Organizational Behavior
Why do organizations use teams? What are some benefits of teams? When might you not want to use a team?
Because we believe they are effective. Teams are more flexible and responsive to changing events than traditional departments or other forms of permanent groups. They can quick assemble, deploy, refocus, and disband. You might not want to use a team when there is only one function being performed--it may slow the process down. When you have limited time/resources.
What is synergy?
the interaction or cooperation of two or more organizations, substances, or other agents to produce a combined effect greater than the sum of their separate effects.
Be familiar with the Invisibila podcast I assigned on this day
Can emotional states/attitudes be taught/changed? Claire trained Rick and his coworkers on the Exon oil rig. Claire changed the culture. A Mcdonalds opening up in Russia began changing Yuri--he was frustrated with his fellow Russians. The basic takeaway is that culture, behaviors, and emotional states/relationships at work can be changed
How are cognition, affect, and behavior related? How do they affect each other?
Cognitive = evaluation E.g. My supervisor gave a promotion to a coworker who deserved it less than me. My supervisor is unfair. Affective = feeling E.g. I dislike my supervisor! Behavioral = action E.g. I'm looking for other work; I've complained about my supervisor to anyone who would listen. They all funnel into: negative attitude to toward supervisor.
What is cognitive dissonance? Think of a few hypothetical examples to help you really understand it. What do people do to get rid of their own cognitive dissonance? When are we more likely to ignore cognitive dissonance?
Cognitive dissonance: any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes. E.g. knowing texting and walking is unsafe but doing it anyways. Giving a friend advice that you don't heed yourself. Individuals get rid of cognitive dissonance by changing the attitudes, modifying behaviors, or through rationalizations. Reducing cognitive dissonance depends on three factors: importance of elements, how much influence we feel we have other them, and the rewards that come with reducing it. If we don't feel the dissonance is important, controllable, or rewarding to eradicate that we may ignore it.
How do cultural differences impact conflict? How do priorities in conflict resolution differ among cultures with different cultural values?
Collectivists are more likely to seek to preserve relationships. More interested in collaboration, and working to resolve through third parties. Individualists are more likely to confront differences directly and openly.
What is positivity offset?
the tendency of most individuals to experience a mildly positive mood at zero input (when nothing in particular is going on)
What are the components of attitude? How do these components relate to other topics we've discussed in class? *
Components: 1) Affective: the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude that is reflected in the statement 2) Cognitive: a description of or belief in the way things are 3) Behavioral: an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something Relation to other topics: attitudes have a lot to do with job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment. This ties in to motivation at work. Equity theory in the sense that good attitudes permit good comparisons among employees. Ties into mood--affect is also used in emotions and moods chapter.
What can you do to create effective teams? What factors determine whether teams are successful?
Context, composition, process.
What is emotional regulation and how does it tie in with other concepts we have discussed in class (not necessarily just from the emotions chapters)?
Emotional regulation: the process of identifying and modifying felt emotions Ties into diversity and groups--> as diversity groups tend to promote emotional regulation. Ties into workplace environment. Strong indicator of task performance for some jobs and for OCB.
What are the 3 kinds of organizational justice? Be able to define each type/understand what each type is. Lecture (justice is actually discussed in the conflict lecture) trumps the textbook in this case
Distributive justice: looks at am I getting the outcome I deserve? (trumps all) Procedural justice: what is the process for this outcome? (unfair procedure) Interactional justice: are people treating you with respect?
What are some organizational characteristics that impact the effect that conflict has on performance? How do the different loci of conflict interact with each other? **
Dyadic conflict: conflict that occurs between two people Intragroup conflict: conflict that occurs within a group or team Intergroup conflict: conflict between different groups or teams
What are different loci of conflict?
Dyadic conflict: conflict that occurs between two people Intragroup conflict: conflict that occurs within a group or team Intergroup conflict: conflict between different groups or teams
Know and understand what emotional intelligence is and what makes up emotional intelligence
EI: the ability to detect and to manage emotional cues and information Components of EI • Self -awareness • Self -regulation • Social awareness • Relationship management
What does participation tell us about the effectiveness of a team? When evaluating participation, what sorts of things should you consider? What are some tactics to encourage participation?
Effective teams have everyone participating. Honest, direct conversation between individuals, asking questions, seeking feedback, and discussing errors. Leaders who embrace participatory behaviors make it easier for others to act in ways that support teaming. Environment where people feel safe, heard, and respected.
Understand what emotional contagion is and it connects with emotional labor
Emotional contagion: the process by which people's emotions are caused by the emotions of others. There is a matching effect between and employees and customers.
You should know the difference between emotions and moods, and how to tell one from another. Know what discrete emotions are and be able to give some examples. **
Emotions: intense feelings that are directed at someone or something Moods: feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and lack contextual stimulus
Understand what emotional labor is, displayed felt/emotions, and surface/deep acting. Make an effort to understand the difference between emotional labor and emotional dissonance, because they are not the same thing.
Emotional labor: a situation in which an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal interactions at work Controlling emotional displays: 1) Felt emotions: are our actual emotions 2) displayed emotions: emotions that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job Surface acting: hiding one's inner feelings and forgoing emotional expressions in response to display rules Deep acting: trying to modify one's true inner feelings based on display rules Emotional dissonance: inconsistencies between the emotions people feel and the emotions they project
Why is it important for them to do so? What strategies can organizations pursue to make it easier for them to connect with their fellow employees?
Because it can lead both to success and more happiness at work. Organizations can specific steps to make it easier. 1) Creating structure in social events (such as icebreaker games) may reduce the anxiety associated with free-form small talk 2) Leaders can model a learning mindset, whereby differences between people create an opportunity to hear something new 3) Mentorship can be especially helpful to minorities, who may feel marginalized within the organization
Know what trait activation theory is
predicts that some situations, events, or interventions "activate" a trait more than others
Name and describe the four strategies detailed in the article "Managing multicultural teams"
1) Adaptation: adapting practices or attitudes without making changes to the group's membership assignments 2) Structural intervention: a deliberate reorganization or reassignments designed to reduce interpersonal friction or remove a source of conflict for one or more groups 3) Managerial intervention: when a manager behaves like an arbitrator or judge, making a final decision without team involvement, neither the manager nor the team gains much insight into why the team has stalemated Exit: exit of of one or more members, a last resort strategy, used either voluntarily or after formal request from manager
How can leaders promote teaming?
1) Frame the situation for learning 2) Make it psychologically safe to learn 3) Learn to learn from failure 4) Span occupational and cultural boundaries
How do you take a group of individuals and successfully craft them into a team?
1) Hiring team players (selecting) 2) Creating team players (training) 3) Rewarding: providing incentives to be a good team player
How can leaders cool down hot conflict?
1) Identify the nature of conflict 2) Model good communication 3) Identify shared goals 4) Encourage difficult conversations
What tends to create high job satisfaction? (note: although the two-factor theory of motivation also presents a theory of job satisfaction, that is not what I'm looking for here)
1) Job conditions 2) Personality--> high core self-evaluations 3) Pay 4) Corporate social responsibility
You should be able to define the major job attitudes listed/described in Chapter 3. What are some positive consequences of high levels of these attitudes.
1) Job satisfaction: a positive feeling about one's job resulting from an evaluation of it's characteristics 2) Job involvement: the degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important to their self-worth. 3) Organizational commitment: the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals/wishes to maintain membership in the organization Positive consequences: 1) Job satisfaction--> person will hold positive feelings about the work 2) Job involvement--> psychological empowerment, people feel they can influence their work environment, motivates them to care about their work 3) Organizational commitment--> less likely to engage in work withdrawal. Even if unhappy, workers willing to make sacrifices for org based on commitment
What are some organizational constraints on decision making?
1) Performance evaluations 2) Reward systems 3) Formal regulations 4) System-imposed time constraints 5) Historical precedents
What are the stages of the conflict process? Understand what happens in each phase, the antecedents, what happens the things that factor into it, etc. There is a lot of detail in this section, you are responsible for all of it.
1) Potential opposition or incompatibility (antecedent conditions) a) Communication (too much or too little, can be source of conflict) b) Structure (size, specialization, jurisdictional clarity, reward systems, etc..) c) Personal variables (personality, emotions, and values) 2) Cognition and personalization a) perceived conflict: awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise b) Felt conflict: emotional involvement in a conflict that creates anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or hostility 3) Intentions: decisions to act in a given way a) competing: a desire to satisfy one's interests, regardless of the impact on the other party to the conflict b) Collaborating: a situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties c) Avoiding: the desire to withdraw or suppress a conflict d) Accommodating: the willingness of one party in a conflict to place the opponent's interests above his or her own e) Compromising: a situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up something 4) Behavior: intentions are translated into behaviors. One party's behavior, other's reaction. Conflict management: the use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve the desired level of conflict 5) Outcomes: a) Increased group performance b) Decreased group performance
What are the cultural values in Hofstede's framework? Know how to define them, what is the difference between the two sides of each value (e.g. what does individualism mean vs. collectivism?) Have a general idea where the US stacks up
1) Power distance: a national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally High: large inequalities exist/tolerated Low: society that stresses equality and opportunity 2) Individualism versus collectivism Individualism: a national culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups Collectivism: a national culture that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them 3) Masculinity vs. femininity: Masculinity: a national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control. Femininity: a national culture attribute that indicates little differentiation between male and female roles; a high rating indicates that women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of society 4) Uncertainty avoidance: a national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations. High: increased anxiety about uncertainty/ambiguity and use laws/controls to reduce it Low: more accepting of ambiguity, less rules, take more risks 5) Long-term versus short-term orientation Long-term: a national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence Short-term: a national culture attribute that emphasizes the present and accepts change US Ranks: Lowish Power-distance #1 in individualism Highish in masculinity Middle in uncertainty avoidance Highish in LT orientation
What are some ethical criteria one can use when making a decision? What is utilitarianism?
1) Utilitarianism: system in which decisions are made to provide the greatest good for the greatest number. Promotes efficiency and productivity, can sideline rights of some individuals (minority representation) 2) Make decisions with fundamental liberties and privileges. Whistle-blowers: individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders 3) Impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially to ensure justice or an equitable distribution of benefits and costs
What are the individual differences that impact decision making? How/why do they impact decision making?
1) personality: specific facets of conscientiousness may affect escalation of commitment 2) gender: in high stress men make more egocentric/risky decisions. While women make more empathetic ones/improved decision making. 3) Mental ability: higher mental ability can process more information quickly, solve problems more accurately, learn faster. However still susceptible to same errors/biases. 4) Cultural differences: cultures differ in time orientation, the value they place on rationality, their belief in the ability of people to solve problems, and their preferences for collective decision making.
What are the dimensions of Hackman's job characteristics model? What is the aim of using this model to design jobs?
5 core dimensions: 1) Skill variety: the degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities 2) Task identity: the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work 3) Task significance: the degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people 4) Automony: the degree to which a job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out 5) Feedback: the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance The aim of this model is to try and design jobs that have these characteristics present. It shows higher job satisfaction and organizational commitment through increased motivation
What is the ideal size for a problem-solving team? What is a good rule of thumb for ideal group size?
5-12 members. Generally speaking, the most effective teams have 5-9 members. Experts suggest using the smallest # of people who can execute the task. Bezo's says 2 pizza rule.
Is there such thing as a "good" conflict? Is there an optimal level of conflict for an organization/unit?
A functional conflict at a medium level is optimal for high performance.
Look at exhibit 4-4 (the flowchart for affective traits theory. This is a nice summary of how emotions happen at work, what feeds into them, and how they impact outcomes
A model that suggests that workplace events cause emotional reactions on the part of employees, which then influence workplace attitudes and behaviors.
What is conflict?
A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about
What are the complicating factors for each strategy that managers need to take into account?
Adaptation: 1) Team members must be exceptionally aware 2) Negotiating a common understanding takes time Structural intervention: 1) If team members aren't carefully distributed. sub-groups can strengthen preexisting differences 2) Subgroup solutions have to fit back together Managerial intervention: 1) The team becomes overly dependent on the manager 2) Team members may be sidelined or resistant Exit: 1) Talent and training costs are high
When are each of the previous strategies best used?
Adaptation: 1) team members can attribute a challenge to a culture rather than personality 2) Higher-level managers are not available or the team would be embarrassed to involve them Structural intervention: 1) The team can be subdivided to mix cultures or expertise 2) Tasks can be subdivided Managerial implications: 1) The problem has produced a high level of emotion 2) The team has reached a stalemate 3) A higher-level manager is able and willing to intervene Exit: 1) The team is permanent rather than temporary 2) Emotions are beyond the point of intervention 3) Too much face has been lost
Know what affect is and how the term is used. Researchers often use affect both interchangeable with "mood" and also as a general term encompassing feelings of all sorts, whether emotions or moods. You can usually tell what it is supposed to be from the context. Understand what emotions are associated with high and low positive or negative affect.
Affect: a broad range of feelings that people experience. It includes both emotions and moods.
What are some pitfalls of goal setting?
As time ends/goal gets nearer, we can be tempted to act unethically to achieve (feel pressure). Also, we may forego mastering tasks and adopt avoidance techniques so we don't look bad. Sometimes they can make your life more difficult. You have to know how to achieve the goal. E.g. you made a public goal you'd lose ten pounds in a month. With one week to go you haven't lost any weight. You may do something unhealthy, like an extreme fast, in order to attain that goal.
What is attribution theory? What are the 3 determining factors we use when deciding whether behavior is internally or externally caused? If I give you a scenario, you should be able to explain whether you think the behavior is internally or externally caused and why using principles of attribution theory
Attribution theory: an attempt to determine whether an individual's behavior is internally or externally caused Depends on: Distinctiveness: refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations High: if behavior occurs once/infrequently (external cause) Low: if behavior occurs across many situations (internal cause) Consensus: does everyone behave this way in this situation? High: external cause Low: internal cause Consistency: does this person always behave this way in this particular situation? High: internal cause Low: external cause
What is empathy? What are the two types of empathy? Why is empathy important?
Empathy: the ability to understand someone else's emotional state, to share their feelings, to understand their perspective. Two types: 1) emotional and affective: the ability to feel someone else's feelings 2) Cognitive empathy: the ability to understand someone else's perspective Importance: 1) Really valuable when someone is different from us 2) Careful use of empathy can be really powerful 3) When you give someone the chance to be heard, you have a better opportunity to dig into the root of the problem, rather than hack away one that's manifested itself as a branch 4) Empathy can give you new regard for others. Use this to inform your compassion and kindness
What is employee engagement? What positive outcomes are associated with it?
Employee engagement: an individual's involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the work he/she does Positive outcomes: 1) Employees have a passion for their work and feel a deep connection to the company 2) Job performance
What are some ways to use intrinsic rewards to motivate employees?
Employee recognition programs. Praise. Positive feedback.
What is equity theory? What are the consequences if you believe that your outcome is not equitable? Does it matter whether you're doing better or worse? What can a person do to try to make the situation more fair their own eyes?
Equity theory: a theory that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities If you're doing better you probably will not seed to change anything in your situation. Employees who perceive inequity will make one of the following six choices. 1) Change inputs 2) Change outcomes 3) Distort perceptions of self 4) Distort perceptions of others 5) Choose a different referent 6) Leave the field
What is expectancy theory? What does this mean for motivation? Under expectancy theory, what does someone consider when deciding whether or not to put forth effort?
Expectancy theory: a theory that the strength of a tendency to act a certain way depends on the strength of the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. Considers: 1) effort-performance relationship 2) performance-reward relationship 3) rewards-personal goals relationship
You should understand what a fixed mindset is and what a growth mindset is and think about what kind of behaviors and thought patterns correspond to each one. What motivates the people who hold each kind of mindset?
Fixed mindset: ability needs to be proven (nonlearners). Only interested when the feedback reflects their ability. No sign of interest when presented with info that could increase learning. Compare oneself to others to elevate own status. Motivated to show innate ability--prove themselves superior to others. Need for superiority. Must repeatedly receive reaffirmation/validationMotivated to achieve success--without putting in effort.. Growth mindset: ability can be developed through learning (learners). Allows people to love what they are doing and continue to love it despite difficulties. Want peers, bosses, jobs.. etc.. to challenge them. Motivated by learning, opportunities to grow, believe in develop. Focused on the values and the process, not necessarily just the results/glory.
Understand the difference between formal and informal groups
Formal group: defined by organizations structure with designated work assignments establishing tasks Informal group: natural formations in the work environment that appear in response to the need for social contact
What are the four pillars of teaming success? What are benefits of teaming? What are barriers to teaming?
Four pillars: 1) Speaking up 2) Collaboration 3) Experimentation 4) Reflection Benefits: 1) Performance 2) Engaged employees 3) Barriers: 1) People don't always get along 2) Silence is easier than speaking up (especially when lower in the hierarchy) 3) Serious work means serious tension 4) Disagreement
Know the following kinds of conflict: functional, dysfunctional, task, process, relationship. What does each type of conflict deal with? How do the different types of conflict relate to each other?
Functional conflict: conflict that supports the goals of the group and improves its performance Dysfunctional conflict: conflict that hinders group performance Relationship conflict: conflict based on interpersonal relationships Task conflict: conflict over content and goals of the work Process conflict: conflict over how the work gets done
What is the fundamental attribution error? How do different cultures treat attributions of behavior?
Fundamental attribution error: the tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others Self-serving bias: the tendency for individuals to attribute their successes to internal factors and put the blame for failures on external factors Differences across cultures in the attributions people make are present. Self-serving biases may be less common is East Asian cultures
What are defining group properties? How does each one work within teams? Know the different aspects of each property (even if not specifically listed in bullets below) and why it is important. What is a psychological contract? What happens when it is broken? How are norms established? What is deviant behavior as defined by your textbook? How do you get status? How does status impact group? How can you encourage group cohesiveness?
GP1) Roles: set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. Perception, expectation. Psychological contract: unwritten agreement that sets out what management expected from an employee and vice versa. (When broken conflict). GP2) Norms: acceptable standards of behavior shared by members that express what ought and ought not to be done under certain circumstances Conformity: the adjustment of one's behavior to align with the norms of the group Reference groups: important groups to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform Deviant workplace behavior (CWB): voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and, in so doing, threatens the well-being of the organization or its members. Also called antisocial behavior or workplace incivility GP3) Status: a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. How you get status: 1) The power a person a wields over others 2) A person's ability to contribute to a group's goals 3) An individual's personal characteristics Affects: power of norms and the pressure to conform. Group interaction. Inequity. GP4) Size: depends of a number of variables Social loafing: tendency of individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. GP5) Cohesiveness: affects productivity. Encouraged by: smaller group, agreement on goals, increased time together, give rewards to group as whole, stimulate competition with other groups. GP6) Diversity: increases group conflict (especially in early stages)
What makes a good goal? Why is goal setting important? Does it matter who sets goals? What are the factors that goal-setting theory considers? Why are they important? How do these factors impact performance?
Goal setting theory: specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance The more difficult the goal, the higher level of performance. People do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing towards their goals--> feedback guides behavior Self-generated feedback is more powerful than externally generated feedback. SMART GOALS: Specific, measurable, attainable, relevant/results, timebound. Factors that influence goals: 1) Goal commitment: most likely to occur when goals are made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, when the goals are self-set, when they are at least partially based on the individual 2) Task characteristics: goals should be simple, well learned, independent, and the high end of achievable 3) National characteristics: collectivistic vs. individualistic. Goals may have different effects in different cultures.
What is group think? What are the symptoms of group think? how can a manager minimize group think?
Groupthink: phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action Symptoms: a clear group identity, positive image people want to protect, when the group perceives a collective threat to its positive image. To minimize: Monitor group size. Encourage group leaders to play impartial role. Appoint one group member to play role of devils advocate. Create diverse groups.
How can we evaluate whether or not a team is effective?
Hackman's model: 1) Is the team satisfying its constituents? 2) Are the team members more satisfied than dissatisfied, generally speaking? 3) Is the team improving over time? Effective teams have: 1) Psychological safety 2) Dealing with conflict appropriately 3) Everyone participating 4) Good communication 5) Collaboration 6) Reflection/learning
What are the two types of cognition? How does this impact conflict?
Hot: when engaged, triggers people to respond emotionally and quickly "heat of the moment" Cool: when engaged, is deliberate and careful, we can slow down and gather our thoughts. The basis for self-regulation and self-control. Cool system is necessary to avoid/diffuse conflict.
Understand the concept of affect intensity
Individual differences in the strength with which individuals experience their emotions
What is ingroup favoritism? Why is it important? What does it say about what belonging to a group does for us? Who is most susceptible to ingroup favoritism?
Ingroup favoritism: perspective in which we see members of our ingroup as better than other people, and people not in our group as all the same People with low openness and/or low agreeableness are more susceptible to ingroup favoritism. Social identity theory: tendency to take personal pride of offense for the accomplishments of a group. Groups help us understand who we are and where we fit in with other people.
What are the techniques of group decision making? Know what interacting groups, brainstorming, and the nominal group technique are
Interacting groups: typical groups in which members interact with each other face to face Brainstorming: an idea-generation process that specifically encourages any and all alternatives while withholding any criticism of those alternatives Nominal group technique: a group decision making method in which individual members meet face to face to pool their judgments in a systematic but independent fashion. 1) Write down ideas 2) share ideas (1 per person) 3) discuss ideas 4) Silently rank order ideas
Personality podcasts: hidden brain and invisibilia
Invisibilia: old way of looking at things was that someone's personality is responsible for their actions (assumption). Dan is a rapist in prison who changed himself (his mind and how he interacts with the world). Walter Michelle challenged that assumption. Personality and the situation are two different lenses--but neither is the whole picture. People are fundamentally flexible. Even DNA changes over the course of lifetime. Hidden Brain--The sorting hat podcast: MBTI test can be dangerous when it comes to hiring. Is the personality test identifying one's personality or is it a self-fulfilling prophecy? Year of the dragon kids performed better because the situation/behavior levied on them by their parents--> higher expectations raised their performance. Companies using these tests can grossly overvalue them.
Understand the basics of job crafting and why it is important
Job crafting is the way employees can use opportunities to customize their jobs. Can be a tool to "re energize" and "re imagine" your work life. Redefine job to incorporate motives, strengths passions. 1) Tasks 2) Relationships 3) Perceptions Results in employees reporting high engagement, satisfaction, performance, and resilience. Empowers employees to become "job entrepreneurs"
What is job engagement? Why is it important? What impact does it have on performance?
Job engagement: the investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance Linked to employee engagement Higher levels typically indicate higher levels of productivity, fewer safety incidents, and lower turnover, more positive work outcomes.
What leads to social loafing? What situations have less social loafing than others? Understand the strengths, weaknesses of group decision making, and when groups are more effective than individuals
Large group sizes. Groups that are together for a long time. Low conscientiousness. Low work ethic. Strengths: 1) More complete information and knowledge 2) Increased diversity of views 3) Increased acceptance of a solution Weaknesses: 1) Time consuming 2) Conformity pressures 3) Discussion can be dominated by one member 4) Ambiguous responsibility
What is Management by Objectives (MBO)? How are goals set with this initiative? Who sets the goals? What are the 4 ingredients common to MBO programs?
MBO: a program that encompasses 1) specific goals, 2) participatively set, 3) for an explicit time period and 4) including feedback on goal progress.
Know the MBTI dimensions and the Big Five dimensions and understand their implications for behavior and preferences. What would a person who scored as a feeler want to do in a given situation etc..
MBTI: taps 4 characteristics and classifies people in 1 of 16 types Characteristics: 1) Extroverted/introverted 2) Sensing/intuitive 3) Thinking/feeling 4) Judging/Perceiving Cons: model forces a person in one type or another. Results change between tests. Difficulty of interpretation. Unrelated to job performance. BIg five: (supported by research 5 components: 1) Conscientiousness: describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized (best overall predictor of job performance 2) Emotional stability: calm, self-confident, and secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed and insecure (negative) 3) Extroversion: sociable, gregarious, and assertive 4) Openness to experience: imagination, sensitivity, and curiosity Agreeableness: good-natured, cooperative, and trusting
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs? What are the needs? How does it work?
Maslow's hierarchy of five needs, in which as each need is substantially satisfied, the next becomes dominant 1) Physiological 2) Safety-security 3) Social-belongingness 4) Esteem 5) Self-actualization
What are the needs that Mclelland's theory of needs discusses?
Need for achievement (nAch): the drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of standards Need for power (nPow): the need to make others behave in a way they would not have otherwise Need for affiliation: (nAff): the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
Which theories of motivation are supported by research and which are not?
Not supported: 1)Maslow's theory 2) Hertzbergs two factor theory Supported 1) Mcellands theory 2) contemporary theories of motivation are supported, self-determination, goal setting theory
What is organizational commitment? Why is it important? What are some outcomes associated with high levels of organization commitment?
Organizational commitment: the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals/wishes to maintain membership in the organization Important because: emotional attachment to an organization and belief in its values is the "gold standard" for employee commitment Positive outcomes: 1) Job productivity 2) Willing to make sacrifices for organization 3) Reduces job withdrawal
Know the common biases and errors in decision making. You should not only be able to define them, you should be able to identify them if given an example. These show up in your textbook and in the reading from the Undoing project. What are some ways you can reduce biases and errors?
Overconfidence bias: tendency to be overconfident in our abilities and abilities of others, we are usually not aware of this bias Anchoring bias: a tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information Confirmation bias: tendency to seek out information that reaffirms past choices and to discount information that contradicts past judgments Availability bias: tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is readily available to them Escalation of commitment: an increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative information Randomness error: the tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict the outcome of random events Risk aversion: tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome might have a higher expected payoff Hindsight bias: tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome of an event is actually known, that one would have accurately predicted that outcome Reducing biases and errors: 1) Focus on goals 2) Look for information that disconfirms your beliefs 3) Don't try to create meaning out of random events 4) Increase your options
You should understand self-monitoring and proactive personalities and understand their implications for behavior and performance
Self-monitoring: measures an individual's ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors Proactive personality: people who identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs
How do positive and negative core self-evaluations impact performance? What are the mechanisms through which they impact performance?
People with positive CSE's perform better than others because they set more ambitious goals, are more committed to their goals, and persist longer in attempting to reach them. People with positive CSE's tend to like themselves, take control of their environment. While people with negative CSE's tend to dislike themselves, question their capabilities and consider themselves powerless in their environment. Customer service, more popular among coworkers, have careers that begin on better footing and ascend rapidly over time.
What is perceived organizational support? What leads people to perceive their organizations as supportive?
Perceived organizational support: the degree to which employees believe an organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being Higher when: 1) rewards are fair 2) when employees have a voice in their decisions 3) when employees see supervisors as supportive
What is a perception? What impacts perception?
Perception: process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment Factors that influence perception: 1) Perceiver 2) Target 3) Context
What is personality? How do we generally measure personality? What is the biggest contributor to personality?
Personality: the sum of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others Personality traits: enduring characteristics that describe an individual's behavior 40% hereditary (biological, physiological, inherent make up) 60% environment
What are some outcomes that have a positive relationship with high job satisfaction? What outcomes have a negative relationship with job satisfaction? (meaning as job satisfaction goes up, these outcomes go down.
Positive relationship outcomes: 1) Job performance 2) Organizational citizenship behavior 3) Customer satisfaction 4) Life satisfaction Negative out Negative relationship outcomes: 1) Counterproductive work behavior (intentional employee behavior that is contrary to the interests of the org) 2) Absenteeism 3) Turnover
What are the different types of teams? When would you want to use each kind? What are some benefits and drawbacks of each type?
Problem-solving teams: groups of 5-12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment Self-managed work teams: groups of 10-15 people who take on responsibilities of their former supervisors Cross-functional teams: employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task Virtual teams: teams that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal
Types of decisions
Programmed: problem is simple, high levels of certainty to options/outcomes Non-programmed: no real clear correct alternative, uncertainty and risk
What are the two ways that people regulate thoughts and behaviors while working to achieve a goal?
Promotion focus: a self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals through advancement and accomplishment Prevention focus: a self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals by fulfilling duties and obligations
What does teaming do for an organization?
Provides orgs with the benefits/results of teams without the time/cost of traditional teams.
What happens in the punctuated equilibrium model? What are the implications of this model?
Punctuated equilibrium model: a set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity.
What are the steps in the rational decision making model? What are the assumptions of this model? What are the assumptions for the bounded rationality of this model? How do they differ from each other? What is intuition? What are some characteristics of intuitive decision making? Why is intuitive decision making hard to study? Is it ever useful?
Rational decision making model: model that describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome Steps: 1) Define the problem 2) Identify the decision criteria 3) Allocate weights to the criteria 4) Develop the alternatives 5) Evaluate the alternatives 6) Select the best alternative Assumptions: 1) has complete information 2) Is able to identify all relevant options in an unbiased manner 3) Chooses the option with the highest utility Bounded rationality: a process of making decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexities. Satisfice--solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient. Assumptions: information overload, limited resources Intuitive decision making: an unconscious process created out of distilled experience. Least rational--occurs outside conscious thought 1) Relies on holistic associations, or links between disparate pieces of information 2) Quick decision 3) Affectively charged -->engages the emotions Intuitive decision making is hard to measure and analyze. It can be very useful as a way of setting up a hypothesis but is unacceptable as 'proof'.
What are 3 kinds of conflict that groups can experience?
Relationship conflict: conflict based on interpersonal relationships Task conflict: conflict over content and goals of the work Process conflict: conflict over how work gets done
What impact do the different kinds of conflict have on an organization?
Relationship conflicts: in work situations are almost always dysfunctional Task conflicts: higher up in an organization appear to positively correlated with productivity--lower in the organization appear to negatively correlated with productivity Process conflicts: usually about delegation/roles. Often become personalized and devolve into relationship conflicts
What are things that a team leader needs to think about when trying to create/manage a successful team?
Selecting team players, creating team players, and providing incentives to be a good team player. Effective teams have adequate resources, effective leadership, a climate of trust, and a performance evaluation and reward system that reflects team contributions.
What are the common shortcuts for judging others?
Selective perception: the tendency to selectively interpret what one sees on the basis on one's interests, background, experience, and attitudes Halo effect: the tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic Contrast effect: evaluation of a person's characteristics that is affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics Stereotyping: judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which that person belongs
What is self-efficacy? Why is it important? How can you increase self-efficacy?
Self efficacy theory: an individual's beleif that s/he is capable of performing a task. Important because the higher it is, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed. (Try harder to overcome challenge etc..) 4 Ways to increase it: 1) Enactive mastery 2) Vicarious modeling 3) Verbal persuasion 4) Arousal
What does self-determination have to say about motivation? What about cognitive evaluation theory? How are they connected? What is self-concordance? How do they connect to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? What are some possible implications of these concepts?
Self-determination theory: concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation Cognitive evaluation theory: a version of self-determination in which allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling Self-concordance theory: the degree to which people's reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values Implications: individuals should choose career for reasons beyond extrinsic rewards Managers should provide intrinsic and extrinsic rewards
Why is it difficult for employees in a minority to make personal connections with coworkers? Know the specifics not just about the general problem, but the research-based ideas explaining the problem
Similarity attracts: homophily. Building relationships across racial boundaries can be difficult. Being one's true self, disclosing elements of one's personal life, and forming social connections are easier within one's own group than they are across a demographic boundary. But employees who hesitate to open up are less likely to build the deeper relationships that lead both to success and more happiness at work.
What are the elements of situation strength theory? How does a strong situation differ from a weak one? What are some of the things an organization needs to think about when creating a strong situation?
Situation strength theory: the way personality translates into behavior depends on the strength of the situation (degree to which norms, cues, or standards dictate appropriate behavior) Components: 1) Clarity 2) Consistency 3) Constraints 4) Consequences High in any means strong situation. Managers/organizations need to recognize the role of situation strength in the workplace and find the appropriate balance. Consider how diverse the system is.
Think about how different cultures interpret different emotions and the value judgement that they assign. Are there any universalities? Where are some differences?
Some cultures embrace negative emotions, such as Japan and Russia. Others emphasize positive emotions, such as Mexico and Brazil. There may also be a difference in the value of negative emotions in collectivist and individualist countries. For example, the Chinese consider negative emotions as potentially more useful and constructive than do Americans. Universalities: positivity offset?
What is surface level diversity? What is deep level diversity?
Surface level diversity--ethnicity, level of education, gender Deep level--values, personalities, work preferences, national culture
Two types of thinking
System 1: fast, intuitive, unconscious (e.g. green light you go) System 2: slow, calculating, conscious (e.g. tests, interviews)
What factors influence team culture?
Team composition: 1) Attitudes 2) Interests 3) Perception 4) Mentality E.g. organizations which hire individuals from the army tend to follow a strict culture/strong situations
What is teaming? When is it important? What kind of organizations tend to rely heavily on teaming? What distinguishes teaming from a traditional view of teamwork? What process forms the basis of teaming?
Teaming is teamwork on the fly. It involves coordinating and collaborating with the benefit of stable team structures, because many operations, such as hospitals, power plants, and military installations, require a level of staffing flexibility that makes stable team composition rare.
What is a virtual team?
Teams that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal
How do emotions impact creativity? The book has a different take on it than my lecture. Which makes more sense to you? Increasing energy in the workplace, whether positive or negative, the best way to go? Why or why not? In this case, I would focus on developing an argument than trying to pick the right side.
Textbook argues: all activating moods, positive or negative, lead to more creativity. However, also argued that people in good moods tend to be more creative than people in bad ones. Negative energy at work can be counterproductive. As employees may intentionally violate organizational norms. I would argue that being in positive mood leads to more creativity--because you are more mentally flexible, less concerned with judgement of others, feel lighter and more apt to think creatively. I believe that bad moods and negative emotions do not promote creativity. I find that myself and others tend to 'hunker down' versus actively trying to tackle challenges.
How do personality traits predict job performance? What are some benefits of using personality tests in hiring? What are some drawbacks? What are the goals of using personality tests in hiring?
The Big Five traits: 1) Conscientiousness: describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized (best overall predictor of job performance 2) Emotional stability: calm, self-confident, and secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed and insecure (negative) 3) Extroversion: sociable, gregarious, and assertive 4) Openness to experience: imagination, sensitivity, and curiosity 5) Agreeableness: good-natured, cooperative, and trusting Benefits: can help get a better person-job fit. Drawbacks: can eliminate very good candidates--not 100% accurate or scientifically proven. Goal: to match people's personality traits/values with those of an organization.
What is the process of creative behavior?
The ability to produce novel and useful ideas 1) Problem formulation: the stage of creative behavior that involves identifying a problem or opportunity requiring a solution that is yet unknown 2) Information gathering: the stage of creative behavior when possible solutions to a problem incubate in an individual's mind 3) Idea generation: the process of creative behavior that involves developing possible solutions to a problem from relevant information and knowledge 4) Idea evaluation: the process of creative behavior involving the evaluation of potential solutions to problems to identify the best one
What is motivation?
The processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal
What is Machiavellianism? Narcissism? Psychopathy? Are there any benefits to these traits?
These make up the dark triad. Machiavellianism: the degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends justify means A) Less likely to translate in followers' engagement Narcissism: the tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance, require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement A) Tend to be more charismatic Psychopathy: the tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse when actions cause harm A) Can make one cunning and able to rise in an org
What are some factors that are associated with creativity?
Three-stage model of creativity: the proposition that creativity involves three stages: 1) Causes (creative potential and creative environment) 2) Creative behavior 3) Creative outcomes (innovation)
What is a group?
Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives
What is Herzberg's two-factor theory? (aka "Motivation-hygiene theory") What are motivators? What are hygiene factors? What are the implications for motivators and hygiene factors when it comes to motivation and job attitudes? What are the differences between motivators and hygiene factors?
Two-factor theory: a theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction (motivation hygiene theory)
How can you tell who has influence in a group? How can you ensure that people with influence don't dominate group discussion to the detriment of other points of view?
Usually status/assertiveness determine who has influence in a group. To combat this you can try and make the group leader impartial, use the nominal group technique, and create a safe environment for all members to be heard.
What are values? Where do we get our values? Focus mostly on values = instrumental values
Values: basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence Instrumental values: preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one's terminal values
What are things to think about when setting pay for your employees? What are the different types of pay programs? What are the advantages/disadvantages of the different types? What can you do if you are in a situation where you cannot pay your works (e.g. volunteer) or where pay is not a good motivator?
When setting pay, it is important to balance internal equity (worth of job to organization) with external equity (the competitiveness of an organization's pay relative to pay in its industry). Variable-pay programs Piece-rate pay: a pay plan in which workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed A) Produces higher productivity and wages D) Rewarding volume can increase chance of workplace injury Merit-based pay: a pay plan based on performance appraisal ratings A) Let individuals perceive a strong relationship between their performance and their rewards D) Only as valid as their appraisal ratings--which are subjective. Can increase discrimination. Bonus: a pay plan that rewards employees for recent performance rather than historical performance A) Motivating for workers D) They leave employees pay more vulnerable to cuts Profit sharing plan: an organization-wide program that distributes compensation based on some established formula designed around a company's profitability A) Usually higher levels of profitability, motivates workers D) Does not work when there is no profit Employee stock ownership plan: a company-established benefits plan in which employees acquire stock, often below-market prices, as part of their benefits A) Can reduce unethical behavior D) Can feel unmotivated because stock won't be cashed until a later date If you cannot pay employees than you can use an employee recognition program: a plan to encourage specific employee behaviors by formally appreciating specific employee contributions
What are the differences between a team and a group? A work group versus a work team? What are some similarities?
Workgroup: a group that interacts primarily to share information and make decisions to help each group member perform within his/her area of responsibility Workteam: a group whose individual efforts result in performance that is greater than the sum of the individual parts
What is groupshift?
a change between a group's decision and an individual decision that a member within the group would make; the shift can be towards either conservatism or greater risk but it generally is toward a more extreme version of the group's original position
What are the different intentions in terms of conflict resolution? What are the dimensions upon which we can categorize them?
a) competing: a desire to satisfy one's interests, regardless of the impact on the other party to the conflict b) Collaborating: a situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties c) Avoiding: the desire to withdraw or suppress a conflict d) Accommodating: the willingness of one party in a conflict to place the opponent's interests above his or her own e) Compromising: a situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up something
