and effects Hypothesis ( scientific approach) Inference iz NOT a fact; writer of argument must make it clear that he/she is offering an inference, interpretation, or opinion thar is not a fact Example:paleontologist

The definition of essay

Is one that needs to be addressed with more detail and explanation. An argumentative essay can take the form of an extended definition "PATRIOTISM" Rottenberg and winchell state that the definition essay is appropriate when the idea under consideratiin is so controversial or so heavy whit historical connotacion that even a paragraph or two cannot make clear exactly what the arguer want his or her readers to understand

More complex claims of fact

More complex claims of fact ( due to controversial proof and agreement on them) Claim: bilingual programs have a liwer success rate than English only programs in prepring students for higher education Claim: the only life in the universe exists on this planet. Claim: college graduates earn more than high school graduates. ( what's wrong here?) Needs a ....qualifier We can also use qualifiers ( generally, usually, probably and as a rule) to qualify our claims in regards to exceptions to generalizations.

The purpose of definition

Not only do judgments create definitions; definitions influence judgments. Definitions can indeed change the nature of an event or a "fact" Example 1: Because of a change in the official definition of the word "farm", New York lost about 20 percent of its farms on January 1, whith numbers drooping from 56,000 to 45,000 Before the change, a farm was defined as " any place from which $250 or more if agricultural products is sold" yearly or "any place of 10 acres or more from which $50 ir morw of agricuktural products is sold" yearly. Now a farm is " any place fron which $1,000 or more of agricuktural products us sold" in a year.

remember that when you compare or contract two arguments, there will be two basic patterns to choose from for structuring the essay.

One, often called point-by point comparison, discusses each point about subject A and Subject B together before moving on to the second point, where again both subjects are discussed. I. introduction II. context A. Jefferson. B. Lincoln. III. Implicitness/explicitness A. Jefferson. B. Lincoln. IV. Language A. Jefferson. B. Lincoln V. conclusion.

Evidenve Opinion

Opinion: interpretations of the facts (they come in four forms) 1- They may suggest the cause for a condition or causal connection between two sets of data 2- they may offer predictions about the future 3-they may suggest a solution to a problem 4- they may refer to the opinion ov expert Causal connectin ( cause-effect relationship) Predictions Solution to problems Expert opinión

AVOIDING PLAGIARISM

Plagiarism- is the yse of someone else's words or udeas without adecuate acknowledgment Give credit: 1. It reflects your own honesty and serieuness as a researcher 2. It enables the reader to find the source of the reference and read further and to verify that the source has been correctly used. 3. Adds the authorite of experts to your argument Document all source to ensure you have everthing correctly and complete.

Qualitative judgment amoung good/bad

Qualitative juggments among good/bad continuum Value claims call into question a standard of comparasion Some claim of value are simply expressions of taste (like and dislikes) no right or wrong We all do not have the same values

Aristotelian Rhetoric. Model of comunications

Speaker-Speech-Audience-Effect.

A rhetorical summary:

Summarizes the text in terms or rhetorical choices the author made.

Providing support

Summarizing, Paraphrasing, quoting, facts.

The support

Support consists of materials used by the arguer to convince an audience that his or her claims is sound

Two basic kinds of suppott in an argument

TWO BASIC KINDS OF SUPPORT IN AN ARGUMENT 1- Evidence: use facts ( examples, statistics, opinions, interpretations) both your own and of experts 2- appeals to needs and value: readers's needs requirements fir physical and psychological survival and well being Reader's values - standards for right and wrong, good or bad.

Defining vague and ambiguous terms

Terms or phrases with two or more meaning (ambiguous) will need ckarification. Ex. Freedom of speech, justice and equality " socially and politically assigned attributes have a lot to do with access to economic resources"

Difference between paraphrasing and summarizing

The difference between paraphrasing and summarizing is that paraphrasing is roughly the same length as the passage it paraphrasing instead of a condensation of longer passage

The Toulmin Model

The late Stephen Toulmin provided the vocabulary about argumentation that gives this book its structure.

rhetoric is largely a study of relationships.

The relationship between writer and audience is the rhetorical relationship.

conclusion

Therefore, advertising of cigarettes should be legally banner

Materials

These materials include evidence and motivational appeals.

THOUGHTS

Thoughts: Labeling Power Symbolism Positive Negative

Two general areas of disadreement in value

Two general areas of disagreement in value ( Aesthetics and morality) Aeshetics- the study of beauty and fine arts. Morality- Exoress judgment about the riggtness or wrongness of conduct or belief

Research skill: evaluation of evidence:

When experts disagree: Common in the social sciences ( called "solf" sciences precisely because a consensus about conclusions in these areas is more difficult to arrive at than in the natural and physical sciences) What do we do and how can we choose?

Claims of policy

You must first convince you audience/reader that a problem exists Best policy claim will tell the audience, when they want it done, who should do it and where it should be done A reader may agree that there is a problem but desagree with the arguer about the way to solve it. Keep this mind: what do I want my readers/target audience to do or think

The syllogism is useful for laying out the basic elements of an argumentr

and lends itself more readily to simple arguments. it is formula consists in three elements (1)the major premise, (2) the minor premise, and (3) the conclusion,, which follows logically from the two statements

the motivational appeals

are the ones that the arguer makes to the values and attitudes of the audience to win support for the clam.

Claims of fact

assert that a condition has existed, exists, or will exist and are based on facts or data that the audience will accept as being objectively verifiable.

claim of fact

assert that condition has existed, exists, or will exist and are based on parts or data that the audience will accepted as being objectively verifiable.. example Lumber hacking is an extremely dangerous occupation. Global warming is threat that must be addressed.

claims od policy

assert that specific policies should be instituted as solutions to problems. The expression should, must, or ought to usually appear in the statement.

claims of values

attempt to prove that some things are more or less desirable than others. They express approval or disapproval of standards of taste and morality. Advertisements and review of cultural event are one common source of value claims, but such claims emerge whenever people argue about what is good or bad, beautiful or ugly.

policy claims

call for analysis of both fact and value.

evaluation

careful judgment of the extent to which the author has succeeded in making a point critical listening.

the evidence or data

consist of facts, statistics, and testimony from experts.

chapterr 3--inductive vs deductive reasoning

deductive reasoning in the process of reasoning from or more general statement (premise) to reach a logically certain conclusion is reached for general statement. Coincides with the law of syllogism. All men are mortal. Adam is men, therefore, Adam is mortal.

In the Rogerian approach to argumentation

effective communication requires both understanding another's reality and respecting it. Rogers's approach to communication is based on this idea of mutual elements or common ground.

referential summary

focuses on ideas rather than on the author's actions and decisions.

Aristotle

he used the term logos to refer to logical appeals and the term pathos to refer to emotional appeals. he believe that, in an ideal world, logic alone would be enough to persuade.

Summarizing

involve shortening the original passage as well as putting it into your own words.

paraphrasing

involves restating the context of an original source in your own words.

Syllogism

is kind of logical argument in which one proportion (the conclusion) is inferred for two or more other (the premise)of a specific form the principal elements of the argument

Inductive reasoning

is reasoning in which the premise seek to supply evidence for ( not absolute proof of) the truth of the conclusion.

propaganda

is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response. That furthers the desired intent of the propagandist.

the claim in the toulmin model is the conclusion

is the syllogism- that is, the proposition that you are trying to prove. The evidence correspond to the minor premise in the syllogism, and the warrant resemble the major premise of the syllogism

If the arguer believes that the audience shares the assumption

it may be unnecessary to express it. but if the audience seems doubtful or hostile, the arguer may decide to state the assumption to emphasize its importance or argue for its validity.

For Aristotle

logos ,ethos,and pathos, constitute the elements of argument.

research skill: summarizing

one skill required by the Rogerian approach to communication is the ability to summarize another's ideas and objectively, just as in more confrontational forms of argumentation a writer or speaker cannon build a successful case on a misunderstanding or misinterpretation of an opponent's position.

chapter 2 critical reading Prereading-pay attenmtion to the title

pay attention to the title, as it may state the purpose of the argument in specific terms. The title capture the reader's desire to read on and find out what happened to alter this famous ruling

For deductive reasoning to be sound

the hypothesis must be correct it is assumed that the premise "all are mortal" and Adan is a men are true therefore, the conclusion is logical and true.

claim

the proposition that the author is trying to prove. The claim may appear as the thesis statement of an essay but may be implied rather than stated directly

In the Toulmin model,

the term warrant is used for such an assumption, a belief or principle that is taken for granted. It may be started or unstated.

in the arguments you will read, human being are engaged in explaining and defending their own actions and beliefs and opposing or compromising with those other.

they do this for at least two reasons (1) top justify what they do and think, both to themselves and to their audiences, and (2) in the process to solve problems and make decisions.

ethos

to refer to credibility, aristotle consider ethos to be the most important element in this arguer's ability to persuade the audience to accept a claim.

pathos

to refer to emotional appels

logos

to refer to logical appeals

writing the claim

two way analyzing arguments, factual and evaluative. factual claim--claim of fact evaluating claim--claim of value

Imagine the context in which the author was writing and the target audience.

was is specific or general audience, values and ideals are shared by the author and the audience most likely to agree with argument.

work hard to understand the kind of text you are reading.

was it published recently? ii it a response to another test, or perhaps to an event? Certainly if it is argumentative writing, it is at least a response to a perceived problem.

Rogerian Argument

was twentieth-century humanistic Phychologist who translated his ideas about therapy into communication theory. As a therapist, he believe that the experience of two people meeting and speaking honestly to each other would have a healing effect.

f the six key terms in Toulmin's model

we draw heavely on three: Claim ,support, and warrant.,

planning the structure

when you purpose in written about an argument is to support a factual claim you will most likely use a very simple and direct form of organization called defending the main idea. Usually this a factual claim. text example: The declaration of independence bases its claim on two kinds of support: factual evidence and appeals to the values of its audience. This would give us two divisions, one factual evidence. (providing example) and the other appeal.

as a rule, the more information you know about an author, the easier and more productive your reading will be.

you should learn to read in a way that allows you to discover not just meaning in the text itself but information a about the author's point of view, background, motives, and ideology.

allows

you to quote passages or phrases from your sources in a much more effective way than your own