Part 3 Topic 7: Medieval Christian Europe (330-1450)

Architecture and Art

"In the Middle Ages," wrote French author Victor Hugo, "men had no great thought that they did not write down in stone." Those "writings" were the great buildings of the Middle Ages. With riches from trade and commerce, townspeople, nobles, and monarchs indulged in a flurry of building. Their greatest achievements were the towering stone cathedrals that served as symbols of their wealth and religious devotion.

Pope Innocent III

(c. 1160-1216) one of the most powerful and influential popes in history; exerted wide influence over the Christian regimes of Europe, claiming supremacy. Called upon Christian forces to begin The Fourth Crusade (crusaders ended up sacking Constantinople)

The most far-reaching consequence to Europe from the Black Death was A. extensive unemployment. B. the fact that people began to see magic and witchcraft as solutions to problems. C. a change in the basic structure of medieval society. D. the slow growth of towns.

A change in the basic structure of medieval society

Ivan the Great

A driving force behind Moscow's successes was Ivan III, known as Ivan the Great. Between 1462 and 1505, he brought much of northern Russia under his rule. Ivan built the framework for absolute rule. He tried to limit the power of the boyars, or great landowning nobles. After he married a niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Ivan adopted Byzantine court rituals to emphasize Russia's role as the heir to Byzantine power. Like the Byzantine emperors, he used a double-headed eagle as his symbol and sometimes referred to himself as tsar, the Russian word for Caesar. In 1504, a Russian church council echoed Byzantine statements, declaring, "By nature, the tsar is like any other man, but in power and office he is like the highest God."

Scholasticism

A philosophical and theological system, associated with Thomas Aquinas, devised to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and Roman Catholic theology in the thirteenth century.

King John Battles Powerful Enemies

A son of Henry II, King John was a clever, cruel, and untrustworthy ruler. During his reign, he faced three powerful enemies: King Philip II of France, Pope Innocent III, and his own English nobles. He lost each struggle. Ever since William the Conqueror, Norman rulers of England had held vast lands in France. In 1205, John suffered his first setback when he lost a war with Philip II and had to give up lands in Anjou and Normandy. Next, John battled with Innocent III over selecting a new archbishop of Canterbury. When John rejected the pope's nominee, the pope excommunicated him, or prevented him from participating in the sacraments and services of the Church. Innocent also placed England under the interdict, which forbade Church services to the entire kingdom. Even the strongest ruler was likely to give in to that pressure. To save himself and his crown, John had to accept England as a fief of the papacy and pay a yearly fee to Rome.

Graceful Gothic Cathedrals

About 1140, Abbot Suger (Soozhay) wanted to build a new abbey church at St. Denis near Paris. He hoped that it "would shine with wonderful and uninterrupted light." There, builders developed what became known as the Gothic style of architecture. A key feature of the new Gothic style was the flying buttresses, or stone supports that stood outside the church. These supports allowed builders to construct higher, thinner walls and leave space for large stained-glass windows. Gothic churches soared to incredible heights. Their graceful spires and tall windows carried the eye upward to the heavens. "Since their brilliance lets the splendor of the True Light pass into the church," declared a medieval visitor, "they enlighten those inside."

Heroic Epics Capture the Imagination

Across Europe, people began writing down oral traditions in the vernacular. French pilgrims traveling to holy sites loved to hear the chansons de geste, or "songs of heroic deeds." The most popular was the Song of Roland, written around 1100, which praises the courage of one of Charlemagne's knights. A true chivalric hero, Roland loyally sacrifices his life out of a sense of honor. Spain's great epic, Poem of the Cid, tells the story of Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, a bold and fiery Christian lord who fought both with and against Muslim forces. His nickname, El Cid, comes from the Arabic word for "lord." Heroic epics that told thrilling tales of heroism appealed to Christians across Europe. Nobles in the late Middle Ages adopted ideas about honor and chivalry in theory, if not in practice. Epic tales found a ready audience among all classes of medieval society. The tales varied from region to region, but people took pride in their great heroes.

Splendid Art in Stone and Glass

As churches rose, stonemasons carved sculptures to decorate them inside and out. Sculptures included portraits and scenes from the lives of saints and illustrated stories from the Bible. Sculptors also carved plants and animals, both real and imaginary. Some stone pieces were gargoyles, grotesque figures with a spout that carried water off the roof and away from the walls of the building. They also carved whimsical or frightening images of mythical creatures such as dragons and unicorns. Other skilled craft workers created the colorful stained-glass windows that added to the splendor of Gothic churches. Stained-glass windows illustrated dramatic scenes from the Bible and other Christian beliefs. Stained-glass windows and carvings in stone served an essential purpose. They helped educate the masses of people who could not read about the Christian faith.

Economic Impact

As the plague kept recurring in the late 1300s, the European economy plunged to a low ebb. When workers and employers died, production declined. Survivors demanded higher wages, but as the cost of labor soared, prices rose, too. Landowners and merchants pushed for laws to limit wages. To limit rising costs, landowners converted croplands to land for sheep raising, which required less labor. Villagers forced off the land looked for work in towns. There, guilds limited opportunities for advancement. Coupled with the fear of the plague, these restrictions sparked explosive revolts. Angry peasants rampaged in England, France, Germany, and elsewhere. In the cities, artisans fought for more power, usually without success. Revolts erupted on and off through the 1300s and 1400s. The plague had spread death and social unrest. It would take Western Europe more than 100 years to fully recover from its effects. The plague returned repeatedly during the later Middle Ages and into early modern times. Daniel Defoe's Journal of the Plague Year vividly chronicled the impact of mass deaths in England in the 1600s.

Early Victories for England

At first, the English won a string of victories—at Crécy in 1346, Poitiers in 1356, and Agincourt in 1415. They owed much of their success not to braver or more skillful knights but to the longbow, a powerful new weapon wielded by English archers. The longbow was six feet long and took years to master. But it could discharge three arrows in the time a French archer with his crossbow fired just one. Its arrows pierced all but the heaviest armor. The English victories took a heavy toll on French morale, or spirit. England, it seemed, was likely to bring all of France under its control. Then, in what seemed like a miracle to the French, their fortunes were reversed.

Frederick II

Barbarossa's grandson, Frederick II, was raised in Sicily, a rich island kingdom in the Mediterranean. Frederick was bright and well educated. An able but arrogant leader, he was willing to use any means to achieve his ends. As Holy Roman emperor, Frederick spent little time in Germany. Instead, he pursued his ambitions in Italy, clashing repeatedly and unsuccessfully with several popes. Like his grandfather, Frederick also tried but failed to subdue the cities of northern Italy.

What was one way the histories of medieval Poland and Hungary were similar? A. Both had been powerful Roman Catholic kingdoms that were conquered by different ethnic groups. B. Both became the ancestors of the Serbs and recognized Byzantine authority. C. In both, political power gradually shifted from the nobles to the monarch. D. Both had been powerful Eastern Orthodox kingdoms that were conquered by the Mongols.

Both had been powerful Roman Catholic Kingdoms that were conquered by different ethnic groups

Jews Settle in Eastern Europe

By about 1100, Jews had begun to settle in Eastern Europe. Settlements were probably organized by merchants. Jews carried on trade along routes that connected what is today Poland, Hungary, and the Balkans. In the late Middle Ages, Eastern Europe had become a refuge for Jews. Christians in Western Europe launched attacks on Jewish communities during the Crusades and the Black Death. To escape persecution, Jews fled east. As monarchs centralized power in England, France, and Spain, they expelled Jews from their lands. These groups, too, migrated eastward. A growing number of Jews settled in Poland. By 1264, Jews had gained a charter, or official document, from Prince Boleslaw of Krakov. The charter protected the rights of Jews in his territory. Over the next 500 years, other Polish towns gave shelter to Jews. By about 1650, about 500,000 Jews lived in Poland and Lithuania, the largest population of Jews in Europe. During this period, Poland became a cultural and spiritual center for Jews. Although some Polish leaders encouraged Jews to settle in their lands, Jews still faced persecution throughout Eastern Europe. Jewish merchants and scholars contributed to the economic and cultural development of Poland and other parts of Eastern Europe where they settled. Owing to their ties with Jewish communities abroad, Jewish merchants were very successful in European and overseas trade. Merchants often mastered many languages, including Arabic. Educated Jews had studied Greek and Latin as well as Hebrew. Jews expelled from Spain in 1492 brought a large range of skills to their new homes.

Early Universities

By the 1000s, schools had sprung up around the great cathedrals to train the clergy. Some of these cathedral schools evolved into the first universities. They were organized like guilds, with charters to protect the rights of members and set standards for training. As early as the 900s, Salerno in Italy had a respected medical school. Bologna's university, set up in 1158, became famous for legal studies. Paris and Oxford founded universities in the later 1100s. In the next century, other cities rushed to organize universities. Students often traveled from one university to another to study different subjects. Medieval universities brought prestige and profit to the cities in which they were located. Local merchants provided students with housing, food, clothing, and entertainment. But students could also create problems for university communities. The priest Jacques de Vitry complained, "They were always fighting and engaging in scuffles."

The Rise of Medieval Universities

By the 1100s, Europe was experiencing dynamic changes. No longer was everyone preoccupied with the daily struggle to survive. A more reliable food supply and the revival of trade and growth of towns were signs of increased prosperity. As economic and political conditions improved in the High Middle Ages, the need for education expanded. The Church wanted better-educated clergy. Royal rulers also needed literate men for their growing bureaucracies. By acquiring an education, the sons of wealthy townspeople might hope to qualify for high positions in the Church or with royal governments.

Contributions in the Arts

Byzantine artists made unique contributions, especially in religious art and architecture, that influenced Western Styles Icons, images designed to evoke the presence of God, gave viewers a sense of personal contact with the sacred. Mosaics brought scenes from the Bible to life. In architecture, Byzantine palaces and churches blended Greek, Roman, Persian, and other Middle Eastern styles.

Preserving and Spreading Knowledge

Byzantine scholars preserved the classic works of Ancient Greece and Rome In addition, they produced their own great books, especially in the field of history. Like the Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides, Byzantine historians were mostly concerned with writing about Teri now times. Procopius, an advisor to the general Belisario, chronicled the Byzantine campaign against Persia. In his Secret History, Procopius savagely criticized the Emperor Justinian and the Empress Theodora He called the emperor "boy an evil-doer and easily led into evil.. never of his own accord speaking the truth." Anna Comnena is considered by many scholars to be the Western world;s first important female historian. They took valuable Greek manuscripts to the West, along with their knowledge of Greek and Byzantine culture

Kiev

Capital of Medieval Russia —present day Ukraine

How did new knowledge based on Aristotle and other Greek thinkers pose a challenge to Christian scholars? A. Christians believed that the new knowledge was based on faulty evidence. B. Christians accepted many ideas on faith rather than by using reason. C. The Church said that the popes were greater philosophers than the Greeks. D. The Church decreed that all new knowledge was heretical and dangerous.

Christians accepted many ideas on faith rather than by using reason

Which statement best summarizes the effect of geography on Eastern Europe? A. Invading armies most strongly influenced the different parts of the region. B. Russia was the strongest influence in each of the different regions. C. Rivers had little influence on which parts of the region were influenced by specific foreign cultures. D. Different parts of the region were most influenced by cultures that had easiest access to them.

Different parts of the region were most influenced by cultures that had easiest access to them.

Slavs and Vikings

During Roman times, migrating Slavic peoples expanded into southern Russia. Like the Germanic people who pushed into Western Europe, the Slavs had no political organization more complex than the clan. They lived in small villages, farmed, and traded along the rivers connecting the Baltic in the north to the Black Sea in the south. In the 700s and 800s, while some Viking leaders pushed into Western Europe, others steered their long ships out of Scandinavia into Russia. These Vikings, whom the Russians later called Varangians, traveled south along the rivers, trading with and collecting tribute, or forced payment, from the Slavs. The Vikings also conducted a thriving trade with Constantinople. Located at the heart of this trade was the city of Kiev, which would later become the center of the first Russian state. Within a few generations, the Varangians who had settled among the Slavs were absorbed into the local culture. Viking names like Helga and Waldemar became the Slavic names Olga and Vladimir.

Parliament Develos

During the 1200s, English rulers often called on the Great Council for advice. Eventually, this council evolved into Parliament, which later became England's legislature. As Parliament acquired a larger role in government, it helped unify England. In 1295, King Edward I summoned Parliament to approve money for his wars in France. "What touches all," he declared, "should be approved by all." He had representatives of the "common people" join with the lords and clergy. The "commons" included two knights from each county and representatives of the towns. Much later, this assembly became known as the Model Parliament because it set up the framework for England's legislature. In time, Parliament developed into a two-house body: the House of Lords with nobles and high clergy and the House of Commons with knights and middle-class citizens. Over the centuries, Parliament gained the crucial "power of the purse": the right to approve any new taxes. With that power, Parliament could insist that the monarch meet its demands before voting for taxes. In this way, it could check, or limit, the power of the monarch.

Serbia

During the 600s, South Slavs settled in the mountainous Balkans. Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, and other Slavic peoples in the Balkans had different histories during the Middle Ages. The Serbs accepted Orthodox Christianity. By the late 1100s, they set up their own state, which reached its height under Stefan Dusan (steh vahn doo shahn). He battled the Byzantine empire and conquered Macedonia in the 1300s. Yet Dusan encouraged Byzantine culture and even modeled his law code on that of Justinian. Dusan's successors lacked his political gifts, however, and Serbia could not withstand the advance of Ottoman Turks. At the battle of Kosovo in 1389, Serbs fought to the death, a memory still honored by their descendants. During almost 500 years of Ottoman rule, Serbs preserved a sense of their own identity.

Early Kingdoms of Eastern Europe

During the Middle Ages, wars constantly shifted boundaries in Eastern Europe. Sometimes strong empires absorbed national groups. Alliances or royal marriages might bind others together. The histories of three kingdoms—Poland, Hungary, and Serbia—illustrate the shifting fortunes that the peoples of Eastern Europe faced.

Women and Education

During the Middle Ages, women were expected to pursue their "natural" gifts at home—raising children, managing the household, and doing needlework. Only men were expected to seek an education or write books. Women were not allowed to attend universities. This exclusion seriously affected their lives. Since most did not even attend school, they were deprived of the mental stimulation that was an important part of an educated person's life. Without a university education, women could not become doctors, lawyers, or church officials. Despite restrictions, a few women did get an education. Most convents educated girls. Some nuns became scholars and writers. Still, women like Christine de Pisan (duh pee zahn) were the exceptions. In The City of Ladies, she asks whether women are less capable of learning and understanding, as men insist, and a character replies.

Moscow Surpasses Kiev

During the Mongol period, the princes of Moscow steadily increased their power. Their success was due in part to the city's location near important river trade routes. They also used their positions as tribute collectors for the Mongols to subdue neighboring towns. When the head of the Russian Orthodox Church made Moscow his capital, the city became Russia's religious center as well as its political center. As Mongol power declined, the princes of Moscow took on a new role as defenders of Russia against foreign rule. In 1380, they rallied other Russians and defeated the Golden Horde at the battle of Kulikovo (koo lih koh vuh). Although the Mongols continued their terrifying raids, their strength was much reduced.

English Kings Expand Their Power

During the early Middle Ages, Angles, Saxons, and Vikings invaded and settled in England. Although feudalism emerged in England, as it did elsewhere in Europe, English monarchs generally kept their kingdoms united.

Feudal Monarchs Begin to Centralize Power

During the early Middle Ages, hundreds of feudal nobles ruled over territories of varying size. Feudal nobles had their own courts and armies and collected their own taxes. Most feudal lords acknowledged a king or other overlord, but royal rulers had little power. The Church, too, was a center of power with its own laws, system of justice, and methods of raising money. Both nobles and the Church could at times have as much power as a monarch. From about 1000 to 1300, sometimes called the High Middle Ages, the balance of power slowly shifted. Feudal monarchs began to exert royal authority over their nobles and the Church. Some feudal monarchs succeeded in centralizing power and built the framework for nation-states such as Britain and France. (A nation-state refers to an independent political unit that has a single government and usually shares a common culture and history.) Monarchs used various means to centralize power. First, they sought to extend royal law and justice over their kingdoms. To do so, they had to crush the power of rival courts of justice run by feudal nobles and the Church. To provide efficient government and a steady source of income, feudal monarchs set up government bureaucracies that administered justice and taxation. With a larger income, monarchs could afford to support a standing army, rather than rely on the military service of their nobles. The growth of towns and the money economy also strengthened royal rulers. Townspeople in the middle class often turned to monarchs, rather than nobles, who could ensure peace that was necessary for successful commerce.

A Mix of Peoples

During the early Middle Ages, various groups of Slavs migrated into Eastern Europe. The West Slavs filtered into present-day Poland and the Czech and Slovak republics. The South Slavs occupied the Balkans, where they became some of the ancestors of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. Other ethnic groups settled in the Balkans. (An ethnic group is a group of people who share the same language and cultural heritage.) Waves of Asian peoples migrated into Eastern Europe, among them the Huns, Avars, Bulgars, Khazars, and Magyars. Vikings and other Germanic peoples added to the mix.

The King Sets Up the Estates General

During this struggle with the pope, Philip rallied French support by setting up the Estates General in 1302. This body had representatives from all three estates, or classes of French society: clergy, nobles, and townspeople. Although later French kings consulted the Estates General, it never gained the power of the purse or otherwise served as a balance to royal power.

Migrations Increase Diversity

Eastern Europe has long been a crossroads and buffer. Many peoples migrated into the region, which had no difficult geographic barriers such as high mountains or wide deserts. As a result, Eastern Europe today includes a wealth of languages and cultures. Often, migrating peoples and even invaders stopped their advances in Eastern Europe. By absorbing waves of newcomers, Eastern Europe served as a barrier protecting Western Europe.

Which statement best summarizes an important cause of the Hundred Years' War? A. The desire of monarchs for larger armies and better technology led England and France to war. B. The desire of England to punish Joan of Arc led England to invade France. C. Economic rivalry led England and France to war. D. The need of the French Parliament for more revenue led French generals to attack England.

Economic rivalry led England and France to war

Holy Roman Empire

Empire of west Central Europe from 962 to 186, comprising present-day Germany and neighboring lands

Rival Powers: England and France

English rulers had battled for centuries to hold on to the French lands of their Norman ancestors. But French kings were intent on extending their own power in France. When Edward III of England claimed the French crown in 1337, war erupted anew between these rival powers. Once fighting started, economic rivalry and a growing sense of national pride made it hard for either side to give up the struggle.

Learning for Children

Few children in the Middle Ages received any education. At home, and perhaps in the parish church, they learned basic Christian beliefs. Overall, education for most children was informal. They learned by doing. Within the family, they were assigned tasks appropriate to their age. Older children looked after younger ones. Children often took on demanding tasks in the fields or towns where they lived. They carried heavy loads, cleared land, or learned skilled trades if they were apprenticed out by their families.

The Magna Carta

Finally, John angered his own nobles with oppressive taxes and other abuses of power. In 1215, a group of rebellious barons cornered John and forced him to sign the Magna Carta, or great charter. In this document, the king affirmed a long list of feudal rights. Besides protecting their own privileges, the barons included a few clauses recognizing the rights of townspeople and the Church. The Magna Carta contained two very important ideas that in the long run would shape political and legal traditions in England. First, it asserted that the nobles had certain rights. Over time, these rights that had been granted to nobles were extended to all English citizens. Second, the Magna Carta made it clear that the monarch must obey the law. Among other clauses in the Magna Carta that would have lasting impact were those that protected freemen from arbitrary arrest, imprisonment, and other legal actions, except "by legal judgment of his peers or by the law of the land." This clause would much later become the basis of the right we know today as due process of law, which safeguarded the legal rights of the individual. Over the centuries, the English would rely on the Magna Carta to develop other political and legal ideas and traditions. In the 1600s, the idea of protecting people from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment would evolve into the right of habeas corpus, the principle that no person can be held in prison without first being charged with a specific crime. In the Magna Carta, King John also had to agree not to raise new taxes without first consulting his Great Council of lords and clergy. Many centuries later, American colonists would claim that those words meant that any taxation without representation was unjust. In 1215, though, neither the king nor his lords could have imagined such an idea.

Papal. Power Begins to Decline

For almost a century after Innocent's death, popes pressed their claim to supremacy. During this period, though, the French and English monarchies grew stronger. In 1296, Philip IV of France successfully challenged Pope Boniface VIII on the issue of taxing the clergy. After Philip engineered the election of a French pope, the papacy entered a period of decline.

What were two effects of the Holy Roman emperors' attempts to subdue Italy? A. the Holy Roman Empire disappeared; Italian cities gained economic power B. German nobles grew more independent; Italy remained in disarray C. Frederick Barbarossa built an empire from the Baltic to the Adriatic; Spain took control in Italy D. Italian nobles grew more independent; Germany remained in disarray

German nobles grew more independent; Italy remained in disarray

We know that religion was central to the art and architecture of the Middle Ages because A. the subjects of all paintings had to be approved by the Church. B. Gothic cathedrals were the major architectural advancement. C. religious icons were in common use. D. the Church dictated the themes and subjects in vernacular poetry.

Gothic cathedrals were the major architectural advancement

Which actions did French kings take to increase royal power? A. granted town charters, introduced national tax, extended royal lands B. formed the Estates General, eliminated bureaucracy, granted town charters C. won support of the Church, built bureaucracy, antagonized the middle class D. opposed the Church, eliminated bureaucracy, extended royal lands

Granted town charters, introduced national tax, extended royal lands

Gregory Undertakes Reforms

Gregory was determined to make the Church independent of secular rulers. To achieve this goal, he banned the practice of lay investiture. Under this practice, the emperor or another lay person (a person who is not a member of the clergy) "invested," or presented, bishops with the ring and staff that symbolized their office. Only the pope, said Gregory, had the right to appoint and install bishops in office.

How did William increase royal power in England? A. He kept land for himself. B. He compromised with his vassals. C. He executed his enemies. D. He freed the serfs.

He kept land for himself

A Tragic Conflict with the Church

Henry's efforts to extend royal power over the clergy led to a bitter dispute with the Church. Henry claimed the right to try clergy in royal courts. Thomas Becket, the archbishop of Canterbury and once a close friend of Henry, fiercely opposed the king on this issue. The conflict simmered for years. At last, Henry's fury exploded. "What cowards I have brought up in my court," he cried. "Who will rid me of this meddlesome priest?" Four hot-headed knights took Henry at his word. In 1170, they murdered Archbishop Thomas Becket in his own cathedral. Henry denied any part in the attack. Still, to make peace with the Church, he eased his attempts to regulate the clergy. Meanwhile, Becket was honored as a martyr and declared a saint. Pilgrims flocked to his tomb at Canterbury, where miracles were said to occur.

Hungary

Hungary was settled by the Magyars, who had raided Europe from the Asian steppes. About 970, the Magyar adopted Roman Catholic Christianity. In the Middle Ages, Hungary was larger than it is today. Its rulers controlled present-day Slovakia, Croatia, and parts of Romania. Like King John of England, the Hungarian king was forced to sign a charter recognizing nobles' rights. Known as the Golden Bull of 1222, it strictly limited royal power. The Mongols overran Hungary in 1241, killing as much as half its population. These invaders soon withdrew, so the Mongol invasion did not have the lasting impact on Hungary that it had on Russia. The expansion of the Ottoman Turks, though, did end Hungarian independence in 1526. Later, the Austrian Hapsburgs replaced the Ottomans as rulers of Hungary.

The Norman Conquest of England

In 1066, however, the Anglo-Saxon king, Edward, died without an heir. His death triggered a power struggle that changed the course of English history. A council of nobles chose Edward's brother-in-law Harold to rule. But William, Duke of Normandy, in what is present-day France, also claimed the throne. The answer to the rival claims lay on the battlefield. In France, William raised an army and won the support of the pope. He then sailed across the English Channel to England. At the Battle of Hastings, William and his Norman knights triumphed over Harold . William the Conqueror, as he was now called, became king of England on Christmas Day 1066.

Philip Augustus Increases Power and Prosperity

In 1179, Philip II became king of France. Called Philip Augustus, he was a shrewd and able ruler. He strengthened royal government in many ways. Instead of appointing nobles to government jobs, he used paid middle-class officials who owed their loyalty to him. He granted charters to many new towns and introduced a new national tax. Philip also quadrupled royal land holdings. Through trickery, diplomacy, and war, he gained control of English-ruled lands in Normandy, Anjou, and elsewhere. He then began to take over southern France. At the pope's request, he sent knights to suppress a heresy among the Albigensians (al buh jen see unz) in the south and then added this vast area to his domain. Before his death in 1223, Philip had become the most powerful ruler in Europe.

Joan of Arc

In 1429, a 17-year-old peasant woman, Joan of Arc, appeared at the court of Charles VII, the uncrowned king of France. She told him that God had sent her to save France. She convinced the desperate French king to let her lead his army against the English.

Ivan the Terrible

In 1547, Ivan IV, grandson of Ivan the Great, became the first Russian ruler officially crowned tsar. He further centralized royal power by limiting the privileges of the old boyar families and granting land to nobles in exchange for military or other service. At a time when the manor system was fading in Western Europe, Ivan IV introduced new laws that tied Russian serfs to the land. About 1560, Ivan IV became increasingly unstable. He trusted no one and became subject to violent fits of rage. In a moment of madness, he even killed his own son. He organized the oprichniki (ah preech nee kee), agents of terror who enforced the tsar's will. Dressed in black robes and mounted on black horses, they slaughtered rebellious boyars and sacked towns where people were suspected of disloyalty. Their saddles were decorated with a dog's head and a broom, symbols of their constant watchfulness to sweep away their master's enemies. The tsar's awesome power, and the ways he used it, earned him the title Ivan the Terrible. When he died in 1584, he left a land seething with rebellion. But he had introduced Russia to a tradition of extreme absolute power that would shape Russia into modern times. was the grandson of Ivan the Great. He continued to centralize power in his own hands, developing a brutal secret group that terrorized members of the hereditary nobility, or boyars. His eventual insanity contributed to his name "the Terrible."

France under the Capetians

In 987, these feudal nobles elected Hugh Capet, the count of Paris, to fill the vacant French throne. They may have chosen him because they thought he was too weak to pose a threat to them. Hugh's own lands around Paris were smaller than those of many of his vassals. Nevertheless, Hugh and his heirs slowly increased royal power. First, they made the throne hereditary, passing it from father to son. The Capetian dynasty lasted for 300 years, making the kingdom more stable. Next, they added to their lands by playing rival nobles against each other. They also won the support of the Church. Perhaps most important, the Capetians built an effective bureaucracy. Government officials collected taxes and imposed royal law over the king's lands. By establishing order, they increased their prestige and gained the backing of the new middle class.

Social Upheaval

In Europe, the plague brought terror and bewilderment, as people had no way to stop the disease. Some people turned to magic and witchcraft for cures. Others plunged into wild pleasures, believing they would soon die anyway. Still others saw the plague as God's punishment. They beat themselves with whips to show that they repented their sins. Normal life broke down as people fled cities or hid in their homes to avoid contracting the plague from neighbors and relatives. Some Christians blamed Jews for the plague, charging unjustly that they had poisoned the wells to cause the disease. In the resulting hysteria, thousands of Jews were murdered.

Henry Repents

In January 1077, he presented himself to the pope as a repentant sinner. Gregory knew that Henry was just trying to save his throne. But according to tradition and Church law, the pope, as a priest, had to forgive a confessed sinner. Gregory then lifted the order of excommunication, and Henry returned to Germany to subdue his rebellious nobles. In later years, he took revenge on Gregory when he led an army to Rome and forced the pope into exile.

Aristotle ideas Challenge Christian Thinkers

In the 1100s, these new translations were reaching Western Europe. There, they set off a revolution in the world of learning. The writings of the ancient Greeks posed a challenge to Christian scholars. Aristotle taught that people should use reason to discover basic truths. Christians, however, accepted many ideas on faith. They believed that the Church was the final authority on all questions. How could they use the logic of Aristotle without undermining their Christian faith? Christian scholars, called scholastics, tried to resolve the conflict between faith and reason. Their method, known as scholasticism, used reason to support Christian beliefs. Scholastics studied the works of the Muslim philosopher Averroës (uh veer uh weez) and the Jewish rabbi Maimonides (my mahn uh deez). These thinkers, too, used logic to resolve the conflict between faith and reason.

Church Power Reaches It's Peak

In the 1200s, the Roman Catholic Church reached the height of its political power. Reforming popes like Gregory VII claimed the right to depose kings and emperors. Gregory's successors greatly expanded papal power. In addition, a more powerful Church was able to spread its influence to new areas, increasing religious unity in Europe.

Ancient Learning is Brought to Europe

In the Middle East, Muslim scholars had translated the works of Aristotle and other Greek thinkers into Arabic. Their translations and commentaries on these ancient texts spread across the Muslim world. In Muslim Spain, Jewish and Christian scholars translated these works into Latin, the language of Christian European scholars.

The Arrival

In the autumn of 1347, a fleet of Genoese trading ships loaded with grain left the Black Sea port of Caffa and set sail for Messina, Sicily. By midvoyage, sailors were falling sick and dying. Soon after the ships tied up at Messina, townspeople, too, began to fall sick and die. Within months, the disease that Europeans called the Black Death was raging through Italy. By 1348, it had reached Spain and France. From there, it ravaged the rest of Europe. One in three people died—a death rate worse than in any war in history.

The Holy Roman Empire

In the early Middle Ages, Charlemagne had brought much of what is today the nation of Germany under his rule. After his death, these German lands dissolved into a patchwork of separate states ruled by counts and dukes. In time, the dukes of Saxony began to extend their power over neighboring German lands. In 936, Duke Otto I of Saxony took the title King of Germany. Like other feudal monarchs, he and his successors set out to increase royal power. In doing so, they came into fierce conflict with the Church. The longest and most destructive of these power struggles pitted Otto's successors, who ruled over lands called the Holy Roman Empire, against the pope in Rome.

Diverse Cultural Influences

In the early Middle Ages, Slavs migrated into Eastern Europe. Like the Germanic peoples who settled Western Europe, the Slavs were a diverse group of tribes. Other peoples also migrated into Eastern Europe, enriching its culture.

Dante's Journey

In the middle of the journey of life, I found myself in a dark wood, where the straight way was lost." So begins the Divine Comedy, written in the early 1300s by the Italian poet Dante Alighieri (dahn tay ah leeg yeh ree). The poem takes the reader on an imaginary journey into hell and purgatory, where souls await forgiveness. Finally, Dante describes a vision of heaven.

Romanesque Buildings

In the year 1000, monasteries and towns were building solid stone churches that reflected Roman influences. These Romanesque churches looked like fortresses with thick walls and towers. The roofs were so heavy that they required massive stone walls with no windows or only tiny slits of windows. Larger windows, builders feared, would weaken the support for the roof. As a result, the interiors of Romanesque churches were dark and dimly lit.

What was one of the economic impacts of the Black Death? A. increase in prices B. overproduction of goods C. decreased wages D. higher numbers of fields converted to farming

Increase in prices

How did Henry II's belief that his royal courts had the right to try clergymen accused of crimes affect his relationship with the Church? A. It relaxed tensions because the Church was unwilling to try clergymen. B. It increased tensions because Henry successfully outlawed Church courts in England. C. It caused conflict because both Church and monarch claimed the same powers. D. It made them stronger allies because they could work together to ensure justice.

It caused conflict because both Church and monarch claimed the same powers

How did the second Great Schism help lead to the end of medieval Europe? A. It led reformers such as Hus and Wycliffe to leave the Church. B. It created fertile ground for the Black Death to spread. C. It caused people to question the authority of the Church. D. It provided a reason for the Church to translate the Bible into many languages

It caused people to question the authority of the church

How was the Church an obstacle to monarchs who wanted more power? A. It challenged monarchs' attempts to control the clergy. B. It promoted the development of individual rights. C. It incited nobles to revolt against monarchs. D. It sent armies against the monarchies of Europe.

It challenged monarchs' attempts to control the clergy

Why was Mongol rule over Russia significant? A. It caused Russia to look to China for cultural and political influences. B. It cut off Russia from Western Europe at a time of great scientific progress. C. It prompted Russia to close itself off from the rest of Asia. D. It brought Russia under the influence of Islam both religiously and politically.

It cut off Russia from Western Europe at a time of great scientific progress.

Why was Thomas Aquinas's argument that knowledge gained through reason was not in conflict with knowledge born of faith significant? A. It led to the translation of ancient writings into Latin. B. It led to the growth of scientific inquiry about the natural world and processes. C. It permitted the Church to argue that Aristotle was, in fact, an early Christian thinker. D. It allowed the Church to dedicate itself to scientific exploration.

It led to the growth of scientific inquiry about the natural world and processes

How did the development of universities affect members of the growing middle class? A. It made it more difficult for poor people to enter the middle class. B. It provided them an opportunity for advancement. C. It guaranteed them a place in the royal court. D. It forced many to choose between the military and an education.

It provided them an opportunity for advancement

How did Byzantine Christianity influence Russian Orthodox Christianity? A. It set the pattern for good relations with Muslim empires. B. It set the pattern for a church hierarchy led by a pope. C. It set the pattern for the development of an absolute ruler. D. It set the pattern for close ties between Church and state.

It set the pattern for close ties between Church and state.

How did the Magna Carta affect the power of the English king? A. It strengthened the king's power. B. It weakened the king's power. C. It had no effect on the king's power. D. It closely linked the king's power to the power of the nobles.

It weakened the King's power

Dante Alighieri

Italian poet who wrote the Divine Comedy

How did Eastern Europe become home to so many ethnic groups? A. Its geography isolated different groups from each other. B. Its political development made it open to immigration. C. Its geography and location facilitated migration. D. Its location caused the development of cosmopolitan cities.

Its geography and location facilitated migration.

Kiev's Golden Age Under Yaroslav

Kiev enjoyed a golden age under Yaroslav the Wise, who ruled from 1019 to 1054. To improve justice, he issued a written law code. A scholar, he translated Greek works into his language. He arranged marriages between his children and the families of royal rulers in Western Europe. Kiev declined in the 1100s, as rival families battled for the throne. Also, Russian trading cities like Kiev declined because Byzantine prosperity was fading. As Russian princes continued to feud among themselves, Mongol invaders from central Asia struck the final blow.

King John

King of England who raised taxes and punished his enemies without a trial. He is best known for being forced to sign the Magna Carta.

Developing New Traditions of Government

Later English rulers repeatedly clashed with nobles and the Church as they tried to raise taxes or to impose royal authority over traditional feudal rights. Out of those struggles evolved traditions of government that would have great influence on the modern world.

Which actions did Innocent III take to increase the power of the Church? A. eliminated unjust Church courts, launched a crusade against the Albigensians B. changed the way that Church officials were chosen, began to tax clergy C. began to tax clergy, extended the Papal States D. launched a crusade against the Albigensians, extended the Papal States

Launched a crusade against the Albigensian extended the Papal States

Otto the First Becomes emperor

Like Charlemagne, Otto I worked closely with the Church. He appointed bishops to top government jobs. He also took an army into Italy to help the pope defeat rebellious Roman nobles. In 962, a grateful pope crowned Otto emperor of the German states of Central Europe. Later, Otto's successors took the title Holy Roman emperor—"holy" because they were crowned by the pope, and "Roman" because they saw themselves as heirs to the emperors of ancient Rome.

Conflicts with the Pope

Louis's grandson, Philip IV, ruthlessly extended royal power. Always pressed for money, he tried to collect new taxes from the clergy. These efforts led to a clash with Pope Boniface VIII. Declaring that "God has set popes over kings and kingdoms," the pope forbade Philip to tax the clergy without papal consent. Philip threatened to arrest any clergy who did not pay. As their quarrel escalated, Philip sent troops to capture Boniface. The pope escaped, but he died soon afterward. Shortly after, in 1305, a Frenchman was elected pope. Four years later, the pope moved the papal court to Avignon (ah vee nyohn), just outside the southern border of France. There, French rulers could exercise more control over the Church in their kingdom. The move to Avignon later sparked a crisis in the Church when a rival pope was elected in Rome. The rival popes each claimed to be the true leader of the Church.

The Geography of Eastern Europe

Many peoples and nations flourished in Eastern Europe over the centuries. In part because of its location, the region was often shaped by migration and foreign conquest.

Paintings and Tapestries

Medieval artists created other works, including splendid altarpieces that decorated the space behind the church altar. Altarpieces could be paintings, relief sculptures, or both. Like stained-glass windows, they illustrated Christian subjects and were designed to inspire devotion among the faithful. Most altarpieces hung in churches, although wealthy families might have a chapel and altarpiece in their homes. Both churches and the houses of the rich were decorated with "paintings" in thread. Stone churches and castles were cold, drafty places. Tapestries, or woven wall hangings, added color and warmth. The famous Bayeux Tapestry is an embroidery piece that illustrates in detail the story of William the Conqueror and the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Although no one knows who wove it or exactly when, it has been used to learn details of the event.

Poland

Missionaries brought Roman Catholicism to the West Slavs of Poland in the 900s. Within a century, the first Polish king was crowned. To survive, Poland often had to battle Germans, Russians, and Mongols. Poland's greatest age came after a royal marriage united Poland and Lithuania in 1386. Under the Jagiello (yahg yeh loh) dynasty, Poland-Lithuania was the largest state in Europe. Its empire stretched from the Baltic to the Black Sea. Unlike in Russia or Western Europe, where royal rulers limited the power of nobles, Polish nobles gradually gained power at the expense of the monarch. They met in a diet, or assembly, where the vote of a single noble could block the passage of a law. This liberum veto, or "free veto," made it hard for the government to take decisive action. Without a strong central government, Poland-Lithuania declined. It enjoyed a final moment of glory in 1683 when the Polish king Jan Sobieski (yahn soh byeh skee) broke the Ottoman siege of Vienna. In the next century, however, Poland and Lithuania were gobbled up by ambitious neighbors.

Geographic Features Shape Eastern Europe

Much of the region lies on the great European Plain that links up with the steppes of southern Russia. Its main rivers, such as the Danube and the Vistula (vish chuh luh), flow either south into the Black Sea or north into the Baltic Sea.

The Hundred Year's War

On top of the disasters of famine, plague, and economic decline came a long, destructive war. Between 1337 and 1453, England and France engaged in a series of conflicts, known as the Hundred Years' War. The fighting devastated France and drained England.

William Exerts Firm Control

Once in power, William exerted firm control over his new lands. Like other feudal monarchs, he granted fiefs to the Church and to his Norman lords, or barons, but he also kept a large amount of land for himself. He monitored who built castles and where. He required every vassal to swear first allegiance to him rather than to any other feudal lord. To learn about his kingdom, William had a complete census of its land and livestock taken in 1086. The result was the Domesday Book (pronounced "doomsday"), which listed every castle, field, and pigpen in England. As the title suggests, the survey was as thorough and inevitable as doomsday, believed to be God's final day of judgment that no one could escape. Information in the Domesday Book helped William and later English monarchs build an efficient system of tax collection. The Domesday Book provides evidence that William the Conqueror was able and carful administrator of his new kingdom

Louis IX: A Model Monarch

Perhaps the most admired French ruler of this time was Louis IX, grandson of Philip Augustus. Louis embodied the ideal of the medieval monarch—he was generous, noble, and devoted to justice and the rules of chivalry. A deeply religious man, Louis pursued religious goals that Christians admired at the time. He persecuted heretics and Jews and led thousands of French knights in two wars against Muslims. Within 30 years of his death, the Church declared him a saint. Louis did much to improve royal government. Like Charlemagne, he sent out traveling officials to check on local administrators. He expanded the royal courts, outlawed private wars, and ended serfdom in his personal domain. To ensure justice, he even heard cases himself. His enormous personal prestige helped create a strong national feeling among his subjects. By the time of his death in 1270, France was emerging as an efficient centralized monarchy.

Which is the best example of the way medieval literature reflects its culture? A. Chaucer's Canterbury Tales reflects the sadness and outrage of English people at the murder of St. Thomas Becket. B. Dante's Divine Comedy reflects the humor and joking of everyday life in the Middle Ages. C. Poem of the Cid is a thrilling war tale that reflects the Christian values shared by most Europeans of many cultures. D. Song of Roland reflects the medieval love of music and song, especially love stories. Check Answer

Poem of the Cid is a thrilling war tale that reflects the Christian values shared by most Europeans of many cultures.

Which is an example of a nation benefiting from its policy of religious tolerance? A. South Slavs settled in the Balkans, which became a unified country. B. Ottoman rulers issued a charter protecting the liberties of Jews, who helped them occupy the Balkans. C. Poland welcomed Jews, who contributed to the country's economic and cultural development. D. German knights and missionaries brought Eastern Orthodox Christianity to Poland and Hungary.

Poland welcomed Jews, who contributed to the country's economic and cultural development.

Which of the following items is one reason why Eastern Europe became a refuge for Jews? A. Eastern Europe was at the end of a migration route from Spain. B. Poland's government established a policy of toleration toward Jews. C. Hungary needed people to settle under-populated areas. D. The Mongols drove Jewish people from Russia.

Poland's government established a policy of toleration toward Jews.

The Emperor Responds

Pope Gregory's ban brought an angry response from the Holy Roman emperor, Henry IV. He argued that bishops held their lands as royal fiefs. Since he was their overlord, Henry felt entitled to give them the symbols of office. The feud heated up as the two men exchanged insulting letters. Meanwhile, rebellious German princes undermined Henry by supporting the pope. In 1076, Gregory excommunicated Henry, freeing Henry's subjects from their allegiance to the emperor. The pope then headed north to crown a new emperor. Faced with revolts, Henry was forced to make peace.

Poes Assert Their Power

Pope Innocent III, who took office in 1198, embodied the triumph of the Church. As head of the Church, Innocent III claimed supremacy over all other rulers. The pope, he said, stands "between God and man, lower than God but higher than men, who judges all and is judged by no one." Innocent III clashed with all the powerful rulers of his day, and he usually won. As you have read, when King John of England dared to appoint an archbishop of Canterbury without the pope's approval, Innocent excommunicated the king and placed his kingdom under interdict. Innocent ordered the same punishment for France when Philip II tried unlawfully to annul, or invalidate, his marriage. The Holy Roman emperor Frederick II also felt the wrath of the powerful pope. In 1209, Innocent, aided by Philip II, launched a brutal crusade against the Albigensians in southern France. The Albigensians wanted to purify the Church and return to the simpler ways of early Christianity. The Church saw them as heretics because they rejected Catholic beliefs and rituals. Knights from all over western Europe took part in the fighting. Tens of thousands of people were slaughtered in the Albigensian Crusade. Innocent strengthened papal power within the Church as well. He extended the Papal States, reformed the Church courts, and changed the way that Church officials were chosen. Finally, he called a council that issued decrees that justified the pope's new power.

Diverse Religion Influences

Powerful neighboring states brought different religions to the region. Byzantine missionaries spread Eastern Orthodox Christianity throughout the Balkans. German knights and missionaries from the West brought Roman Catholic Christianity to Poland, Hungary, the Czech area, and the western Balkans. In the 1300s, the Ottomans invaded the Balkans and brought Islam to the region.

Habeas corpus

Principle that a person cannot be held in prison without first being charged with a specific crime

What became a significant threat to Church power as a result of the Great Western Schism? A. Reformers began to challenge the traditional role of the Church. B. The political factions backing different popes began to exert more influence over Church activities. C. The moral authority of the Church weakened. D. The Bible was translated into English.

Reformers began to challenge the traditional role of the Church.

Early Russia

Russia's early history was similar to that of much of Western Europe. Migrating peoples settled on the land, which was fragmented into many small kingdoms. Early Russia included a collection of small cities that were in time united into an empire

Rivers

Russia's network of rivers provided transportation for both people and goods. The Dneiper (nee puhr) and Volga rivers became productive trade routes. Major rivers ran from north to south, linking Russia early on to the advanced Byzantine world to the south.

Science and Mathematics

Scientific works, translated from Arabic and Greek, also reached Europe from Spain and the Byzantine empire. Christian scholars studied Hippocrates on medicine and Euclid on geometry, along with works by Arab scientists. They saw, too, how Aristotle had used observation and experimentation to study the physical world. Yet science made little real progress in Europe in the Middle Ages because most scholars still believed that all true knowledge must fit with Church teachings. It would take many centuries before Christian thinkers changed the way they viewed the physical world. In mathematics, Europeans adopted Hindu-Arabic numerals, commonly called Arabic numerals. In fact, the Arabs had adapted these numerals from India. Hindu-Arabic numerals were much easier to use than the cumbersome system of Roman numerals that Europeans had used for centuries. In time, but long after the Middle Ages, the use of Hindu-Arabic numerals allowed both scientists and mathematicians to make extraordinary advances in their fields.

Which describes a way in which Russia's geography influenced the development of its civilization? A. Its southern steppe region allowed it to grow grain and become a leading food exporter. B. South-flowing rivers connected it economically and culturally to the Byzantine empire. C. West-flowing rivers connected it economically and culturally to Western Europe. D. The Ural Mountains and the Eurasian plain kept Russia isolated.

South-flowing rivers connected it economically and culturally to Western Europe

Who was the real ruler of the Holy Roman Empire? A. the people in each area B. the pope C. the (emperor's) vassals D. the emperor

The (emperor's) vassals

The Byzantine Heritage

The Byzantine empire contributed to the civilizations of the eastern Mediterranean and of Western Europe Byzantine civilization rose out of many traditions, blending Christian beliefs with Greek philosophy, science, and te arts. It also extended Roman achievements in engineering and law. As the medieval world expanded, so did its contacts with Byzantine civilization, and Byzantine influence radiated across Europe. Even though the Byzantine empire fell to the Ottomans in 1453, the conquerors adapted features of Byzantine government, arts, and culture

What compromise resulted from the Concordat of Worms? A. Henry IV claimed supremacy over secular rulers, and the Church was now able to grant land to vassals. B. The Church was granted the power to elect and invest bishops, but the emperor could invest them with fiefs. C. Pope Gregory VII was given the power to raise armies and collect taxes. D. It banned the practice of lay investiture.

The Church was granted the power to elect and invest bishops, but the emperor could invest them with fiefs

Divisions in the Church

The Church was unable to provide the strong leadership needed in this desperate time. In 1309, Pope Clement V had moved the papal court to Avignon outside the border of southern France. It remained there for about 70 years under French domination. This period is often called the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, referring to the time when the ancient Hebrews were held captive in Babylon. In Avignon, popes reigned over a lavish court. Critics lashed out against the worldly, pleasure-loving papacy, and anticlerical sentiment grew. Within the Church itself, reformers tried to end the "captivity."

What are two factors that probably helped isolate Russia from Western Europe? A. the Cyrillic alphabet and Olga's selection of the Byzantine Church B. the Cyrillic alphabet and Olga's selection of the Roman Catholic Church C. Its defeat of the Vikings in the 700 and 800s and the abandonment of Novgorod as its capital D. Yaroslav's written law code and his persecution of the Christian Church

The Cyrillic alphabet and Olga's selection of the Byzantine Church

What happened in France as a result of the Hundred Years' War? A. Noblemen strengthened their control over their traditional family lands. B. The French kings moved to strengthen the monarchy. C. Wealthy French merchants had more of a say in government. D. The Church extended its influence over France.

The French Kings moved to strengthen the monarchy

German Emperors Face a Challenge

The Holy Roman Emperor had the potential to be the strongest monarchy in Europe. German emperors claimed authority over much of central and eastern Europe as well as parts of France and Italy. In fact, the real rulers of these lands were the emperor's vassals— hundreds of nobles and Church officials. For German emperors, the challenge was to control their vassals. It was a challenge they never met.

The Holy Roman Empire was a vast kingdom that bordered several important bodies of water. This aided in trade as well as defense

The Holy Roman Empire was a vast kingdom that bordered several important bodies of water. This aided in trade as well as defense

German Emperors In Italy

The Holy Roman emperor Frederick I, called Frederick Barbarossa, or "Red Beard," dreamed of building an empire from the Baltic to the Adriatic. For years, he fought to bring the wealthy cities of northern Italy under his control. With equal energy, they resisted. By joining forces with the pope in the Lombard League, they finally managed to defeat Barbarossa's armies. Barbarossa did succeed, however, in arranging a marriage between his son Henry and Constance, the heiress to Sicily and southern Italy. That move entangled German emperors even more deeply in Italian affairs.

Change and Recovery

The Hundred Years' War brought many changes to the late medieval world. The longbow and cannon gave common soldiers a new importance on the battlefield and undermined the value of armored knights on horseback. Although neither nobles nor commoners knew it then, feudal society was changing and medieval Europe was coming to an end. Knights and castles were doomed to disappear. Strong monarchs needed large armies, not feudal vassals, to fight their wars. As Europe recovered from the Black Death, the population expanded, and manufacturing grew. These changes led to increased trade. Italian cities flourished as centers of trade and shipping. Europeans borrowed and developed new technologies. This recovery set the stage for further changes during the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Age of Exploration.

The Conflict with the Church Begins

The close ties between Otto and the Church held the seeds of conflict. Holy Roman emperors saw themselves as protectors of Italy and the pope. They repeatedly intervened in Italian affairs and were tempted by the growing rich cities of northern Italy. A key conflict between emperors and popes involved who would control appointments to high Church office. Like rulers in England and France, the Holy Roman emperor often appointed bishops and abbots. As popes sought to reform the Church, they tried to end such outside interference by secular rulers.

How did the Church council at Constance, Germany, settle the crisis in 1417? A. The council chose one of the three existing popes to lead the Church. B. The council divided the authority of each pope based on the region of Europe in which the pope held the papal court. C. The council voted to move the Avignon pope back to Rome. D. The council elected a new pope and gave him total authority over the Church.

The council elected a new pope and gave him total authority over the Church.

A Global Epidemic

The deadly illness was bubonic plague, a disease spread by fleas carried on rats. In the pre-modern world, rats infested ships, towns, and even the homes of the rich and powerful. Bubonic plague had broken out before in Europe, Asia, and North Africa but had subsided. One strain of the disease, though, had survived in Mongolia. In the 1200s, Mongol armies conquered much of Asia, probably setting off the new epidemic, or outbreak of rapid-spreading disease. In the early 1300s, rats spread the plague in crowded Chinese cities, killing about 35 million people there. Fleas jumped from those rats to infest the clothes and packs of traders traveling west. As a result, the disease spread from Asia to the Middle East and then to Europe.

Crisis in the Church

The late Middle Ages brought spiritual crisis, scandal, and division to the Roman Catholic Church. Many priests and monks died during the plague. Their replacements faced challenging questions. Survivors asked, "Why did God spare some and kill others?"

How did the Hundred Years' War affect the medieval structure of feudalism, in which vassals owed military service to the king? A. The vassal system became more important in winning battles and holding conquered territory for the king. B. The introduction of the longbow and cannon made the vassal system more efficient. C. The need for a larger, standing army with greater mobility made the vassal system obsolete. D. The vassals became commanders of mercenary armies paid by the king to fight.

The need for a larger, standing army with greater mobility made the vassal system obsolete

The Magna Carta was important because it established A. the principle that the monarch must obey the law. B. the limitation of the rights of nobles and freemen. C. the supremacy of the monarchy over the Church. D. a Parliament of lords and common men.

The principle that the monarch must obey the law

Location

The region called Eastern Europe refers to a wide swath of territory between German-speaking Central Europe to the west and Russia to the east. It reaches from the chilly Baltic Sea down through the plains of Poland and Hungary into the mountainous Balkan Peninsula. Often called the Balkans, this roughly triangular area juts southward into the warm Mediterranean.

The Battle for Italy

The struggle between popes and emperors moved from the battle over investiture to a battle for Italy. During the 1100s and 1200s, ambitious German emperors sought to control Italy. As they headed south across the Alps, they came into conflict not only with the pope but also with the wealthy cities of northern Italy.

Thomas Aquinas

The writings of these philosophers influenced the famous scholastic Thomas Aquinas (uh kwy nus). In a monumental work, Summa theologica, Aquinas concluded that faith and reason exist in harmony. Aquinas's work concluded that both lead to the same truth, that God rules over an orderly universe. Aquinas thus brought together Christian faith and classical Greek philosophy. Aquinas also wrote about government and natural law, or a set of unwritten moral principles based on fairness and reason. Aquinas believed that government should work for the "common good" that benefits all. He also argued that people are not obliged to obey unjust laws or the rulers who enact them. The ideas Aquinas developed about natural law, unjust laws, and rebellion influenced European philosophers in the 1600s and 1700s. Their ideas, in turn, influenced the men like Thomas Jefferson who wrote the American Declaration of Independence and others who authored the U.S. Constitution.

Which statement best describes the way Gothic cathedrals reflected the culture of the Middle Ages? A. Their dark, gloomy interiors reflected the harshness of everyday life. B. Their tapestry-covered walls reflected the lack of heating and other advanced technologies. C. Their light-filled interiors reflected the longing for religious knowledge and purity. D. Their carved and painted figures reflected the lack of knowledge about the natural world.

Their light-filled interiors reflected the longing for religious knowledge and purity

Why were Byzantine scholars so important to Western Europe? A. They promoted Arabic advances in European courts. B. They translated ancient texts into Arabic and then Latin. C. They helped preserve ancient Greek and Roman ideas. D. They made significant advances in science and mathematics.

They helped preserve ancient Greek and Roman ideas.

What was one way Ivan III and Ivan IV strengthened their authoritarian rule? A. They increased trade with Western Europe. B. They allied themselves with the Mongols. C. They limited the power of the boyars. D. They encouraged peasants to present grievances.

They limited the power of the boyars

How did epic poems reflect the culture of medieval Europe? A. They reflected the European ideal that the group was more important than the individual. B. They reflected the belief in the power of compromise and negotiation. C. They reflected the view that the common people were as important as the nobility. D. They reflected themes of loyalty and heroism that were prized in Europe.

They reflected themes of loyalty and heroism that were prized in Europe.

Three Regions

Three broad regions with different climates and resources helped shape early Russian life. The first included the northern forests, which supplied lumber for building and fuel. Fur-bearing animals attracted hunters, but poor soil and a cold, snowy climate hindered farming. Farther south lay a second zone of fertile land, where farmers settled and grew crops. This region, which includes what is today Ukraine, was home to Russia's first civilization. The fertile soil and relatively mild climate of this region would eventually make it the "breadbasket" of Russia because of the vast fields of wheat grown there. A third region, the southern steppe, is an open, treeless grassland. It offered splendid pasture for the herds and horses of nomadic peoples. With no natural barriers, the steppe was a great highway along which streams of nomads migrated.

The Black Death Spreads Across Europe

To Europeans in the mid-1300s, the end of the world seemed to have come. First, widespread crop failures brought famine and starvation. Then plague and war ravaged populations. Europe eventually recovered from these disasters. Still, the upheavals of the 1300s and 1400s marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the early modern age.

How did both townspeople and monarchs benefit from their mutual support? A. Townspeople organized court systems, while monarchs widened their support in towns. B. Townspeople improved the economy, while monarchs widened their support in towns. C. Townspeople imposed peace and unity, while monarchs decreased the size of their armies. D. Townspeople improved the economy, while monarchs widened their support among nobles.

Townspeople improved the economy, while monarchs WIDENDED their support in towns

Byzantine Influences

Trade had already brought Kiev into the Byzantine orbit. In the 800s, Constantinople sent Christian missionaries to convert the Slavs. About 863, two Greek brothers, Cyril and Methodius, adapted the Greek alphabet so they could translate the Bible into the Slavic tongue. This Cyrillic (suh ril ik) alphabet became the written script that is still used today in Russia, Ukraine, Serbia, Bulgaria, and other countries of Eastern Europe. In 957, Olga, the reigning princess of Kiev, converted to Byzantine Christianity. But it was not until the reign of Olga's grandson Vladimir that the religion spread widely. After his conversion, Vladimir married the sister of a Byzantine emperor. Soon, Greek priests arrived in Kiev to preside over the mass baptisms organized by Vladimir. With Byzantine Christianity came many changes. As Russians adopted their new written language, a class of educated Russian priests emerged. Russians adapted Byzantine religious art, music, and architecture. Byzantine domes, capped with colorful, carved "helmets," became the onion-shaped domes of Russian churches. Byzantine Christianity set the pattern for close ties between Church and state. Kievan princes, like the Byzantine emperor, controlled the Church and made it dependent on them. As the Russian Orthodox Church evolved, it remained a pillar of state power, not a rival as in Western Europe.

The Early Jury System

Under Henry II, England also developed an early jury system. When traveling justices visited an area, local officials collected a jury, or group of men sworn to speak the truth. These early juries determined which cases should be brought to trial and were the ancestors of today's grand jury. Later, another jury developed that was composed of 12 neighbors of an accused person. It was the ancestor of today's trial jury.

A Pope and an Emperor Feud

Under the reforming pope Gregory VII, the conflict between emperors burst into flames. Gregory was one of the greatest medieval popes. He was also one of the most controversial. Pope Gregory ruled at the same time as the German emperor Henry IV. These two strong-willed rulers clashed over competing claims to power.

How did the development of universities in medieval Europe strengthen the Church and unify society? A. Different regions felt a strong attachment to their local university, which strengthened local pride and unity. B. Students had to learn Latin in local churches before they could study at the universities. C. Universities grew up around cathedrals, and courses of study helped educate clergy. D. Universities started cathedrals, which were important centers of learning.

Universities grew up around cathedrals, and courses of study helped educate clergy

New Knowledge Reaches Europe

Universities received a further boost from an explosion of knowledge that reached Europe in the High Middle Ages. Many of the "new" ideas had originated in ancient Greece but had been lost to Western Europeans after the fall of Rome.

Student Life

University life offered few comforts. A bell wakened students at about 5 A.M. for prayers. Students then attended classes until 10 A.M., when they had their first meal of the day. Afternoon classes continued until 5 P.M. Students usually ate a light supper and then studied until bedtime. Since the first medieval universities did not have permanent buildings, classes were held in rented rooms or in the choir loft of a church. Students sat for hours on hard benches as the teacher dictated and then explained Latin texts. Students were expected to memorize what they heard. A program of study covered the seven liberal arts: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music, grammar, rhetoric, and logic. There were separate programs for the further study of law, medicine, and theology. To show mastery of a subject, students took an oral exam. Earning a degree as a bachelor of arts took between three and six years. Only after several more years of study could a man qualify to become a master of arts and a teacher. Theology was the longest course of study.

Growth of the French Monarchy

Unlike William the Conqueror in England, monarchs in France did not rule over a unified kingdom. The successors to Charlemagne had little power over a patchwork of French territories ruled by powerful feudal lords.

Effects of the Struggle

While Frederick II was occupied in Italy, German nobles grew more independent. The Holy Roman Empire survived, but remained a patchwork of feudal states. Unlike France and England, Germany would not become a nation-state for another 600 years. Southern Italy and Sicily also faced centuries of upheaval. There, popes turned to the French to overthrow Frederick's heirs. A local uprising against French rule in Sicily led to 200 years of chaos as French and Spanish rivals battled for power. The region that had once been a thriving center of culture was left in ruins.

Medieval Literature

While Latin remained the written language of scholars and churchmen, new writings began to appear in the vernacular, or the everyday languages of ordinary people, such as French, German, and Italian. These writings captured the spirit of the late Middle Ages. Medieval literature included epics, or long narrative poems, about feudal warriors and chivalry as well as tales of the common people.

The Geography of Russia

While feudalism and the Roman Catholic Church were shaping Western Europe in the Middle Ages, another culture was emerging in Russia to the east. Russia lies on the vast Eurasian plain that stretches from Europe to the borders of China. Although mapmakers use the Ural Mountains to mark the boundary between Europe and Asia, these ancient mountains were long ago worn away to wooded hills. They posed no great obstacle to the movement of peoples who were constantly migrating from Asia into Russia. During the Middle Ages, Russia—like Western Europe—was battered by invasions. Russia, however, had never been part of the Roman empire, and its early rulers looked to the Byzantine world, adapting much of its advanced civilization.

Extending Royal Power

William's successors strengthened two key areas of government, finance and law. They created the royal exchequer, or treasury, to collect taxes, fees, fines, and other dues. In 1154, an energetic, well-educated king, Henry II, inherited the English throne. He broadened the system of royal justice. As a ruler, he could not simply write new laws but had to follow accepted customs. Henry, however, found ways to expand old customs into laws. He then sent out traveling justices to enforce these royal laws. The decisions of the royal courts became the basis for common law, or a legal system based on custom and court rulings. Unlike local feudal laws, it was "common," meaning that it was the same for all the people. In time, people brought their disputes to royal courts rather than to those of nobles or the Church. Since the royal courts charged fees, the exchequer benefited from the growth of royal justice.

New heresies Threaten the Church

With its moral standing and leadership in decline, the Church faced still more problems. Popular preachers challenged its power. In England, John Wycliffe, an Oxford professor, attacked corruption in the Church.

flying buttress

a buttress that stands apart from the main structure and connected to it by an arch

Illuminated Manuscripts

a handwritten book decorated with bright colors and precious metals

Lay investiture

appointment of bishops by anyone who is not a member of the clergy

William the Conqueror

duke of Normandy who led the Norman invasion of England and became the first Norman to be King of England

How did Pope Innocent III assert the power of the Church? A. He stated that the pope was second only to God. B. He authorized the Concordat of Worms. C. He allied himself with the Albigensians against Phillip II. D. He challenged efforts to reform the Church's courts.

he stated that the pope was second only to God

Cyrillic

relating to the Slavic alphabet derived from the Greek and traditionally attributed to St. Cyril; in modified form still used in modern Slavic languages

Frederick Barbarossa

the Holy Roman emperor who tied Germany to southern Italy through the marriage of his son

One way in which Russia's geography affected its early history was that A. the lack of natural barriers on the steppe encouraged migration. B. the lack of fertile land promoted the development of trade. C. the river network encouraged contact with Western Europe. D. the mountains protected Russia from invasion.

the lack of natural barriers on the steppe encouraged migration.

Which is the best definition of lay investiture? A. the right of the pope to remove Church bishops B. the right of the monarch to install Church bishops C. the right of bishops to determine the distribution of fiefs D. the right of the Church to choose royal advisors

the right of the MONARCH to install Church bishops

Ivan the Great

was one of the most powerful Russian rulers. He consolidated his power by winning the voluntary allegiance of Russian princes and preventing further Mongol invasions.