Parts of the Brain

Locate and explain the function of the limbic system, including the hypothalamus, the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the pituitary gland.

A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

Locate afferent (sensory) neurons, efferent (motor) neurons, and interneurons and explain their functions.

Afferent neurons carry nerve impulses from receptors or sense organs toward the central nervous system. This term can also be used to describe relative connections between structures. Afferent neurons communicate with specialized interneurons. The opposite activity of direction or flow is efferent. Efferent neurons - otherwise known as motor or effector neurons - carry nerve impulses away from the central nervous system to effectors such as muscles or glands (and also the ciliated cells of the inner ear). Interneurons are multipolar neurons which connects afferent neurons and efferent neurons in neural pathways. Like motor neurons, interneuron cell bodies are always located in the central nervous system (CNS).

Explain the role of an agonist and give an example.

An agonist binds to a receptor cell and triggers a response by the cell. It often mimics the actions of a naturally occurring substance. An example of an agonist is Levodopa.

Explain the role of an antagonist and give an example.

An antagonist is a type of receptor ligand or drug that does not provoke a biological response itself upon binding to a receptor, but blocks or dampens agonist-mediated responses. Albuterol is an antagonist used to treat asthma.

Locate the association areas and explain their function.

Association areas are areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Describe the structure of a neuron.

Dendrites send and receive messages to other cells. These messages get passed to and from the cell body, which is the cell's life-support center, and then pass through the axon (covered by the myelin sheath) to the terminal branches of the axon.

Demonstrate where dopamine is released and explain its impact on human behavior.

Dopamine is released by the hypothalamus. Its main function as a hormone is to inhibit the release of prolactin from the anterior lobe of the pituitary.

Identify the body's major Endocrine Glands and their functions.

Ductless glands secreting hormones into blood stream or lymph systems. Includes thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pituitary, pancreas, thymus, and pineal glands, plus gonads. They control sex drive, flight-or-fight responses, and many other bodily functions.

Demonstrate how nerve cells communicate.

Nerve cells communicate through transmissions by the dendrites and terminal ends of the axon. From the terminal ends come carriers of the message which cross a synaptic gap and bind to receptors on the other side, passing on the message.

Demonstrate how neural impulses are generated.

Neural impulses are generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.

Demonstrate where norepinephrine is released and explain its impact on human behavior.

Norepinephrine underlies the fight-or-flight response, directly increasing heart rate, triggering the release of glucose from energy stores, and increasing blood flow to skeletal muscle. It is secreted by the adrenal gland.

Demonstrate the difference between a reflex arc and a neural network.

Reflex arcs are made of a sensory receptor, sensory neuron, motor neuron, and effector that are involved in a quick response to a stimulus. On the other hand, a neural network is any network of neurons or nuclei that function together to perform some function in the body.

Demonstrate where serotonin is released and explain its impact on human behavior. How do prozac type chemicals affect serotonin levels?

Serotonin is synthesized in serotonergic neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) where it has various functions, including the regulation of mood, appetite, sleep, muscle contraction, and some cognitive functions including memory and learning. Prozac increases serotonin levels by inhibiting the repute of serotonin.

Identify and discuss the functions of the Autonomic Nervous System.

The Autonomic Nervous System is the part of the nervous system of vertebrates that controls involuntary actions of the smooth muscles and heart and glands.

Identify and discuss the functions of the Central Nervous System (CNS).

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord and is found in the dorsal body cavity. It is considered the command center of the nervous system. Interprets incoming sensory information gives instructions of what to do.

Identify and discuss the functions of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

The PNS connects CNS to limbs and organs. It is divided into somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

Identify and discuss functions of the Parasympathetic Nervous System.

The Parasympathetic Nervous System is the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

Identify and discuss the functions of the Somatic Nervous System.

The Somatic Nervous System is the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system

Identify and discuss the functions of the Sympathetic Nervous System.

The Sympathetic Nervous System is the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Locate the sensory cortex and explain its function. Why do the lips take up a greater space than other body parts?

The area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. The lips take up a greater space than any other body part because they are the most sensitive.

Locate and explain the function of the brainstem, including the medulla, the pons, and the reticular formation.

The brainstem is the part of the brain continuous with the spinal cord and comprising the medulla oblongata and pons and midbrain and parts of the hypothalamus. The medulla is located at the base of the brainstem and it controls heartbeat and breathing. The pons is the part of the brain, works with the cerebellum in coordinating voluntary movement; neural stimulation studied in activation synthesis theory may originate here. The reticular formation is a network of cells in the brainstem that filters sensory information and is involved in arousal and alertness.

Identify the areas of the brain destroyed, based off the following list of symptoms: limb apraxia, inability to control the muscular movements of the left shoulder, arm, forearm, and hand, slow, laborious, non-fluent speech, inability to sound out words and write them phonetically, pure alexia, difficulty finding appropriate words when speaking, inability to use or recall nouns in speech and communication, inability for sensory input to be recognized verbally, poor word repetition, decreased sex drive.

The bullet likely destroyed the corpus callosum (due to the fact that the patient cannot recognize sensory information verbally) and Broca's Area (due to the non-fluent speech)

Locate and explain the function of the cerebellum.

The cerebellum is the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.

Locate the cerebral cortex. Explain its structure and function. What role do glial cells play in the cerebral cortex?

The cerebral cortex is the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. Glial support cells in nervous system that play roles in the formation of myelin and blood-brain barrier, respond to injury, and remove debris.

Demonstrate where acetylcholine is released and explain its impact on human behavior.

The chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a neurotransmitter in both the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS) in many organisms including humans. Acetylcholine is one of many neurotransmitters in the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the only neurotransmitter used in the motor division of the somatic nervous system. (Sensory neurons use glutamate and various peptides at their synapses.) Acetylcholine is also the principal neurotransmitter in all autonomic ganglia. It is released from the pituitary gland.

Locate the frontal lobes and explain their function.

The frontal lobe is the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.

Demonstrate the link between the Nervous System and the Endocrine System. Explain the difference.

The nervous system takes in information and tells us what to do. The endocrine system uses this information to secrete hormones into our bloodstream that affect us in many different ways. The effects of the endocrine system are slow in coming but last for a while, while the nervous system's impulses occur quickly and briefly.

Demonstrate how the Nervous System and the Endocrine System would respond if you found yourself in an emergency situation.

The nervous system would trigger your brain to send an impulse to your adrenal glands to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine to get you fight or flee the situation of danger and emergency.

Locate the occipital lobe and explain its function.

The occipital lobe is the portion posterior to the parietal and temporal lobes, responsible for vision.

Locate the parietal lobes and explain their function.

The parietal lobe is the portion posterior to the frontal lobe, responsible for sensations such as pain, temperature, and touch.

Identify the right and left hemispheres of the brain, explain how they differ and how they communicate.

The right and left hemispheres of the brain communicate through the corpus callosum. The right hemisphere is generally used for spacial recognition and emotions and controls the left half of the body. The left hemisphere of the brain, however, controls the right half of the body and is primarily used in logical thought and problem solving.

Locate the temporal lobes and explain their function.

The temporal lobe is the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear.

Locate and explain the function of the thalamus.

The thalamus is the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Identify where two tumors might be located based off the following list of symptoms: muscle weakness, vastly increased appetite, inappropriate body temperature fluctuations, jerky movements, decreased sexual desire, poor balance when walking and standing, increased frequency of urination, inability to throw objects, inappropriate sleep patterns, uncontrolled aggressiveness, and exaggerated efforts to coordinate movements in a task.

The tumors are likely located in the cerebellum (which controls movements) and the amygdala (which controls emotions and moods).

Demonstrate where endorphins are released and explain its impact on human behavior.

They are produced by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus in vertebrates during strenuous exercise, excitement, pain and orgasm, and they resemble the opiates in their abilities to produce analgesia and a sense of well-being. Endorphins work as "natural pain relievers."

Using Geschwind's explanation, demonstrate how we use language.

We use language to communicate. Geschwind's Syndrome leads to excessive vocal output.

Pons

a band of nerve fibers linking the medulla oblongata and the cerebellum with the midbrain

Corpus Callosum

a broad transverse nerve tract connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

Neuron

a cell that is specialized to conduct nerve impulses

Limbic System

a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

Hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

Afferent (Sensory) Neuron

a neuron conducting impulses inwards to the brain or spinal cord

Efferent (Motor) Neuron

a neuron conducting impulses outwards from the brain or spinal cord

Motor Cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Locate the motor cortex and explain its function. Why do the fingers and mouth take up the greatest amount of cortical space?

an area of the brain, near the rear of the frontal lobes, that controls voluntary movement. The fingers and mouth take up the greatest amount of cortical space because they are the most complex to handle and control.

Association Areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Wernicke's Brain

found that damage to the Wernicke's Area along with the Broca's Area impairs speech and language

Pituitary Gland

gland in the base of the skull that secretes nine hormones that directly regulate many body functions and control the actions of several other endocrine glands

Pancreas

gland that secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum, where it mixes with bile to digest food

Adrenal Glands

located on the kidneys, they release hormones that trigger the body to respond to emergencies and high stress

Parietal Lobe

portion posterior to the frontal lobe, responsible for sensations such as pain, temperature, and touch

Occipital Lobe

portion posterior to the parietal and temporal lobes, responsible for vision

Temporal Lobe

portion that lies below the frontal lobe, responsible for hearing, taste, and smell

Thyroid

secretes thyroxin, controls metabolic rate

Parathyroids

small glands in the neck that regulate calcium and phosphorous balance

Brain

that part of the central nervous system that includes all the higher nervous centers

Cerebellum

the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance

Sensory Cortex

the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Endocrine System

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard; located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Lobes

the different regions into which the cerebral cortex is divided

Ovaries

the female gonads, paired almond-sized organs located in the pelvic cavity, and produce two steroid hormone groups the estrogns and pregesterone; the endocrine and exocrine functions do not begin until the onset of puberty

Cerebral Cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

Cortex

the layer of unmyelinated neurons (the gray matter) forming the cortex of the cerebrum

Frontal Lobe

the lobe at the front of the brain associated with movement, speech, and impulsive behavior

Testes

the male gonads, which produce sperm and secrete male sex hormones

Reticular Activating System

the network in the reticular formation that serves an alerting or arousal function

Brain Stem

the part of the brain continuous with the spinal cord and comprising the medulla oblongata and pons and midbrain and parts of the hypothalamus

Broca's Brain

troubles with Broca's Area of the brain leads to aphasia

Amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion

Interneuron

type of neuron that connects sensory and motor neurons