PART 2 (Classical Civilizations) // World History

PART II: Important dates

*c.1400-1200 BCE*: Height of Mycenaean civilization; the Trojan War is fought. *600s BCE*: Rule of tyrants in Greece/political reform in Greece *509 BCE*: Establishment of the Roman Republic *500 BCE-500 CE*: Persian Empire *490 BCE*: Greeks defeat Persians at the battle of Marathon; democracy flourishes in Athens. *495-425 BCE*: Age of Pericles (Golden Age of Athens) *431-404 BCE*: Peloponnesian War *400 BCE-100 CE*: Aksum (Africa) *402-332 BCE*: Warring States Period *323-20 BCE*: Classical Hellenistic Age *321-185 BCE*: Mauryan Empire *336-323 BCE*: Rule of Alexander the Great *264-146 BCE*: Punic Wars *221-206 BCE*: Qin dynasty *206 BCE*: Beginning of the Han empire *150 BCE-900 CE*: First era of the Silk Roads *100 BCE*: Buddhism reaches China / Birth of Julius Caesar *44 BCE*: Assassination of Julius Caesar *27 BCE*: Beginning of the Roman Empire / Octavian *20 BCE-180 CE*: Pax Romana *4 BCE*: Birth of Jesus *100 CE-700 CE*: Bantu migrations to East and South Africa *220 CE*: Fall of the Han Empire *320-550 CE*: Gupta Empire *330 CE*: Creation of Constantinople *381 CE*: Christianity becomes the official religion of the Roman empire *395 CE*: Division of Western and Eastern Roman Empire *476 CE*: Overthrow of the last Roman emperor *527 CE*: Opening of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople *c.550 CE*: Justinian Code *581-618 CE*: Sui dynasty *618-907 CE*: Tang dynasty *726 CE*: Iconoclast controversy (split between Eastern and Western Christianity)

rise and development of Christianity during the Romans

- "Another of the lasting contributions of the Romans was to serve as the vehicle to facilitate the spread of Christianity." - Romans conquered Palestine in 63 BCE, named it Judea, where Jesus lived and died. - Jesus was crucified; accused of defying (threatening) Roman authority. - Prompted conversion of many Jews and gentiles (non-Jews) through his apostles. -*Second Diaspora of the Jews*: Zealots (people who believed in independence from Rome) unsuccessfully rebelled, the Romans dispersed the Jews throughout their provinces. - Christianity appealed to people of all classes; promising eternal life after death, it offered hope to the weak and downtrodden of the world. - *Church organization*: priests were elected by bishops, which were heads of dioceses, Peter was the first bishop of Rome (first pope). - Christians refused to worship the Roman emperor as god, prompted their persecution. - *313 CE*: Christianity permitted through Constantine's Edict of Milan, becomes official religion in 380 CE by Theodosius.

Athens

- 'Cradle of democracy' - Authoritarian leaders gave rise to reform movements, which birthed democracy - Direct (rather than representative) democracy: ALL citizens participated in the creation and passing of laws - Only about half of male Athenian population could participate; foreigners, slaves, and women couldn't

Mauryan Empire

- *Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 BCE) established an empire in northwest India and the Ganges region. - First centralized government in India. - Empire included almost all of modern India (except southern tip) - *Ashoka*: (most famous Mauryan emperor), great patron of Buddhism. -*Decline*: due to weak rulers, fell by 185 BCE.

characteristics of empires

- *Conquest over great distances*: due to need or desire for natural resources; the amount of land conquered is geographically significant and contain a unique cultural identity. -*Ambitious, charismatic leader*: Caesar, Alexander the Great, Chandragupta, Genghis Khan. -*Military prowess*: conquering lands requires a large, semiprofessional, technologically advanced army. -*Governing diverse peoples*: requires a more complex governmental bureaucracy that can effectively manage and control the needs of a great number of people across great distances.

Hellenistic culture

- *Cynicism*: Called for a return to simplicity and a rejection of materialism - *Stoicism*: Emphasis on the brotherhood of all humans; taught that individuals had a responsibility to aid others and to lead virtuous lives. - *Epicureanism*: Sought pleasure (avoidance of pain) and inner peace. - important people of the era: Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy

Gupta Empire

- *Founding*: by the Gupta family, state in north India (circa 400-530 CE) - Hinduism experienced a revival, Buddhism declined - Caste system regained prominence - Women became subject to stricter controls under Hindu law (could not own property or remarry, some were expected to commit sati) - *Advances in math*: Calculated the value of pi, created the concept of zero, and introduced the 'Arabic' numerals we use today. - Trade, art, and Sanskrit literature flourished. - *Decline*: Invasion by the Huns caused the Gupta empire to collapse.

Roman Republic

- *Politics*: Two groups vying for power, patricians (high class, landlords) and plebeians (majority of population). -*Gov't structure*: Senate made up of patricians that elected two consuls for executive power. Plebeians had the *Tribal Assembly* for themselves -*Law*: Twelve Tables, created concept of Roman citizenship. -*Army*: Organized into legions, units of 5,000 to 6,000 foot soldiers (infantry); infantry supported by cavalry -*Society*: Three categories: Latins (full Roman citizenship), conquered peoples (all citizenship rights except the vote), other conquered peoples (allies; permitted to keep local gov'ts so long as they provided troops for the Roman army.

advancements in governments during the times of empires

- *Shared local-central government*: add the previous local leadership to the imperial payroll. - *Concept of citizenship*: differentiated their own people (citizens) from the conquered (noncitizens). Empires could use the promise of citizenship and its added privileges to control conquered peoples. - *Managing an 'international' economy*: many empires established common currencies, which allowed a lot of different people to engage in trade and commerce with relative ease. - *Uniform legal and tax codes*: easiest way to manage diverse peoples: empires apply their own systems of laws and taxation across the entire empire. - *Advancements in engineering*: Necessity to transport a lot of things over a large distance improved networks of roads.

reasons for Rome's decline

- *Slavery*, which prompted the Romans to rely on free labor to do most tasks rather than exerting themselves. - *Social decay*, especially of the wealthier classes, which resulted in their lack of motivation to ensure an effective government. - *The size of the empire*, which had become too vast for efficient government. - *The Roman army*, whose structure admitted soldiers loyal to their commanders rather than the empire. -*Economic decline and heavy taxes* compounded by failed harvests and the decrease in revenues from foreign wars during the Pax Romana. -*Barbarian invasions* whose constant threat drew the attentions of the emperor away from other governmental concerns.

most important Greek philosophers

- *Socrates*: systematic questioning; condemned to death. - *Plato*: The Republic (concept of ideal state), supported an aristocracy of intellectuals. - *Aristotle*: Developed rules of logic, worked in psychology, ethics, politics, literature, biology, physics, and astronomy

Sudanic and Bantu West Africa

- *not* present-day Sudan, rather the southern grasslands between the Sahara's southern fringe and the tropical Congo region. - Trans-Saharan trade aided the growth of Sudanic societies - First major Sudanic state: Ghana, flourished until the thirteenth century. - Ghana and other Sudanic states characterized by a *dual-gender system*: ruled by a chief and queen-mother from the same royal family. - *griots* memorized and recited history emphasizing the deeds of leaders.

polis

- AKA: city state - Major political unit in Classical Greece - Due to geography: mountainous terrain, jagged coastline promoted trade (wine and olive oil in exchange for grains, timber, and luxury goods).

interactions between the Persians and the Greeks

- Athens and Sparta unified under common enemy: the Persians. - Persian Wars (500-479 BCE): Important battles include Marathon and Thermopylae

religion along the Silk Roads

- Both Buddhism and Hinduism spread through Indian Ocean trade to southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Cambodia, and Vietnam). - Christianity diffused along land routes due to missionaries. - *Manichaeism* blended religions beliefs, believed in afterlife and struggle between good and evil subject to persecution transmitted it to central Asia.

similarities between the Roman and Han empires

- Both enjoyed long periods of peace and prosperity. - Both encouraged trade through the building of roads and establishment of stability - Exerted a lasting influence on the culture of the West and China. (Rome left legacy of language, laws and Christianity; Han created the Silk Roads, promoted education, and made scientific discoveries.

consequences of Roman fall

- Central government broke down - Agricultural fields weary from battle; towns and cities lay in ruins - Roads and bridges fell into disrepair (resulting in unsafe travel and less trade) - Learning declined as the Romans concerned themselves with everyday survival rather than academic pursuits.

first period of the Silk Roads (150 BCE-900 CE)

- Comprised of both land and sea routes - Included regions of Central Asia, North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Indian Ocean - Indian Ocean trade route connected Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and India to Southeast Asia. - Some items traded: spices, jewels, cosmetics, grain, wine, olive oil, and jewelry. - IMPORTANT: introduction of the stirrup contributed to the success of the cavalry in China and the horsemanship of the European medieval knight. - Connected the Han, Rome, Kushan Empire in India and Afghanistan, Parthians, Persia, and Mesopotamia.

Mengzi

- Confucius' most famous follower - Expanded Zhou concept of *Mandate of Heaven* (divine right to rule, so long as the ruler governed well and was moral) - *Dynastic Cycle*: asserted that Chinese dynasties repeat themselves, going through the stages of warring states, unification, barbarian invasions and conquest, absorption into the Chinese system, and the creation of a new dynasty based on the Mandate of Heaven.

Sui dynasty (581-618 CE)

- Conquered and reunified central China - Completed the *Grand Canal*, a link between the Yangzi and Yellow rivers - Overthrown by the general who would become emperor of the *Tang*.

The Maya (300 CE-900 CE)

- Contemporaries of the Tang Chinese, Charlemagne in Europe, and the Abbasids - Called the "Greeks of the New World" due to their political system, calendar, written language, elegant art, etc. - Used a *ridged field system*, in which raised fields were built above low-lying, seasonally flooded lands bordering rivers. - Advanced in mathematics, used a system based on 20, also used concept of the zero. - *Decline*: exact cause unknown, most likely due to agricultural exhaustion; overpopulation, warfare, and disease.

the Moche (200 CE-700 CE)

- Developed along the Peruvian coast just north of the Chavin. - Expanded by means of conquest. - *Verticality* in Andean classical culture: people were literally arranged by social classes based on the altitude in which they lived (along the irrigated coast, maize; in the mountain chains, potatoes and grazing). - *ayllus*: Organized around kinship units, based on a descent from a common mythical ancestor.

Aksum (c. 400 BCE to 100 CE)

- Emerged in Ethiopian highlands - Benefited from proximity to the Red Sea that linked northern Ethiopia with Arabia and Southwest Asia. - Center of agriculture, bronze and ironwork - Exported ivory, gold, obsidian, emeralds, perfumes, and animals. - Highly stratified social structure dominated by kings - Most important export during Classical Age: gold

Teotihuacán (Mexico) (100 CE-900 CE)

- Establishment of Teotihuacan (est. population of 200,000 people; larger than cities of Egypt or Mesopotamia). - Streets laid out in grid patterns, Pyramid of the Sun reflected polytheistic beliefs. - Teotihuacán has many of the hallmarks of classical civilization - an enduring style, urban splendor, a culture with heavy religious overtones, and legacies for succeeding civilizations of Mexico like the Toltec and Aztec.

Tang dynasty (618-907 CE)

- Expanded the empire as far as Afghanistan and into Mongolia, Tibet, and parts of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. - Creation of *block-printing* system; allowed for faster creation of books. - Silk Road continued to be prominent; spread of Buddhism and Chinese influence.

fall of Rome

- External pressures by Germanic tribes; periodically raided the Roman frontier. - Attila the Hun (from Central Asia) became a major threat. The Huns were moving into Rome, which prompted other Germanic tribes (*Saxons*; Northern Germany, *Angles* and *Saxon*; England, *Franks*; France, *Visigoths*; Spain, *Ostrogoths*; Italy, *Vandals*; North Africa) to cross the borders of the Roman Empire. - Internal pressures: end of Pax Romana resulted in civil war, bandits and crime (unsafe travel led to a breakdown of trade); creation of a different currency led to inflation, poor harvests increased the number of the rural poor, plague decimated the population of rome, emperors spent lavishly. -*Final attempts to save the Empire*: Diocletian split empire into East and West, Constantine created new capital in 330 CE (Constantinople).

Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE)

- Founded by Qin Shi Huang (AKA Shi Huangdi): *first Chinese emperor* - Unified China politically by replacing local feudal lords with civilian and military administrators who worked for the dynasty. - Promoted Legalism and persecuted Confucianists - Terra cotta army is Shi Huangdi's!

Han Empire (206 BCE to 220 CE)

- Longest and most influential of all Chinese dynasties - Preceded by the *Qin Dynasty*, which arose after the collapse of the Zhou. Used bronze and iron extensively; constructed public roads and canals, connected the beginning stages of the Great Wall. - Important people: *Liu Bang* (founder), *Empress Lu*, and *Han Wudi* (141-87 BCE; longest reigning emperor, promoted bureacuracy) - Used a complex bureaucracy to aid their rule; used taxes to pay for this. Peasants and merchants were required to pay taxes (in crops) and a month's worth of labor or military service every year. - *Confucianism* came to preeminence. - *Silk Roads* created during this time; linked China to the Mediterranean world. Like Rome, the Han empire expanded its borders, expanding into Korea and Vietnam and encouraging the assimilation of those areas into Chinese culture (*Sinification*). - *shi*: scholar class, first civil service examinations under the Han. - Inventions attributed to the Han: paper, the rudder, the compass, porcelain, the seismograph. - *Class system*: mandarin class ranked at the top, then peasants, then artisans, then merchants. Outside of the class system altogether were the military who, in COnfucian thought, were symbolic of failure to maintain order.

Kush Africa (800 BCE-350 BCE)

- Major iron producter, capital city of Meroe had a population of about 25000. - Overland caravan routes linked Kush with the Niger and Congo basins and the Ehtiopian highlands. - Declined, in part, due to worldwide climate change.

Persians

- Part of the large group of Indo-Europeans who migrated (along with the Hittites, Aryans, etc.) - *Cyrus II* unified the Persians and conquered Greece and went as far as India. - Displayed an attitude of tolerance to conquered peoples, allowing them to maintain their own laws, religious beliefs, and customs - as long as they paid their taxes, provided military support, and pledged obedience to the Persian monarch. - Founders of *Zoroastrianism* (similar to Judaism and Christianity, monotheistic, stressed reward in an afterlife, struggles between good and evil) - Royal Road included a system of couriers similar to the Incan system of roads in the 15th and 16th centuries. - At its height, its Empire spanned from the Balkan peninsula in the west to the Indus River Valley in the east.

Roman culture and society

- Provinces like Spain and Gaul benefitted from Roman influence with new construction sites, had similar rights to citizens. - Women held considerable influence under Roman law, could own property. - Roman law became the foundation of all European countries that had once been part of the Roman empire. - Extreme wealth disparities (massive amounts of slaves; bread and circuses to appease the population) - Important cultural influences: Virgil: greatest Roman poet; Romans believed in education solely for practical uses, Ovid wrote the Metamorphoses, Seneca (stoic philosopher), Cicero (orator), Plutarch (historian).

legacies of the Classical period

- Rise of great states and empires like Greece, Rome, Achaemenid Persia, Mauryan and Gupta India, Kush and Aksum, Qin and Han China, and Teotihuacan, the Maya, and Moche - Art using frescoes, mosaics, and statues - Architecture of palaces, temples, stupas, pyramids, and rock-cut temples with architectural features like columns, corbeled arches, and Roman arches and domes. - Development of important technologies: steel, paper, the compass, porcelain, canals, sewers, irrigation systems, roads, postal systems, hospitals, and universities. - Systems of social order (Indian caste system, Chinese belief in filial piety, political order through Roman law, Athenian democracy, Indian nonviolence, Chinese civil service) - Rise of the world's major religions and belief systems including humanism, Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism.

Cross-regional developments of the Classical period

- Spread of Greek culture during the Hellenistic period - Spread of Roman culture to Western Europe - Expansion of Christianity beyond the Mediterranean to western Europe, eastern Europe, and Southwest Asia - Expansions of Buddhism to Central Asia, China, Southeast Asia, Korea, and Japan - Development of Eurasian trade along the Silk Road - Development of sea routes from East Asia to India, Arabia, and Africa. - Development of connections among Mesoamerican peoples and between Mesoamerica and the Andean area.

Empire of Alexander the Great

- Started by his father, Philip II of Macedon - Was a student of Aristotle's - Built several cities in his name (Alexandria of Egypt had a great library) - Fashioned the *Hellenistic culture*, a synthesis of the traditions of West and East (specifically Persia)

Why did Rome fall but Byzantium remain standing?

- The Byzantine Empire was supported by an efficient, well-run administrative structure, which maintained stability in the empire for centuries. - Byzantium was not as widespread territorially as was Rome (easier to maintain borders) - Byzantine had a number of large urban centers (cultural stability, easier to defend)

transition from Roman Republic to Roman Empire

- Transition from limited democracy to autocracy - Prompted by wide wealth disparities caused by landed estates (latifundia); massive amounts of slaves, ordinary Roman farmers couldn't compete, became homeless and poor. - Rule by generals: Marius, Sulla, Julius Caesar (formed first triumvirate with Crassus and Pompey; became dictator for life, prompted creation of the Roman Empire with his assassination). -*Beginnings of Roman Empire*: After Caesar's assassination, civil war, second triumvirate created, Octavian defeated Marc Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE.

decline of the Han empire

- Unequal distribution of land, women kept in subordinate position. - the Han paid tribute to barbarian tribes to stop them from invading China; this put an economic strain on the empire. - Poor harvests prompted peasants to revolt. - Collapse in *220 CE*, producing 400 years of political and economic turmoil and the division of the former empire into numerous regional kingdoms.

Sparta

- Very disciplined and highly militarized society - All activity focused on the strengthening of the state - To maintain their military state, they sacrificed individual freedom and produced little in the arts, literature, science, and philosophy

Punic Wars

- War between Rome and Carthage (a former Phoenician colony in North Africa). - Three Punic wars, Romans ended up winning, rendered Carthage unusable, burned it to the ground; consolidated Rome's power as master of the Mediterranean.

similar factors of decline (Han and Rome)

- Wealth led the ruling classes to focus on material possessions rather than government. - Both empires became too vast for effective administration - Armies gained preeminence during periods of decline as generals became emperors. - Harassment of borderlands by barbarians hurt agriculture and trade. - Population declined due to failed harvests and epidemics spread via trade routes.

varieties of early Christianity

-*Coptic Christianity*: Practiced in Egypt and Ethiopia, stressed Jesus' divinity. -*Nestorian Christianity*: Spread to China through the Silk Roads, stressed Jesus' humanity over his divinity. -*Arianism*: Taught that Jesus had been a creation of God rather than a divinity who had coexisted with God from eternity. - To resolve the disputes, the *Nicene Creed* asserted that Jesus was at the same time fully human and fully divine. Further clarified by *St. Augustine*.

Pax Romana

Height of Roman Empire, 207-year period of peace. Stabilized government, good road systems that encouraged trade and good communication, common coin, industry flourished (major feats in engineering, bridges, and aqueducts). Gov't encouraged science, art, and literature. Jesus was born during this time. The Pax Romana came to an end with the death of Marcus Aurelius (he was the emperor who died at the beginning of Gladiator; stoic philosopher).