Personnel Psyc Final

I/O psychologists often refer to the "criterion problem." What is it, and why should we be concerned?

"criterion problem" refers to the difficulties involved in the process of conceptualizing and measuring performance constructs that are multidimensional, dynamic, and appropriate for different purposes. In other words, difficulties finding appropriate criterion to measure constructs. The difficulty comes from trying to develop theories, concepts, and measurements that will be able to both enhance the utility of available procedures and programs and deepening our understanding of the psychological and behavioral processes involved in job performance. The development of better performance measures results in better predictions of performance. Three types of challenges faced in the development of criteria: 1. Job Performance unreliability: reliability in this context refers to the consistency or stability of job performance over time. Rank orders of individuals based on job performance scores does not necessarily remain constant over time. Causes of this inconsistency are intrinsic and extrinsic unreliability. Intrinsic is due to personal inconsistency in performance, while extrinsic is due to sources of variability that are external due to job demands or individual behavior (i.e. variations in weather conditions; unreliability due to machine downtime; delays in supplies, assemblies, or information). One solution to this is to aggregate behavior over situations or occasions, thereby canceling out effects of unintentional, uncontrollable factors. Rambo, Chomiak, and Price (1983) showed that the reliability of performance data is a function both of task complexity and the constancy of the work environment. These factors paired with a presence of a production-linked wage incentive and stable, narrowly routine work task can result in high levels of consistency in worker productivity. It is important to understand that the rank order of individuals based in their performance is likely to fluctuate, but there are a coupes of ways to address this challenge. Understanding the aggregating scores and paying more careful attention to intrinsic and extrinsic factors will allow HR professionals to understand better the extent to which specific operational criteria will be consistent over time. 2. Job Performance Observation All evaluations of performance depend ultimately on observation of one sort or another; but different methods of observing performance may lead to markedly different conclusions. The study of reliability of performance becomes possible only when he reliability of judging performance is adequate. Training individuals to look for the same concepts may help, however, there is no silver bullet that will improve the reliability of judging performance. 3. Dimensionality of Job Performance The majority of studies use only a global criterion measure of the job performance. Is it meaningful or realistic to reduce performance measurement to a single indicator, given the multidimensionality of criteria? Several reviews (Campell, 1990; Roan & Prien, 1966, 1971) concluded that the notion of a unidimensional measure of job performance is unrealistic. Analysis of even single measures of job performance (e.g. attitude toward the company, absenteeism) have shown that they are much more complex than surface appearance would suggest. Despite the problems associated with global criteria, they seem to work quite well in most personnel selection situations. However, to the extent that one needs to solve a specific problem, a more specific criterion is needed. If there is more than one specific problem, then more than one specific criterion is needed. Understanding these concepts and how to address them will allow for better studies and understanding of human performance.

Discuss three "do's" and three "don'ts" with respect to appraisal interviews.

Do This: 1. Communicate frequently with subordinates about their performance. 2. Judge performance only 3.Set mutually agreeable and formal goals. 4.Periodically access goals 5. Inform employees how to prepare for the meeting Don't Do this: 1. Do not judge personality, mannerisms or self concept. 2. No deconstructive criticism (can lead to threat to employees' ego) 3. Don't forget to judge YOURSELF 4. Don't go in unprepared. Performance Appraisal (PA): Process of evaluating how well employees perform at their jobs when compared to a set of standards, and then communicating this information to employees. Goal: Improve effectiveness & efficiency of the organization by: 1. Aligning the employee's work behaviors & results with the organization's goals 2. Improving the employee's work behaviors & results Do's: 1. Set goals (SMART goals: specific, measureable, attainable, relevant, timely) a. Involve employee: To develop the employee they need to be present in making the goals to explain just how the organization expects it to happen, which will also make the goals seem more fair. Set mutually agreeable and formal goals b. Measureable: periodic tracking of progress towards goals helps keep the subordinate's behavior on target c. Challenging but realistic, difficult but achievable d. Empower employee to achieve goals: make organizational rewards contingent on performance 2. Provide feedback to reinforce and sustain performance a. Communicate frequently- give feedback immediately when noticed b. - give feedback on job-related behaviors, rather than mannerisms c. Continue to communicate and assess progress toward goals regularly 3. Provide help and advice to improve performance a. Training for rater to observe behavior more accurately and fairly and how to provide evaluative information and give feedback b. Be an active listener Don'ts 1. Focus too much on the individual and does little to develop employees b. Avoid destructive criticism and threats to employees' egos c. Judge performance not personality 2. Employees and supervisors believe the appraisal process is seriously flawed. a. If the employees' see the appraisal process as flawed it is likely that they will not take the advice seriously and continue to work in the way that was not most effective to the organization b. If the supervisors see the appraisal system as flawed, they may not even give any feedback to the employees which will tell the employees to continue as they are. Supervisors may also give feedback the wrong way which can lead to negative outcomes such as, angered employees, arguments, and turnover. c. Without a proper formal system for giving feedback some employees are likely to seek and benefit from feedback than others. 3. Appraisals are inconsistent, short-term oriented, subjective, and useful only at the extremes of performance. a. If appraisals are inconsistent this will lead to confusion and a lack of goal achievement b. If appraisals are short-termed employees may lose focus and interest because the goals are constantly changing so they have no devotion to one goal c. If appraisals are subjective this can offend employees and increase the likelihood that they will not take them seriously. Goals that are subjective are able to interpreted in multiple ways which can lead the employees to achieving the wrong goals. d. If goals aren't useful in daily work-life they may be forgotten, abandoned, or simply ignored Effective PA systems are: Consistent w/ organizations' strategic mission Beneficial as development tool Useful as an administrative tool Legal and job-related Viewed as fair by employees Effective in documenting performance

Outline the components of a diversity-based recruitment effort.

Evidence-Based Implications for Practice Recruitment is not a "one-shot" activity. Rather, it is important to recognize three contextual/environmental features that affect all recruitment efforts, namely, • Characteristics of the firm—the value of its "brand" and its "personality"—make the effort to learn how customers and the public perceive it. • Characteristics of the vacancy itself (is it mission critical?); this affects not only the resources expended on the search but also the labor markets from which to recruit. • Characteristics of the labor markets in which an organization recruits (tight versus loose). • Three sequential stages characterize recruitment efforts: generating a pool of viable candidates, maintaining the status (or interest) of viable candidates, and "getting to yes" after making a job offer (postoffer closure). Devote special attention to each one. • Recognize that the Internet is where the action is in recruiting. Nearly 60 percent of all Internet hires come from a company's own Web site, and the best ones make it simple for candidates to apply for jobs. They provide a wealth of information about the company, and leave candidates with a favorable impression. • Finally, provide a realistic job preview to candidates, and ensure that it enhances overly pessimistic expectations, and reduces overly optimistic expectations about the work. Setting up Diversity-based Recruitment: 1. Determine the needs, goals, and target populations. 2. Show that diversity is valued by communicating values of fairness and inclusion. 3. Make initial contact and gather info from community support and other external recruitment and training organizations. 4. Develop one or more results-oriented programs. What actions will be taken, who will be involved, and how/when will actions be accomplished. 5. Invite program representatives to tour your organization, and recognize that they will pay attention to three aspects: the number of minorities at the site, the level of jobs held by minorities, and types of interactions observed between the minority and majority groups. 6. Select a diversity of organizational contacts and recruiters for outreach and support, including employees outside of the HR department. 7. Get top management approval and support. Train managers to value diversity in the workplace. 8. Develop procedures for monitoring and follow-up; make revisions as needed to accomplish objectives. 9. Think carefully about the messages your organization wishes to transmit concerning its diversity programs; do not leave interpretation to the imagination of the applicant. Preferential-treatment plans are generally unappealing to prospective minority candidates, who want to ensure that they will be perceived as having been treated fairly and not as receiving preferential treatment.

What are some of the interpersonal/social interaction dimensions that should be considered in implementing a performance management system?

First, a definition: Performance management is a continuous process of identifying, measuring, and developing the performance of individuals and teams and aligning performance with the strategic goals of the organization. Performance management systems serve both strategic and operational purposes, and because they take place within the social realities of organizations, they should be examined both from both measurement/technical as well as human/emotional points of view. Performance appraisal, the systematic description of individual or group job-relevant strengths and weaknesses, is a key component of any performance management system. The implementation of performance management systems takes time and effort, and participants (those who rate performance and those whose performance is rated) must be convinced the system is useful and fair (Face Validity). Otherwise, the system may carry numerous negative consequences (e.g., employees may quit, there may be wasted time and money, and there may be adverse legal consequences). Interpersonal barriers arise from the actual face-to-face encounter between subordinate and superior. Interpersonal barriers also may hinder the performance management process. Because of a lack of communication, employees may think they are being judged according to one set of standards when their superiors actually use different ones. Furthermore, supervisors often delay or resist making face-to-face appraisals. Rather than confronting substandard performers with low ratings, negative feedback, and below-average salary increases, supervisors often find it easier to "damn with faint praise" by giving average or above-average ratings to inferior performers. Finally, some managers complain that formal performance appraisal interviews tend to interfere with the more constructive coaching relationship that should exist between superior and subordinate. They claim that appraisal interviews emphasize the superior position of the supervisor by placing him or her in the role of judge, which conflicts with the supervisor's equally important roles of teacher and coach (Meyer, 1991). This, then, is the performance appraisal dilemma: Appraisal is widely accepted as a potentially useful tool, but organizational, political, and interpersonal barriers often thwart its successful implementation. Much of the research on appraisals has focused on measurement issues. This is important, but HR professionals may contribute more by improving the attitudinal and interpersonal components of performance appraisal systems, as well as their technical aspects. We will begin by considering the fundamental requirements for all performance management systems. Fundamental requirements of a successful performance management system: Congruence with organizational strategy, thoroughness, practicality, meaningfulness, specificity, discriminability, reliability/validity, inclusiveness, and fairness/acceptability The terms performance management and performance appraisal are frequently used interchangeably, it can be argued that 'performance management' is more expansive than simply performance appraisal as it tends to be associated with developments in areas such as coaching, 360 degree feedback, competency-based appraisal, performance pay and employee engagement. Performance management also emphasizes the ongoing nature of the staff management process. Performance management is increasingly seen as the way to manage employee performance. INTERPERSONAL / SOCIAL INTERACTION DIMENSIONS PITFALLS- -limitations of appraisers or supervisors 'playing god' and undertaking vague personality assessments as opposed to focusing on job performance. -Managerial Hostility- Senior staff and line managers who are hostile to their performance management and appraisal system do not fully understand or appreciate its purpose, and as a result don't co-operate in its proper implementation. -Staff Hostility. Ideally staff should view the system as a mechanism that is likely to benefit them and requires their active co-operation. Employees who are disaffected or who have low levels of trust in their managers will not want to participate in the process. -The job holder or interviewee is less likely to undertake a comprehensive self-assessment and may deny shortcomings in their performance, blame others or other factors, and\or insist that the shortcoming is of no significance. -If the alleged failing threatens to affect pay increases or promotion decisions. Many reviewers will be reluctant to jeopardize their working relationship with a team member -Inadequate interpersonal and interviewing Skills. A manager's or employee's ability to get along with others while getting the job done. - Lack of follow up. For example, the manager who promises to provide additional resources or some form of personal development does not deliver on his or her part of the agreement. WHAT TO DO- -Relationship is based on trust. For example, in the feedback session a partnership approach should be adopted, showing that the coach is on the employee's side, trying to help and support them. -Establish rapport. This entails nothing more complex than as the reassuring the interviewee that they are on the same side and the review benefits them as well as the company. -Enable the interviewee to self-review and present how they can improve in the workplace. This allows the interviewee to feel in control of their situation. -Listen as much as possible. The interview should show a real concern for the employees' comments. -Don't prejudge or argue over issues. By prejudging or making your mind up without looking for the other side of the story, you are making the interview one-sided by your own biases. - Focus on facts relating to job performance, not personality. - Summarise the key points at the end in able to reflect to the interviewee that their thoughts and comments were taken seriously. The bottom line is that with the use of a performance management system it is imperative to make it a cooperative effort by both parties and not an "us vs them" mentality.

Someone asks you what you are going to graduate school for. You reply, "Industrial/Organizational Psychology." After the look of bewilderment spreads across their face, they ask, "What in the world is that?" Answer their question and explain why I/O is important.

I-O Psychology dives into the science of behavior and industrial society. With interests in personnel psychology and human factors of the workplace, I-O psychologists explore questions of psychological theories in the workplace. This research is conducted through a variety of methods. Testing, observations, and case studies are all methods I-O Psychologists use to collect data and conduct research. I-O Psychologists also rely heavily on statistics to support their assertions. Techniques such as regression, correlations, and factor analysis all allow I-O Psychologists to provide valid tests that present findings in the workplace Historically, I-O Psychologists have existed since the turn of the century. At the turn of the century, I-O focused on topics such as telegraphy, typing, personnel selection, work methods, and job design. During World War I, I-O Psychologists progressed significantly. One of the major contributions of I-O during this time period was large-scale selection testing. This testing paved the way for testing in governments, industry, and education. After WWI, I-O still remained. Developments in personnel psychology continued as researchers studied the measurement of work performance and created standards for research that I-O Psychologists still use today Today, I-O Psychology emphasizes not only is the industrial aspect studied, but also the organizational side. Topics such as motivation, attitudes, and leadership are explored in today's workforce. Nontraditional topics such as global problems, home lives, workers' health, and career are all areas that I-O Psychologists strive to study in order to fully understand all sides of today's worker. These efforts are all in an attempt to make today's organizations function in more productive and successful manners (Katzell & Austin, 1992). · People devote the majority of their time to work (can be assumed that work is important to the individual) · The experience of working is defining the individual · Work is a defining characteristic of the way people gauge their value to society, their family, themselves · "Good Work" is hard to come by but is extremely valuable · IO has recognized that the experience of work is more complex than simple tasks and productivity and accidents *In short, IO is important because it encourages the development of use of skills for the benefit of someone other than self. IO recognizes the experience of work instead of just tasks and productivity. It aims to make work (the majority of an individual's time) meaningful and enjoyable. IO Psychology is important because • It helps people do their jobs 1. Helping employers treat employees fairly 2. Helping make jobs more interesting and satisfying 3. Helping workers be more productive • Efficiency/productivity of organizations • Health/well-being of employees • A large proportion of I-O psychologists help to develop selection systems. These systems include: 1) identifying the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other qualities that are necessary to perform well, a process called job analysis, 2) identifying and/or designing tests and measures to assess applicants' levels on those key job requirements, 3) administering the tests, and 4) determining the applicants most suitable for a given position. Ensuring that this process is accurate and fair and doesn't discriminate against members of protected groups is a key job task of many I-O psychologists. I-O psychologists also design and provide training to employees to ensure that they can perform well on the key job requirements outlined in a job analysis. This requires identifying training needs, determining the most effective training approach, and often conducting the training. The diversity of education levels, languages, and ages of employees influence each step of the training process. In addition to selection and training, I-O psychologists help in designing systems to determine if employees are performing satisfactorily. Again, the key job requirements are the source for the performance appraisal system. In each case, I-O psychologists design systems to ensure that employees are treated fairly at each step of the process. • It helps make jobs more interesting and satisfying o Designing jobs people will find satisfying ▪ rewarding work ▪ safe, efficient work areas (Human Factors) o Motivating employees to perform ▪ Creating teams that work well together ▪ combining diverse talents and perspectives • Designing work patterns that enhance efficiency • Providing skills training and development • Helping to meet the challenges of competition • Moving past downsizing Possible additional question Dr. Pool may ask Difference between the "I" and the "O" • Industrial Psychology o Focus on management and organizational efficiency o Job Design and Analysis o Employee Selection & Training o Performance Appraisal • Organizational Psychology o Focus on individual employee o Employee Attitudes & Behavior o Job Stress o Supervisory Practices Founding fathers of IO Psychology • Walter Dill Scott • Frederick Taylor • Hugo Munsterberg (considered the main founding father of IO)

What are the issues to consider when comparing on-the-job training versus hiring persons already trained? How do you make a decision about which way to go?

Judgmental evaluation of the previous work experience and training of job applicants, as presented on resumes and job applications, is a common part of initial screening. Using experience and training as a predictor for future performance can pay off. A studying including more than 800 Air Force enlisted personnel indicated that ability and experience seem to have linear and noninteractive effects In regards to training, a needs assessment should always be conducted in order to understand the gap between what the organization currently has and what the organization aims to be. Selecting someone based off of training could also be viewed in this same manner. For example - say you have the options to hire someone with previous training. First, you have to assess whether the areas in which the applicant is trained in apply to the setting of the organization the applicant is applying for. If so, this would be a good fit. This type of hire would be more beneficial than an applicant with no training simply because there is less cost associated with the hire. On-the-job training is expensive for the organization, but also provides a great opportunity to develop the hire in a way that is specialized to the organization. This allows the hire to be trained specifically to the organization's needs and has a likelihood of decreasing errors of behaviors learned elsewhere. When choosing between the two, it is important to consider cost, train-ability, and availability. Does your organization have the budget to train someone from scratch? Is your hire trainable? Or would any knowledge invested return little gain? Is there an availability of applicants with training in the specialty you need, or is this something that is worth the investment of training because of the lack of availability? One thing to keep in mind: Section 703(b) of Title VII states: It shall be an unlawful employment practice for any employer, labor organization, or joint labor-management committee controlling apprenticeship or other training or retraining, including on-the-job training programs, to discriminate against any individual because of his race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in admission to, or employment in, any program established to provide apprenticeship or other training. A good framework for your decision: In measuring the outcomes of training and development, use multiple criteria (varying in time, type, and level), and map out and understand the interrelationships among the criteria and with other organizational variables. In addition, impose enough experimental or quasi-experimental control to allow unambiguous inferences regarding training effects. Finally, in measuring training and development outcomes, be sure to include (1) provision for saying something about the practical and theoretical significance of the results, (2) a logical analysis of the process and content of the training, and (3) some effort to deal with the "systems" aspects of training impact. The ultimate objective is to assess the individual and organizational utility of training efforts. On-the-job training methods include orientation training, apprenticeships, near-the-job training, job rotation, understudy assignments, executive coaching and performance management Selection of Technique A training method can be effective only if it is used appropriately. Appropriate use, in this context, means rigid adherence to a two-step sequence: first, define what trainees are to learn, and only then choose a particular method that best fits these requirements. Far too often, unfortunately, trainers choose methods first and then force them to fit particular needs. This "retrofit" approach not only is wrong but also is often extremely wasteful of organizational resources—time, people, and money. It should be banished. In order to select a particular technique, the following checklist may prove useful. A technique is adequate to the extent that it provides the minimal conditions for effective learning to take place. To do this, a technique should: 1. Motivate the trainee to improve his or her performance, 2. Clearly illustrate desired skills, 3. Provide for the learner's active participation, 4. Provide an opportunity to practice, 5. Provide feedback on performance while the trainee learns, 6. Provide some means to reinforce the trainee while learning, 7. Be structured from simple to complex tasks, 8. Be adaptable to specific problems, and 9. Enable the trainee to transfer what is learned in training to other situations. Designers of training can apply this checklist to all proposed training techniques. If a particular technique appears to fit training requirements, yet is deficient in one or more checklist areas, then either modify it to eliminate the deficiency or bolster it with another technique. The next step is to conduct the training. Although a checklist of the many logistical details involved is not appropriate here, actual implementation should not be a major stumbling block if prior planning and design have been thorough. The final step, of course, is to measure the effects of training and their interaction with other organizational subsystems. Growing companies have a need for new employees to fill new or expanded positions. Even a company that has a stable workforce needs to replace existing employees who change employers or retire. Employers are faced with the decision about whether it makes sense to seek out a new employee from outside the company or to promote one from within. On the Job Training Spending the money to train an existing employee for a promotion often pays off. -Much of the risk of hiring is mitigated because the employer already knows the employee. The employer has experience with the employee's work ethic, ability to work with others and problem-solving skills. -Current employees often cut down the learning curve because they understand the company, the way it operates, what it sells and the management structure. In companies with highly specialized products or services, this can cut down on the ramp up time needed to get a new hire up-to-speed. -Hiring from inside also reduces the hard costs of hiring. These include the time involved in background checks, setting up payroll, signing up for healthcare and other internal benefits, and other administrative set up costs. An internal candidate also doesn't incur moving and relocation costs, which are sometimes paid for by the employer. External Candidates Bringing in someone from the outside adds something to the company that an internal candidate cannot: new knowledge and skills. -External candidates may have experience with new ways to operate or a new perspective. The knowledge they bring with them adds to the company's overall intellectual capital. A new fresh face can often energize a tired and unmotivated workforce and improve the overall productivity in a company. -Employers often hire from the outside when they are looking for significant changes to their operation. Hiring away from a competitor gives employers insights into the industry they may not have acquired otherwise. It also gives employers a focus for changes in strategic direction. DECISIONS The decision to hire from within or without hinges on more than just a tallying of the costs of the hire. The way a company handles its employee acquisition can have a major impact on the way a company is perceived by both employees and external stakeholders. Companies that have rich training programs and have a history of developing and cultivating their existing workforce are viewed as employee-oriented and are likely to attract higher quality external applicants. On the other hand, having internal candidates vie for a single position can result in animosity and hurt feelings, which may intensify if the successful candidate is now in the position to manage other candidates. Which Is Better? Each company's particular situation will dictate its choice of hiring direction. Companies that are staying on the same strategic track often hire from the inside. Those who are looking for a shakeup may choose to seek out a new face. Part of the decision will be based on whether there is a suitable internal employee. In some cases, it would take longer for a company to bring someone up through the ranks than to helicopter someone in who can hit the ground running.

What factors lead employees to be more satisfied with performance appraisals?

Performance appraisals are formal processes where management, your peers, or both will provide feedback on performance, and offer guidance towards future goals and how to achieve them. While there are many ways to conduct a performance appraisal, there are a few factors that will influence employee satisfaction concerning performance appraisal, and those all deal with the quality and fairness of the performance appraisal. The factors that make up performance appraisal include the performance rater, type of performance, perceived fairness at three levels and how clear, concise, and usable the feedback to the employee is will affect the employee performance appraisal satisfaction. For performance rater, maximal satisfaction will be found with a highly trained and motivated rater. A trained rater will lower error stemming from sources like the halo effect, misunderstanding scale definitions and anchor points, and are able to deliver the results of the performance appraisal in a clear and concise manner. A motivated rater will also lower perceived injustice, which will be touched on later. And finally, a trained rater will not be hesitant to deliver PA's, which are commonly associated with negative perceptions. The manner in which the PA is conducted also matters. While there are many, many ways to conduct a PA, I believe having a 360-degree feedback model, that is structured and validated at all measurements for job performance will result in being able to create S.M.A.R.T. goals. A 360-degree feedback model consists of gathering feedback from as many sources as possible that pertains to job performance for the employee, including self-reporting, peer reporting, supervisor reporting, etc. Having a structured and validated PA will result in clear performance ratings that can be delivered in a positive, constructive manner, and will let the employee know where he stands professionally in their company. Constructive criticism and acknowledging good work will inform the employee about their strong points and areas of possible improvement. The constructive criticism will be used to create S.M.A.R.T. goals, an acronym for specific, measurable, attainable goals that are result oriented and time framed. These type of goals serve to give the employee clear direction. A final aspect of how PA's are conducted is the frequency in which they are done. PA's need to happen often enough so that employees can see results from their goals and know they are meaningful, but not so often that it becomes a nuisance with no real purpose other than to record performance at a given time. Perception of fairness is also an important factor that can influence employee satisfaction. Fairness is a quality in which a certain process, in this case performance appraisals, are done without discrimination. Fairness can be further split into a judgment based on three types of justices. Distributive justice is the fairness of how the outcomes of a process relates to decisions. For example, the outcome of PA will determine whether or not a pay raise has been earned and is true for all employees. Procedural justice is the fairness in how the PA and the decisions are done. For example, raters will not skew scores based on personal feelings and the decision is reached justly and without discrimination. Interpersonal justice is the fairness of the interaction between rater and employee. All employees are treated in the same, respectful manner and tone. Performance appraisal - describes the job-relevant strengths and weakness of each individual; The actual process of gathering information about individuals based on critical job requirements; accomplished by observation and judgment Factors that lead to higher satisfaction from performance appraisals - · Communicate more frequently - give feedback as close to the action as possible · Get training in appraisal - increased training in rating accurately and fairly rather than providing specific illustrations of "how to" or "how not" to rate · Judge your own performance first - research finds that interpersonal perception can help improve the process of performance appraisals · Encourage subordinate preparation - Research indicated that the more time employees spent prior to appraisal interviews analyzing their job duties and responsibilities, the problems being encountered on the job, and the quality of their performance, the more likely they were to be satisfied with the appraisal process, to be motivated to improve, and actually improve performance · Use "Priming" Information - prime is a stimulus given to the rater to trigger information stored in long-term memory; help the rater remember past performances · Warm up and encourage participation - research shows the more a subordinate feels they participated in the interview by presenting their own ideas and feelings, the more likely they are to feel as if the supervisor was helpful and constructive (Cederblom, 1982) · Judge performance, not personality or self-concept - higher emphasis on personality or self concept leads to lower satisfaction · Be specific - begin appraisal with positive feedback associated with minor issues, and then process to discuss feedback regarding major issues (Stone, Gueutal, & McIntosh, 1984) · Be an active listener - be attentive to verbal and non verbal cues; accept wha the other is saying without argument or criticism · Avoid destructive criticism and threats to employee ego - Destructive criticism leads to producing negative feelings among recipients and can initiated conflict, reduces the preference of recipients for handling future disagreements, and it has negative effects on self-set goals and feelings of self efficacy (Baron, 1988) · Set mutually agreeable and formal goals - provides direction, people tend to exert effort in proportion to the goal, and difficult goals led to more persistence (Katzell, 1994) · Continue to communicate and assess progress toward goals regularly - periodic tracking keeps the performers behavior on target, provides subordinate with a better understanding of the reason of performance appraisal, and enhances the subordinate's commitment to effective performance · Make organizational rewards contingent on performance - subordinates who see a link between appraisals and employment decisions are more likely to prepare for appraisal interviews, take part actively, and be satisfied (Burke et al, 1978)

Discuss the advantages of using a structured, as opposed to an unstructured interview. Given these advantages, why are HR and hiring managers reluctant to conduct structured interviews?

Structured Interview This is also known as a formal interview (like a job interview).The questions are asked in a set / standardized order and the interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule or probe beyond the answers received (so they are not flexible). These are based on structured, closed-ended questions. Strengths 1. Structured interviews are easy to replicate as a fixed set of closed questions are used, which are easy to quantify - this means it is easy to test for reliability. 2. Structured interviews are fairly quick to conduct which means that many interviews can take place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population. 3. Equal opportunity: asking job applicants the same questions and assessing their responses based on the same criteria means that candidates will have an equal opportunity to show their qualifications and be assessed fairly. 4. Legal defensibility: Structured interviews are written and given according to set guidelines, so they are more legally defensible. "To date, the following three components have been found to be most closely scrutinized by the courts when using an interview: 1. The consistency of applying the interview across applicants; 2. The job-relatedness of the interview questions; and 3. The extent to which the interview process was designed to be objective." 1. Structure interviews are not flexible. This means new questions cannot be asked impromptu (i.e. during the interview) as an interview schedule must be followed. 2. The answers from structured interviews lack detail as only closed questions are asked which generates quantitative data. This means a research will won't know why a person behaves in a certain way. Unstructured Interview These are sometimes referred to as 'discovery interviews' & are more like a 'guided conservation' than a strict structured interview. They are sometimes called informal interviews. An interview schedule might not be used, and even if one is used, they will contain open-ended questions that can be asked in any order. Some questions might be added / missed as the Interview progresses. Strengths 1. Unstructured interviews are more flexible as questions can be adapted and changed depending on the respondent's answers. The interview can deviate from the interview schedule. 2. Unstructured interviews generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person's understanding of a situation. 3. They also have increased validity because it gives the interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper understanding, ask for clarification & allow the interviewee to steer the direction of the interview etc. Limitations 1. It can be time consuming to conduct an unstructured interview and analyze the qualitative data (using methods such as thematic analysis). 2. Employing and training interviewers is expensive, and not as cheap as collecting data via questionnaires. For example, certain skills may be needed by the interviewer. These include the ability to establish rapport & knowing when to probe. 3. Bias: Hiring managers may let their biases against an applicant's beliefs, values, level of education, gender, attractiveness, or race influence their hiring decision. Hiring managers might ask certain questions in an unstructured interview that are based on their biases. 4. Legal vulnerability: Unstructured interviews are more likely than structured ones to be challenged in court, on the basis of discrimination.

Develop a realistic job preview for a prospective a U.S. Postal Carrier. What are the benefits of a realistic job preview?

The benefits: increased retention and reduce turnover. "Better informed candidates who continue the application process are more likely to be a good fit with the position, and the ones who choose not to continue save themselves time pursuing a job or company that wasn't right for them. The hiring organization saves time on testing and interviewing only those candidates with a strong chance of success." "Regardless of format, effective RJPs accurately foreshadow the culture that the candidate is signing up for. Other critical components include: Candor and openness; specificity (while avoiding a deluge of information); representative visual depictions of the work environment, preferably with the employee actually performing common tasks; testimonials from real employees, not actors. Ideally, RJP information should be focused on the things that matter most to the candidate demographic, parts of the job or culture that correlate with engagement and turnover." "In addition to this there is a chance for realistic job preview to become more effective in order to eliminate turnovers. The presentation format and timing of the RJP can be improved whether the real information is provided early on or later in the recruitment factor. Consequently, more specific topic should be addressed and information sources used (e.g. job incumbent versus human resource staff person)." A Realistic Job Preview (RJP) is a recruiting tool used to communicate both the good and bad aspects of a job. Essentially, it is used to provide a prospective employee a realistic view of what the job entails. This measure, much like the job-fit measure, is to provide candidates a richer description of the agency and the job (e.g., work environment, duties, expectations) to help them decide if they are a good match. While the RJP can be useful for reducing turnover, it should be used as a candidate self-evaluation tool rather than a traditional selection device (e.g., cognitive ability tests, accomplishment record). In creating a RJP, there are many factors to consider, including: ● How the RJP will be created (e.g., structured observations, meetings with current employees) ● How the RJP will be distributed (e.g., written material, video, interview) ● How to present both positive and negative aspects of the job (e.g., always follow a negative item with a positive item) ● When to introduce the RJP (i.e., early or late in the recruiting process) omp.gov Ex. of US Postal Carrier would include things such as Deliver packages and mail to businesses and people in towns, cities, and rural areas. Set up a route and deliver mail six days a week on route. Place packages and letters in mailbox and secure with mailbox flap. Secure many envelopes or parcels with a rubber band. Plus things such as: · Driving or walking most of the day, six days a week · Dealing with inclement weather sometimes (heat/ cold/ rain) · Sitting in a vehicle or standing to deliver mail throughout the day · Dealing with aggressive dogs when delivering mail

Discuss some of the challenges in criterion development.

The major challenges of criterion development are the unreliability of job performance, job performance observation, and the dimensionality of job performance, and modification of performance by situational characteristics. Unreliability of job performance is a challenge due to intrinsic and extrinsic unreliability. It is hard to measure the best performer on various criteria if their performance is always fluctuating. To account for variability, data may be aggregated but then you into time constraints and systematic error in studies. The solution to this is allowing an adequate amount of time to collect data (e.g. repeated measures experiment) and conducting a meta analysis on large samples. Job performance observation is a challenge because different methods of observing performance may lead to different conclusions. In the study by Bray and Campbell (1968) assessment centers, supervisor and trainer assessments, and auditor assessment all provided different information in which there was no significant relationship between the different observations (except for the assessment center rating and field auditor rating which had a .51 correlation). The challenge of dimensionality of job performance is evident by the fact that there are predictors that are used for more global criterion. In other words there are several different predictors that are used to assess a single criterion or variable of interest. Unfortunately, a one-dimensional measure of job performance is unrealistic but combining various aspects of job performance into a composite score leads to a variety of scores for that same criterion depending on what job aspects are used each time. Fortunately, global criteria work well but the problem persists when more specific criteria are needed. 6 situational characteristics are problematic to criterion development because they affect the occurrence, meaning, and functional relationships of behaviors. Environmental and organizational characteristics: Organizationwide factors like HR or promotion policies Interpersonal factors like group cohesiveness, friendship opportunities, and satisfaction with peers Job related factors like role clarity, autonomy, level of responsibility, and task repetitiveness Personal factors like tenure, mood, and family size Environmental safety: injuries and loss of time Lifespace variables: important conditions that surround employee on and off the job such as task challenge on first job assignment, life stability, supervisor-subordinate personality match, immediate supervisor success, personal orientation, career confidence, cosmopolitan versus local orientation, and job stress Job and location: example factors are origin of agency, type of agency, number of agents, number of supervisors, and tenure of agency managers Extraindividual differences and sales performance: like territory workload, market potential, company market share, and advertising effort Leadership: the interaction of various individual biodemographical information and organizational stucture Our class text discusses four challenges with criterion development, which are job performance reliability, job performance observation, dimensionality of job performance, and lastly modification of performance by situational characteristics (p.59). Challenge 1- Job Performance Reliability Refers to the consistency or stability of job performance over time. Are the best (or worse) performers at time 1 also the best (or worse) performers at time 2? Thorndike identified two types of unreliability, intrinsic unreliability and extrinsic unreliability. Intrinsic unreliability refers to personal inconsistency in performance, and extrinsic unreliability is due to sources of variability that are external to job demands or individual behavior. The best way to combat performance unreliability is to average (aggregate) performance over situations or occasions. Challenge 2- Job Performance Observation Accounts for the discrepancies in performance evaluations conclusions. Our class text explains that different methods of observing performance may lead to markedly different conclusions; therefore, reliability of performance is only possible when the reliability of judging performance is adequate. Challenge 3- Dimensionality of Job Performance This challenge arises because of the lack of dimensionality of predictor variables of job performance. A great example of this would be supervisor evaluation of job performance, which most organizations currently use. Our class text noted that in an analysis conducted with over 406 studies and 1, 506 criteria use "supervisor evaluation" was used to measure job performance 879 times. It just seems too narrow of a scope to be a highly reliable measure of job performance. However, our class text notes that "global criteria" like that seem to generally work, but that more specific criteria should be used to measure criterion require more specific findings. Challenge 4- Performance and Situational Characteristic Our class text described 6 possible extraindividual influences on performance, environmental and organizational characteristics, environmental safety, lifespace variables, job and location, extraindividual differences and sales performance, and leadership. Brittney did a good job of explaining these variables, so I will not make a duplicate entry for these.

Your boss asks you to develop a training program for employment interviewers. How will you proceed? What will be the elements of your program? How will you tell if it is working?

There is not enough empirical research to specify which training programs are best for interviewer training. Interviewers benefit very little from day-to-day interviewing experience, since the conditions necessary for learning (i.e., training and feedback) are not present in the everyday job situation. Thus, a structured extensive interviewing training is necessary. Training will include: Interview first impression training: successful interviewers are described as alert, enthusiastic, responsible, well educated etc... professional etiquette. Awareness of Contrast effects training : when interviewers evaluate more than one candidate , they tend to use other candidates as a standard. It is important to make interviewers aware of this. Information recall: train them how to take concise notes throughout the interview in order to be able to recall information when accessing the candidate Techniques for structuring the interview (structured interview guide, standardized rating forms) to minimize the amount of irrelevant information being collected. Use of structured interviews 1.maintains same constructs for all interviews (responses will be similar for most applicants, easiest to code) 2.questions based off of the appropriate job analysis, teach interviewers how to read/scan job analysis. 3.questions are based on past performance 4.Questioning consistency 5.Evaluation standardization (use of multiple scales, using anchored rating scales, detailed notes) 6.Question sophistication 7.Rapport building Provide guidance for how to read/document job analyses, interview-development procedures, candidate responses and scores, evidence of content-or criterion-related validity, and adverse impact analyses in accordance with testing guidelines. Finally, in order to ensure that training is effective: We should guide interviewers through a planned system of feedback to make sure who succeeds or who fails in order to keep them up-to-date on changing job requirements and success patterns. -Who remained hired? How long? -What was particularly unique about the hired individual? To begin, we must establish all KSA's for interviewers. This will be done by conducting a job analysis on current interviewers. The job analysis will not only establish what KSA's are needed, but whether or not the job has changed over time. Certain expected KSA's, such as delivering and recording a structured interview, professional etiquette, and any test delivery that might be conducted during the interview. These three factors of interviewing will be the basis for our training program. Professional etiquette will be the initial step towards successful training. Interviewers must be trained in etiquette because in most companies, unstructured interviews, unstandardized interviews with questions based on the givers whims and feelings, are the most common form of interviews. These type of interviews are prone to discrimination, and can portray an unprofessional image of the company. To avoid any problems, professional etiquette will be trained. Next, test delivery will be trained. The interviewers must be familiar with both administering tests, analyzing standardized responses on tests, and reporting results to the appropriate personnel. This is necessary to avoid any mistakes in the hiring process that stems from rater error. This will prevent any lowering of validity of our set of tests. In any cases of the applicant having a disability of any kind protected under the ADA, the interviewer must be prepared to adjust test format and delivery to accommodate the disabled applicant to prevent any discrimination. Finally, and most importantly, the interviewer must learn how to appropriately administer and record a structured interview. A structured interview is an interview with preselected questions that pertain to the jobs' necessary KSA's. The answers are also standardized on a scale, and it is up to the interviewer to rate the answers given on that scale. The interviewer must be well versed on the job they are giving interviews for, to understand the questions that will be given and to avoid any confusion on determining the standardized score for the applicant's response. Essentially, the interviewer's job is to decrease as much rater error variance as possible. From delivering tests and interviews in the correct and professional manner to being able to define and rate interview answers, the interviewer is attempting to come as close as possible to what is being measured on any given question. The interviewer's performance can be measured in a number of ways over time, which could be used as evidence for the training being successful. In any case where they are able to decide to hire or not, the hired employee retention rate and their performance can be a measurable scale. If they are not in charge of final hiring decisions, post-interview questions can be given to applicants to rate their satisfaction with the interview process, including on specific areas such as professionality and perceived interviewer efficacy. Both of these measures will be able to determine the success of the training program based on interviewer performance. It will also be possible to measure self-efficacy before and after training and satisfaction with the training program as self-report measures for the training program success.

When is a measure of individual differences unfairly discriminatory?

To begin, a measure of individual differences is a test intended to find a necessary piece of information, usually dealing with establishing necessary knowledge, skills and\or abilities, to complete a job. Discrimination, or adverse impact, is when one group is selected for at a much higher rate than other groups. A measure of individual difference can possibly be unfairly discriminatory if it fails the 4/5ths rule established by the Uniform Guidelines (1978). The 4/5ths rule states that a measure of individual difference possibly contains adverse impact if the selection rate for the minority group is less than 4/5ths (80%) of the selection rate for the nonminority group. The 4/5ths rule is a very basic tool to establish the possible existence of discrimination. Looking more closely, unfair discrimination can be specifically measured by breaking down overall predictor score plots and statistics into group score plots and statistics and comparing those group scores against each other. If there is a significant difference in group means, then there is further proof that there is adverse impact in the measure towards one group. Two types of illegal discrimination 1. Unequal (disparate) Treatment: based on an intention to discriminate, including the intention to retaliate against a person who opposes discrimination, who has brought charges, or who has participated in an investigation or hearing 2. Adverse impact (unintentional) discrimination: when identical standards or procedures are applied to everyone, despite the fact that they lead to a substantial difference in employment outcomes for the members of a related group and they are unrelated to success on a job When implementing empirical validation strategies, one needs to consider that group differences, the range restriction, the test's position n the employment process, and the form the test-predictor relationship can have a dramatic impact on the size of the obtained validity coefficient. Legal guidelines on employee selection procedures require comprehensive, documented validity evidence for any procedure used as a basis for an employment decision, if that procedure has an adverse impact on a protected group. "If a measure that predicts performance differentially for members of different group is, nevertheless, used for all applicants, then the measure may discriminate unfairly against the subgroup(s) for whom the measure is less valid. Job performance must be considered along with test performance because unfair discrimination cannot be said to exist if interior test performance by some subgroup also does not exist, however, differences in subgroup means can lead to adverse impact, which carries negative legal and societal consequences. The reduction of adverse impact is an important consideration in using tests. Various scores of test-score banding have been proposed to balance adverse impact and society considerations. The ultimate resolution of the problem will probably not rest on technical grounds alone; competing values must be considered. Although some errors are inevitable in employment decisions, the crucial question is whether the use of a particular method of assessment results is less organizational and societal cost than is now being paid for these errors, considering all other assessment methods (p.167)" "Unfair discrimination exists when persons with equal probabilities of success on the job have unequal probabilities of being hired for the job"

Top management asks you to present a briefing on the potential effects of goal setting and feedback. What would you say?

Top management commitment is critical when implementing goal setting and feedback. High levels of commitment can lead up to 56% increase in job performance whereas low levels of commitment only lead to 6% of increase in job performance. Crucial for top managers to understand that mere presence of performance feedback does not guarantee a positive effect on future performance. Consistent communication throughout the year is vital when implementing performance management. Reducing feedback /goal setting to annual meetings will have a negative effect on your performance management plan. Feedback: -maximum impact when it is given as close to the action as possible (positive, negative, constructive feedback) -deconstructive criticism has negative effects on self-set goals and feelings of self-efficacy. Goal Setting: -include employee in goal setting process, participation leads to clarification of expectation. -set difficult goals as they leader to higher acceptance and performance. -SMART goals (specific, measurable, achievable, results based and time specific) -set only mutually agreeable and difficult goals: 1. Has the effect of providing direction, 2. People tend to exert effort in proportion to the difficulty of the goal 3. Difficult goals lead to more persistence than do easy goals (Katzell, 1994). Examples to provide to top management: (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000)- feedback carried out incorrectly (deconstructive criticism) can lead to employees shifting focus on personal aspects in order to understand why they received negative feedback, rather than focusing on looking forward and trying to do better in the future. This would lead to reduction in job performance. Goal Setting Locke and Latham stated that "the goal setting theory was based on the premise that much human action is purposeful, in that it is directed by conscious goals" (O'Neil & Drillings, 1994, p.14). The decision to set a goal results from dissatisfaction with current performance levels. Setting a goal should include setting a structure that directs actions and behaviors which improve the unsatisfactory performance. Setting a goal will change a person's behavior in order to work towards achieving the set goal. Goal-setting theory predicts that people will channel effort toward accomplishing their goals, which will in turn affect performance (Locke & Latham, 1990). Locke and Latham (2002) found a direct linear relationship between goal difficulty, level of performance, and effort involved. This relationship will stay positive, as long as the person is committed to the goal, has the requisite ability to attain it, and doesn't have conflicting goals (Locke & Latham, 2006). Locke and Latham's goal setting theory states that several conditions are particularly important in successful goal achievement. These include goal acceptance and commitment, goal specificity, goal difficulty, and feedback (O'Neil & Drillings, 1994). These conditions have been extended and edited by other researchers, such as Kenneth Blanchard and Spencer Johnson's SMART goals, which are conditions that are necessary to make goals effective. Feedback Feedback is necessary in order for goals to remain effective and retain commitment. Without feedback people are unaware of their progression or regression; it also becomes difficult to gauge the level of effort required to pursue the goal effectively (Sorrentino, 2006). Additionally, feedback allows for individuals and teams to spot any weaknesses in their current goals, which allows modifications to be made (Smith & Hitt, 2005). It is necessary for goals, and the people making the goals, to be flexible (Bennett, 2009). Feedback is most effective when it is directed at setting more challenging goals (Locke & Lantham, 1979). Effort and productivity will increase when performance falls short of goal achievement. For example, if a student receives feedback in the form of a progress report he or she may adjust study habits accordingly to achieve the desired goal. However, without feedback, the student has nothing to gauge performance. Feedback can either be process oriented or outcome oriented. Process feedback provides specific tasks that must be performed to achieve the desired outcome. Outcome feedback is focused on the outcome of the goal and offers no tangible information to utilize in goal attainment. When these types of feedback are combined it will give a clear sense of how someone is performing, and what they can do differently in order to perform better. Similar to goals, feedback must also be specific to offer constructive information on how to meet objectives (PSU WC, 2015, L. 6). By receiving feedback, individuals will know that their work is being evaluated and that their contributions are being recognized.

Some companies are using biodata with increasing frequency in selection processes. What are the advantages and disadvantages of biodata as a selection tool? What instructions would you give to applicants about to complete a biodata instrument to minimize response distortion?

What is Biodata: · Questionnaires that gather job-relevant biographical information (i.e., personal, general background information, education, employment experiences, skills, socioeconomic level-financial status, interests and personal characteristics (attitudes expressed). They are used to predict job and training performance, tenure and turnover. "past behavior is a good predictor of future behavior" past behavior may reflect ability or motivation · Biographical inventory is used as an alternative or supplement to cognitive testing because this method predicts aspects of job performance that are not predicted by cognitive measures (e.g., interpersonal relationships and motivation). · Rational approach: past behavior is a valid predictor of future behavior. It assumes that information obtained from job applicants about previous work experiences, education, etc. can be used to predict job performance. Items included in these inventories are selected on the basis of previous research and demonstrate a significant relationship between item response and performance. Legal Issues: · Certain biodata information cannot be asked in order to protect protected classes from being denied employment based on factors unrelated to the job. Items addressing race, gender, martial status, number of dependents, birth order, and spouse's occupation are not appropriate to ask unless demonstrated to be job relevant. Items that are correlated with job success or a business necessity may be used for personnel selection. Verifiability: · Records can easily verify hard items whereas soft items can't be checked for truthfulness beyond the information the respondent presents. Advantages of using hard items that are verifiable are that the respondents tend to provide the truth however it tends to create a range restriction on available information. Most predictive are questions that require respondents to summarize their feelings on a range of experiences. · Verifying information from recommendations and reference checks: use structured recommendations forms, use standardized scoring keys. o Advantages: can be used to verify information previously provided by the applicant. Can serve as protection against potential negligent hiring lawsuits. May encourage applicants to provide more accurate information. o Disadvantages: Reports are almost always positive; they do not typically help differentiate between good workers and poor workers. Some company's may not provide information during a reference check. Advantages of Biodata: · Easy and inexpensive to administer · Some validity evidence exist · May help to reduce adverse impact when used in conjunction with other tests and procedures. Disadvantages of Biodata: · May provide inaccurate information to make them seem more qualified or experienced than they really are. · Privacy concerns may be an issue with some questions. · Faking is a concern (information should be verified when possible) · Typically developed using a concurrent validity strategy—range restriction effects are a concern. Ability to predict information from Biodata can also be a concern because changes across situations and over time in different life stages. Ways to complete instrument to minimize distortion · Do internal consistency checks (see if they answer consistently on similar content). Use reference checks and resumes to verify information. · Have the respondent answer hard item questions along with summarizing a range of experiences in order to get more honest answers. · Follow up on reference checks and records to verify the validity of information being given and inform the applicant that information will be verified for accuracy. · Collect information on biodata surveys on applicant's prior accomplishments that are related to work dimensions that indicate effective performance potential. · Include written statements of accomplishment, which it occurred, recognition or accolades received, and information needed to verify. Emphasize achievements rather than activities. Developing a biodata survey · Choose a criterion · Identify criterion group · Select items for analysis · Specify item response choices · Weight items · Cross validation · Develop cutoff scores References: Testing and Assessment: An Employer's Guide to Good Practices, Using Biodata as a Selection Instrument Biographical Data (Biodata) Tests Biodata measures are based on the measurement principle of behavioral consistency, that is, past behavior is the best predictor of future behavior. Biodata measures include items about past events and behaviors reflecting personality attributes, attitudes, experiences, interests, skills and abilities validated as predictors of overall performance for a given occupation. Often, biodata test items are developed through behavioral examples provided by subject matter experts (SMEs). These items specify situations likely to have occurred in a person's life, and ask about the person's typical behavior in the situation. In addition, biodata items reflect external actions that may have involved, or were observable by, others and are objective in the sense there is a factual basis for responding to each item. An item might ask "How many books have you read in the last 6 months?" or "How often have you put aside tasks to complete another, more difficult assignment?" Test takers choose one of several predetermined alternatives to best match their past behavior and experiences. A response to a single biodata item is of little value. Rather, it is the pattern of responses across several different situations that give biographical data the power to predict future behavior on the job. For this reason, biodata measures often contain between 10 and 30 items and some wide-ranging instruments may contain a hundred or more items. Response options commonly use a 5-point scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree). Once a group of biodata items is pre-tested on a sample of applicants, the responses are used to group the items into categories or scales. Biodata items grouped in this way are used to assess how effectively applicants performed in the past in competency areas closely matched to those required by the job. A more recent development is targeted biodata instruments. In contrast to traditional biodata measures developed to predict overall job performance, targeted biodata measures are developed to predict individual differences in specific job-related behaviors of interest. Similar to the developmental process used for traditional biodata, the content of a targeted biodata measure is often driven by SME-generated behavioral examples relevant to the specific behavior(s) of interest. An example of a targeted biodata measure is a job compatibility measure (sometimes referred to as a suitability measure) which focuses on the prediction of counterproductive or deviant behaviors. Counterproductive behavior is often defined as on-the-job behavior that is (a) harmful to the mission of the organization, (b) does not stem from a lack of intelligence, and (c) is willful or so seriously careless it takes on the character of being willful. Previous criminal misconduct (e.g., theft), employment misconduct (e.g., sexual harassment, offensiveness to customers, and disclosure of confidential material), fraud, substance abuse, or efforts to overthrow the Government are some major factors that may be relevant to suitability determinations. A job compatibility index is typically used to screen out applicants who are more likely to engage in counterproductive behavior if they are hired. Job compatibility measures are less costly to implement than other procedures typically used to detect counterproductive behaviors (e.g., interviews, polygraphs) and are beneficial for positions requiring employees to interact frequently with others or handle sensitive information or valuable materials. Considerations ● Validity - Biodata measures have been shown to be effective predictors of job success (i.e., they have a moderate degree of criterion-related validity) in numerous settings and for a wide range of criterion types (e.g., overall performance, customer service, team work); Biodata measures also appear to add validity (i.e., incremental validity) to selection systems employing traditional ability measures ● Face Validity/Applicant Reactions - Because some biodata items may not appear to be job related (i.e., low face validity) applicants may react to biodata tests as being unfair and invasive ● Administration Method - Administered individually but can be administered to large numbers of applicants via paper and pencil or electronically at one time ● Subgroup Differences - Typically have less adverse impact on minority groups than do many other types of selection measures; Items should be carefully written to avoid stereotyping and should be based on experiences under a person's control (i.e., what a person did rather than what was done to the person) ● Development Costs - The development of biodata items, scoring strategies, and validation procedures is a difficult and time-consuming task requiring considerable expertise; Large samples of applicants are needed to develop as well as validate the scoring strategy and additional samples may be needed to monitor the validity of the items for future applicants ● Administration Costs - Can be cost effective to administer and generally not time consuming to score if an automated scoring system is implemented ● Utility/ROI - High predictive ability can allow for the identification and selection of top performers; Benefits (e.g., savings in training, high productivity, decreased turnover) can outweigh developmental and administrative costs ● Common Uses - Commonly used in addition to cognitive ability tests to increase validity and lower adverse impact

Transfer of training is a key issue in most organizations. What would you do to maximize it?

● A recent meta-analysis of 107 evaluations of management training revealed substantial differences in the magnitude of training-transfer effects across rating sources (Taylor, Russ-Eft, & Taylor, 2009). Moreover, the results of this study suggest that multiple rating sources from individuals with diverse perspectives (supervisors, peers, subordinates, and self-ratings) are necessary in order to provide a more realistic assessment of the transfer effects for a particular training design. ● Although transfer environments tend to be unique to each training application, in order to maximize transfer of training, programs should be designed so as to: ○ Ensure a positive transfer climate and work environment. Supervisors should convey support for the training program (by their words or by example) and provide opportunities for trainees to ask questions, review concepts, and communicate any issues or concerns. ○ Clearly identify learning goals and outcomes (e.g., review the purpose of the training session) to allow individuals to focus their efforts on the "big picture" and to give them an idea of what will be expected of them at the end of the process. ○ Maximize the similarity between the training situation and the job situation. Use real world examples and situational experiences by allowing trainees to shadow employees and practice with drills and exercises. ○ Provide a strong link between training content and job content. ○ Ensure that what is learned in training is applied on the job and is subsequently rewarded. To a great extent, the usefulness of organizational training programs depends on the effective transfer of training—the application of behaviors learned in training to the job itself. Transfer may be positive (i.e., improve job performance), negative (i.e., hamper job performance), or neutral. It probably is the single most important consideration in training and development programs To maximize positive transfer, while recognizing that transfer environments are probably unique to each training application (Holton, Chen, & Naquin, 2003), designers of training programs should consider doing the following before, during, and after training (Machin, 2002): 1. Ensure that the transfer climate and work environment are positive—that is, situations and actions convey the support of supervisors and peers for the transfer of training, as well as the value the organization places on training (Kontoghiorghes, 2004). The influence of workplace support on transfer is moderated, however, by the extent to which trainees identify with the groups providing support (Pidd, 2004). 2. Maximize the similarity between the training situation and the job situation. 3. Provide trainees as much experience as possible with the tasks, concepts, or skills being taught so that they can deal with situations that do not fit textbook examples exactly. This is adaptive expertise (Ford & Weissbein, 1997; Hesketh, 1997a). 4. Ensure that trainees thoroughly understand the principles being taught, particularly in jobs that require the application of principles to solve problems, such as those of engineers, investment analysts, or systems analysts. 5. Provide a strong link between training content and job content ("What you learn in training today, you'll use on the job tomorrow"). 6. In the context of team-based training (e.g., in employee involvement), transfer is maximized when teams have open, unrestricted access to information; when the membership includes diverse job functions and administrative backgrounds; and when a team has sufficient members to draw on to accomplish its activities. In one study, over half the variance in participant and supervisor ratings of team effectiveness could be attributed to those three design elements (Magjuka & Baldwin, 1991). 7. Ensure that what is learned in training is used and rewarded on the job. Supervisors and peers are key gatekeepers in this process (Ford, Quinones, Sego, & Sorra, 1992; Pidd, 2004). If immediate supervisors or peers, by their words or by their example, do not support what was learned in training, don't expect the training to have much impact on job performance (Tannenbaum, 2002; Tracey, Tannenbaum, & Kavanagh, 1995; Wexley & Latham, 2002). The attitudes of trainees may also affect transfer (Noe, 1986, 2008; Switzer et al., 2005). Transfer is likely to be higher when trainees (1) are confident in using their newly learned skills, (2) are aware of work situations where they can demonstrate their new skills, (3) perceive that both job and organizational performance will improve if they use the new skills, and (4) believe that the knowledge and skills emphasized in training are helpful in solving work-related problems. Such attitudes help employees generalize KSAOs learned in one training context (e.g., employee-involvement training) to other contexts (e.g., regular job duties) Three crucial factors that affect transfer of training: (according to Holton's Transfer of Training Model) Motivation to transfer ie. Expectancy, equity, goal setting Transfer climate Transfer design Goal setting and feedback are necessary but goals must be valid and meet three criteria (data must be derived from statistical system, valid methodology, employees must be able to meet goals) There needs to be an understanding of the influences on training transfer motivation: intervention fulfillment for expectations and desires, learning outcomes as performance affects post-training motivation, job attitudes as positive attitude leads to successful performance Two major viewpoints for positive transfer: Identical elements theory by Woodworth in 1901- transfer increasing degree of correspondence among training setting stimuli, responses, and conditions and those related factors operative in the performance setting Principles theory by Goldstein in 1986- training should focus on the general principles necessary to learn a task so as to apply them to solve problems in the transfer environment For the best shot at maximizing transfer of training, the article recommends the following: * collaborating with key stakeholders in the organization at each step of the process to provide links to strategic goals, reinforce organizational priorities, and support performance-related factors [based on organization theory (Kozlowski & Salas, 1997)]. * encouraging managers to provide clear performance objectives so that employees know exactly what they are expected to do. Managers should provide the necessary support (resources) for high performance and establish clear rewards for performance. They should provide prompt feedback to let employees know whether their performance meets the established standards [based on expectancy theory (Porter & Lawler, 1986) and equity theory (Adam, 1963)]. * assigning high priority to learners as full stakeholders in the design and implementation of training. [based on research results, the relevance of knowledge, skills and attitude taught in training is of value in determining transfer (Ameel, 1992; Baldwin & Ford 1988; Garavaglia, 1993)]. Thus, groups of learners may be responsible for identifying training objectives, assessing their learning needs, developing action plans, and identifying organization-wide strategies to support full transfer to new contexts.

Would you place primary importance on g in selecting for the position of HR director? Why?

● Job complexity is a powerful moderator of the validity of GMA. ● General Mental Ability ("g") is used to measure ability to learn and perform particular job responsibilities. GMA is fundamental to success in many kinds of jobs, especially where cognitive activities such as reading, computing, analyzing or communicating are involved. ● When looking at the job description for an HR Director on the Society for Human Resource Management, tasks that are essential for the HR Director to complete require a high level of complexity, therefore, using "g" as a primary evaluation tool for selecting an HR Director would be useful. As established by previous literature, job complexity is a moderator between GMA and job success. ○ Example of tasks required by a HR Director. ■ Communicate changes in the organization's personnel policies and procedures and ensures that proper compliance is followed ■ Maintain knowledge of industry trends and employment legislation and ensures organization's compliance ■ Develops and maintains a human resource information system that meets the organization's personnel information needs. ■ Supervises the staff of the human resource department ■ Work directly with department managers to assist them in carrying out their responsibilities on personnel matters. ■ Conducts exit interviews to determine reason behind separations. ■ All of these task encompassed constructs of cognitive activities such as analyzing situations, communicating with various levels of personnel (e.g. entry level or executive level), critical thinking to evaluate various sensitive situations, reading complex legal information in order to maintain compliance with federal and state laws. ○ Examples of competencies needed to be successful as a HR Director are: ■ Communication ■ Consultation ■ Global and cultural awareness ■ Relationship management. ■ Critical evaluation ● With the complexity of the job, "g" can be a strong predictor of the job performance in this position. Additionally. High levels of general mental ability can predict job learning; therefore, if there is some sort of training that the HR Director needs to complete, they will likely have a higher chance of learning and applying the acquired knowledge. * Reference question 16 for a more detailed breakdown of what GMA is as well as the advantages and disadvantages of GMA test. "g" is a statistical term that refers to the general intelligence factor that underlies all intelligent activity. The concept of the "g" factor was first put forward by researcher Charles Spearman in the early 20th century after comparing the scores of grade school students for score correlations across several subjects and noting that individual students routinely scored within the same ranges across the subjects. This apparent correlation led him to the conclusion that each individual possessed a basic ability (intelligence) level. The use of "g" in relationship to hiring a HR director is important as the potential of hiring a HR director is relational to all aspects of their job. As they can be an expert in one field, it would be incumbent upon the individual to possess similar expertise in other areas of the job field which encompass the job. For an example, the potential hire for a HR director should have expertise in such areas as: 1. Recruiting: Searching for and attracting new talent is a major commitment of the job for many HR professionals. If you easily connect with others, uncover information, communicate clearly and be persuasive in negotiating contracts, you may be well-prepared to handle the very important task of recruiting. 2. Screening: The process of reviewing a person to go to the next step. When you screen applicants, for instance, you might look through a pile of applications to sort out the likeliest candidates for the job.. 3. Employee relations: Successful businesses thrive on secure employee-employer relationships and the professionals who support those connections. Being able to identify and resolve employee concerns as they develop creates a more satisfying work environment for employees and employers alike. 4. Onboarding: Employee turnover is expensive. Onboarding refers to the process that allows new hires to become adjusted to the social and performance aspects of their new job quickly and smoothly. Companies are looking to hire HR professionals who can bring new recruits to increase the chance that they will settle happily and successfully into their new jobs for the long run. 5. Human Resources Information Software: HRIS, an intersection of human resources and information technology through HR software which allows HR activities and processes to occur electronically, making the workload lighter and more efficient for HR professionals. 6. Social media: Being on and participating in social media platforms shows that you are connected and visible. If you work in a recruiting position, you'll likely be using social platforms to seek out or screen potential job candidates as well. 7. Performance management: How a company involves its employees in improving effectiveness towards the accomplishment of company goals. Now, with the previous qualities mentioned above, the potential HR director recruit should be able to perform those duties. With the previous abilities mentioned, one should be able to master a few and to be able master the others with an understanding that the knowledge gained from few of the attributes will be transferred over to the other elements. Basically, overall understanding/mastery of all the elements.

Outline a needs assessment process to identify training needs for supermarket checkers.

● The purpose of needs assessment is to determine whether or not training is necessary before expending resources on it. Across multiple disciplines, it is perceived as an essential starting point in instructional design models; however, in practice, many training programs do not use it. In a meta-analysis of training effectiveness, Arthur, Bennett, Edens, and Bell (2003) found that only 6 percent of the studies analyzed reported any needs assessment prior to training implementation. ○ TNA addresses the following questions: ■ What training is needed and why? ■ Where is training needed? ■ Who needs training? ■ How will training be provided? ■ What is the cost of training? ■ What will be the impact on business? ● Needs Assessment techniques for a supermarket checker might include: ○ Direct observation ○ Questionnaires/assessments/surveys ○ Interviewing SMEs, high-performing employees, supervisors, and managers. ○ Reviewing relevant literature ○ Focus groups ○ Work samples ● McGehee and Thayer (1961) described a three-facet approach to uncover specific training needs, which includes organization analysis, operations analysis, and person analysis. ○ One objective of organizational analysis is to pinpoint inefficient operational units to determine whether training is the appropriate antidote to performance problems. Another objective is to estimate the extent of organizational support for the application of what is learned in training to actual performance on the job—that is, transfer of training. In addition, organizational analysis helps answer the following questions: What resources (financial and personnel) are available for training? What are the goals of the organization in regards to employee development? ○ Operations analysis requires a careful examination of the work to be performed after training. It involves a systematic collection of information that describes how the work is done, standards of performance for that work, and the competencies necessary for effective task performance. To ensure the collection of valid data, opinions should be sought from experienced managers and past or present supermarket checkers. Not only do these individuals know the jobs best, but also their involvement helps build commitment to the training effort. Important questions when conducting operations analysis include: What tasks are performed? How frequently are they performed? How important is each task? What KSAOs are necessary to perform the task? How difficult is each task? Are there differences between high- and low-performing employees on specific work tasks? Would training on those tasks improve job performance? ○ Person analysis is used to assess how well each employee actually performs his or her job, relative to standards required by the job, in order to identify which employees need training. In addition to interviewing managers and supervisors, sources of performance data include: performance appraisals, quotas, turnover, shrinkage, spoilage, accidents, grievances, absenteeism, units per day/week, and customer complaints. An important objective of person analysis is to determine whether training can fill gaps (in performance) or whether other interventions, such as new hiring strategies, job redesign, or some combination of strategies should be used. ○ Demographic analysis can be helpful in determining the special needs of a particular group. For example, if a new technology is implemented in the supermarket checking process, additional training may be necessary primarily for workers over 40 years old. 1.) First, determine desired outcomes. ❖ Clarify goal(s) of training and expected business outcomes. ➢ Examples of training goals for supermarket checkers: Improving customer service satisfaction ratings, decreasing the time it takes to complete transactions, etc. 2.) Link desired outcomes with employee behavior(s). ❖ Identify the KSAOs linked to desired outcome(s). ❖ Collect information and data to determine which competencies are critical to achieving the outcomes—and/or refer to a recent, accurate job analysis. 3.) Identify trainable competencies and determine if they should be possessed prior to job entry or that can be learned on the job. 4.) Evaluate competencies and determine performance gaps between current ability and desired ability. ❖ To evaluate current competency levels, use performance evaluations, tests, surveys, self-assessments, interviews, and/or customer feedback. 5.) Determine how to conduct training. ❖ Methods can range from on-the-job training to mentoring/coaching, classroom/lecture, web-based/e-learning, reading/books, conferences, academic programs, etc. 6.) Conduct a cost-benefit analysis of each training method to determine the extent to which the training program will address the performance gap. ❖ Cost factors include: training time, content development time, training content delivery method, and lost productivity from time spent in training. 7.) After a training program is implemented, plan to thoroughly evaluate resulting outcomes. needs assessment process - determines if training is necessary before expending resources on it 1. organization analysis - links strategic workforce planning considerations with training needs-assessment results - for supermarket checkers: would training improve sales or revenue? will training make us perform better? if yes, move to number 2. 2. demographic analysis - determines the special needs of a specific group (workers over 40, managers at different levels) - for supermarket checkers: who needs the training? are there specific groups of people that need training to improve performance? is it all checkers or specific groups? training can be targeted to those groups if it's a positive solution for them. 3. operations analysis - examination of the work performed after training - what they must do to do their job successfully - for supermarket checkers: determining what the tasks are and how to train them to improve on those tasks, such as the following. ● customer service improvements - saying hello to every customer, making sure they found everything they were looking for, telling them to have a great day, asking if they need help out of the store. ● packing the bags correctly - training on what goes together in bags - making sure nothing heavy goes onto anything breakable or soft ● cashier/register training - counting change - scanning speed and accuracy - contacting a manager for a problem or other employee to get something for customer while at register 4. person analysis - determine if more training fills the gap of making sure a person has all the KSAO's or if other interventions are necessary. - for supermarket checkers: math skills for counting change, the computer system for the cash register, know how to use the scanners, able to speak kindly to customers and handle different types of situations, know how the payment system works for debit/credit cards, and checks. - other interventions: simplify the work and tasks (change dispenser if counting change is not easy for them), one on one meetings, transfer to different department, or replacement of employee.

What is a suppressor variable? What happens to prediction models in the presence of a suppressor variable?

"A suppressor variable (in multiple regression) has zero (or close to zero) correlation with the criterion but is correlated with one or more of the predictor variables and, therefore, it will suppress irrelevant variance of independent variables." In prediction models, a suppressor variable will suppress, or control for, irrelevant variance. It will increase the partial correlation. (Reference from a website) 1. Two IV's have to be significantly, positively correlated. 2. One IV (NOT BOTH) has to be significantly, positively correlated with the DV. 3. Other IV is weakly correlated with the DV.

Give 5 examples of questions that are illegal to ask a job candidate during an interview under EEOC standards. Why are these inappropriate to ask? What questions can you ask the candidate to get the same information, but would be legal under EEOC standards?

1. Are you pregnant? ASK THIS INSTEAD: Within the next year, what is your availability? 2. How many children do you have? ASK THIS INSTEAD: What hours can you work? What is your weekend availability? 3. Do you have any disabilities? ASK THIS INSTEAD: Can you lift 20lbs? Can you stand for 8+hours? How would you conduct this task (situational questions)? 4. Did you ever have a drug addiction? ASK THIS INSTEAD: What illegal drugs have you tried? Which drugs do you currently use? (do not ask about PAST/addictions) 5. What clubs or organizations do you belong to? ASK THIS INSTEAD: What professional or trade groups do you belong to that you consider relevant to your ability to perform on this job?

Give some examples of situations when structured interviews should be used and some examples of when unstructured interviews are more appropriate.

A structured interview is an interview where the questions are pre-prepared, with some follow up questions planned, and answers are standardized onto a numeric scale. In contrast, an unstructured interview has few, if any, planned questions; the answers given are also not standardized. Both have their criticisms, both positive and negative. But they both also serve a specific purpose on being used. There are two types of structured interviews, patterned and situational. Patterned structured interviews follow a pattern to ask about education, experience, career goals, and plans within the prospective company. This type of interview can potentially serve to provide insight into the applicant's experience and potential organizational fit. The interviewer establishes what kind of experience has lead them to apply, how interested in the position they are through prior company knowledge, and provides some personal background and personality by giving more freedom for applicant answers, since some questions would not have a correct or incorrect answer. Situational interviews are geared towards KSA's and theoretical application. This interview will contain 3 general type of questions; hypothetical, which will present a situation to the applicant and they must explain what they would do in the situation, job knowledge, which concentrates on their knowledge about the job and what it entails, and job requirements, which are questions on how willing the applicant is to work with company policy. Structured interviews serve the purpose of exploring the preparedness of the applicant, and establishes whether or not the applicant can perform to a satisfactory level. Structured interviews should be used when the job entails high risk if the applicants do not possess the job requirements. They should also be used when looking to fill high level positions that require a high level output from the employee in terms of production or leadership, such as upper level management or leadership positions. The drawbacks of using structured interviews is that it will be harder to establish organizational fit (the degree in which an employee fits into the organizational culture), since structured interviews are more geared to test job requirements. Unstructured interviews will be the opposite of structured interviews in the sense that they will test for organizational fit instead of job requirements. The interviewer will be free to ask any question as long as it is appropriate to satisfy their own hunches and feelings about the applicant. One positive is that the applicant will be more relaxed in these settings, and will let their personality show more versus in a high stress structured interview. This could potentially let the applicant know whether or not the company is a fit for their own personality as well. Optimally, both types of interviews should be used at different times to assess an applicant. Structured interviews are standardized and easily measurable and asses any job requirements, while unstructured interviews will establish how well an applicant will fit into the organizational culture, which is very important for team cohesiveness over time.

What specific steps would you recommend to a firm in order to ensure fair treatment of persons with disabilities during selection?

According to the American Disability Act of 1990, employers cannot unfairly discriminate against a qualified applicant during the selection process. In simple terms, any person with a disability (1. A mental or physical impairment that substantially limits a major life activity, 2. Has a record or history of substantially limiting impairments, or 3. Is regarded or perceived by an employer to have a substantially limiting impairment) must be provided with reasonable adequate accommodations during any and all levels of the selection process. Reasonable adequate accommodations must also not result in undue hardship for the employers in the sense that it is difficult or will incur large and unreasonable expenses. I would recommend to any firm to be ready and willing to provide reasonably adequate accommodations to incoming qualified applicants. Some examples would include being willing and prepared to move any interview and testing sites for the physically impaired, especially if the original site is not easily accessible through ramps, elevators, and\or escalators. Having multiple test delivery methods ready is also highly recommended, such as having braille tests for the blind, oral testing for the physically impaired, large print format testing, etc. The firm must also be ready to accommodate and supply future employees with the necessary equipment that will help them perform the job, such as text to speech programs for the blind using computers. In conclusion, the firm must concentrate and be prepared for any qualified disabled applicants by having the necessary tools and adjustments that will help them show their knowledge, skill, and ability to complete the job that was applied for. Specifically, the initial application process and all consequent test must be prepared in different delivery formats and be ready upon request; there must also exist a high level of flexibility in where and how the face to face interview, if one is given. Tanya Soto What is the ADA? The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) gives federal civil rights protections to individuals with disabilities similar to those provided to individuals on the basis of race, color, sex, national origin, age, and religion. It guarantees equal opportunity for individuals with disabilities in public accommodations, employment, transportation, State and local government services, and telecommunications. What is a "reasonable accommodation"? A "reasonable accommodation" is any modification or adjustment to a job, the job application process, or the work environment that will enable a qualified applicant or employee with a disability to participate in the application process, perform the essential functions of the job, or enjoy the benefits and privileges of employment. Examples of "reasonable accommodations" include: making existing facilities readily accessible to and usable by employees with disabilities; restructuring a job; modifying work schedules; acquiring or modifying equipment; and reassigning a current employee to a vacant position for which the individual is qualified. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII), the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA) prohibit the use of discriminatory employment tests and selection procedures. Employer Best Practices for Testing and Selection ● Employers should administer tests and other selection procedures without regard to race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age (40 or older), or disability. ● Employers should ensure that employment tests and other selection procedures are properly validated for the positions and purposes for which they are used. The test or selection procedure must be job-related and its results appropriate for the employer's purpose. While a test vendor's documentation supporting the validity of a test may be helpful, the employer is still responsible for ensuring that its tests are valid under UGESP. ● If a selection procedure screens out a protected group, the employer should determine whether there is an equally effective alternative selection procedure that has less adverse impact and, if so, adopt the alternative procedure. For example, if the selection procedure is a test, the employer should determine whether another test would predict job performance but not disproportionately exclude the protected group. ● To ensure that a test or selection procedure remains predictive of success in a job, employers should keep abreast of changes in job requirements and should update the test specifications or selection procedures accordingly. ● Employers should ensure that tests and selection procedures are not adopted casually by managers who know little about these processes. A test or selection procedure can be an effective management tool, but no test or selection procedure should be implemented without an understanding of its effectiveness and limitations for the organization, its appropriateness for a specific job, and whether it can be appropriately administered and scored.

Your firm decides to train its entire population of employees and managers (500) to provide "legendary customer service. " Suggest a design for evaluating the impact of such a massive training effort.

Based on the information from the book (p.381-382) I would suggest running Experimental Design C. This design has both an experimental group and control group, and would also provide a pre and post-test for the implementation the training program. We would divide up the 500 employees and managers up through random assignment (250 per group), and there would be separate observers for each group as to avoid bias in evaluation. After a set time period the pre and post test for each group will be compared individually, and then with one another to see if there was a change in customer service. However, if there is the possibility for an interaction effect, then the best plan would be an Experimental Design A, which is similar to C except there is no pre-test. This decreases the possibility of participants of the experimental or control group from aligning their attitude with what is being evaluated.

What are the three most important purposes of performance management systems and why?

Administrative Purposes for decisions on compensation, promotion, dismissal, downsizing, and layoffs Developmental Purposes to assist HR with establishing objectives for training programs Feedback to employees for identifying strengths, areas for growth, developmental planning, and coaching and career planning... In order for employees to make a conscious effort to improve their performance by working on their weakness, they need meaningful feedback. It also serves as a motivational experience. Personal development. The main objective of performance management is to improve performance at the level of the individual or team everyday. On page 48 of the text it notes that promotions, compensation decisions, transfers, and disciplinary actions are extraordinarily dependent on performance management, which should not be confused with performance appraisals. Page 74, notes all of the purposes served with performance management systems. 1) Strategic - Help link employee activities with the organization's mission and goals. 2) Communication - creates an opportunity for employees to be informed of what is expected of them regarding their performance and how they are doing. 3) Employment decisions - be used to promote, terminate, train, transfer or discipline employees. 4) Criteria - employee performance can serve as criteria in HR research. 5) Developmental - help establish objectives for training programs 6) Feedback for personal development - provide an employee feedback in their work, weaknesses, and strengths for personal growth. 7) Organizational diagnosis, maintenance, and development - provide specified performance levels, suggest training needs, help identify necessary skills needed at the time of hire, important for HR planning and HR evaluations.

How would you structure an employee referral program? Why? What are the advantages and disadvantages for a company using an employee referral program?

Employee referral programs are a cost-effective means of recruitment. The idea behind employee referral programs is that employees will refer possible applicants that are similar in work ethic to them. This is especially beneficial to the organization when it is high performers that are doing the referrals. Advantages: Can attract high performing applicants if the employee who made a referral is a high performer. Candidate will likely fit into the organization just as the employee that referred them, which decreases turnover. Disadvantages: Adverse impact is possible as the people who make the referrals will refer people that are similar to them. This leads to decreased diversity in the organization in terms of skills and abilities, and innovation, reducing competitive edge. Also a decrease in diversity of race, sex, or ethnicity. A study conducted by Kirnan, Farley, & Geisinger revealed that female and African American applicants rarely used informal sources such as employee referrals. To establish an effective referral program, it would be best to continuously analyze the applicant pool brought in by the employee referral program for any adverse impact. This can be done by assessing the current labor market for qualified candidates. Do not use referral programs alone, use them with other recruitment procedures more accessible to different racial/ethnic groups. Standardizing employee referrals to be evaluated equivalently to other types of applicants can also reduce adverse impact. I would structure an employee referral program similar to GE Medical Systems which is described in our class text (p. 245) 1) Offer a cash bonus to a current employee when/if a referral gets hired. Bonus amount examples were $2,000 to $3,000 for software engineers. This amount is feasible to companies when you compare the amount they would have to pay headhunters, which can be up to 35% of the new hire's first year of salary. 2) Ask new employees for referrals on their first day on the job. The text explains that in the first 3 months of hire, the new employee will still remember almost everyone from his/her old job, and noted that within 9 months one of those employees will be one of GE's new hires. Advantages: cost effective (the cheapest source of candidates), shortest delay from initial contact to report, more likely to receive job offer, better number of applicants, hires, and yield ratio (hires/applicants) than geographical focus ads. Disadvantages: cannot beat the internet if an organization has an efficient recruiting infrastructure (text used Lockheed Martin who received over 3,000 resumes a day for open positions), can create adverse impact, if the referrer leaves the company their referral's performance trajectory is affected.

In the selection context, what is the difference between an erroneous acceptance and an erroneous rejection? Provide examples of situations where one outcome or the other is more serious.

Erroneous Acceptance: is where an individual who is passed on from a preceding stage, but who fails at the following stage. Erroneous Rejection: is where an individual who is rejected at one stage, but who can succeed at the following stage if allowed to continue. Overall an erroneous acceptance will cost more in the long run because the company will invest time and resources on this applicant or employee only for them to fail; thus the company will be forced to once again speed time and resources to find an individual to replace them. However the cost of losing an individual through erroneous rejection is that the organization loses the opportunity to gain good talent that also could go work for their competitor. An erroneous acceptance is when an applicant is incorrectly selected, and turns out to have unacceptable performance. This can be due to low predictor validity, in that the predictor used does not match the desired criterion, or is not effective at measuring it. If the selection ratio, or the number of hires to applicants, is higher, this can also increase the number of incorrectly selected applicants. This can be costly as these low performers will more than likely have to be removed, or will leave the organization, and the organization will have utilize more resources such as funds and time to find a replacement and train this individual. An erroneous rejection is when an applicant is incorrectly rejected, and could have possibly been a high performer. In this case, this outcome could be due to low or high predictor validity in that low validity will lead to more erroneous acceptances instead of correct hires, and high validity will limit the amount of hires that could have been great performers. Low selection ratio has a similar effect in that it limits the number of erroneous acceptances and by consequence also increases the erroneous rejections.

As a senior manager, what metrics would you find most useful in assessing the effectiveness of recruiting? Why?

Generate viable candidates [total resumes received], maintaining the status of viable applicants [analysis of postvisit and rejection questionnaires], postoffer closure [acceptance/offer ratio + analysis of reasons for acceptance and rejection of job offers] however, the success of recruitment efforts depends on the number of successful placements made Recruiting yield ratio - ratios of leads to invites, invites to interviews, interviews [and other selection instruments] to offers, and offers to hires obtained over some specific time period [e.g., six months or a year]. Time-lapse data - provides the average intervals between events, such as between the extension of an offer to a candidate and acceptance or between acceptance and addition to the payroll. Both time-lapse data and recruiting yield ratios are "valuable for estimating recruiting staff and time requirements" [240] The most useful metrics should been chosen based on the stage in the recruitment process, although ultimately the effectiveness of recruiting depends on how many successful job placements have been made. There are three stages of the recruitment process. Stage 1: Finding viable job candidates. "Total resumes received" is the most useful metric. Stage 2: Maintaining viable candidates. The most useful metrics: analysis of post-visit and rejection questionnaires. Stage 3: Postoffer closure. Most useful metrics: acceptance/offer ratio, combined with an analysis of reasons for acceptance and rejection of job offers. "Simple metrics that assess recruiting effectiveness: 1. The number of overall days that "key positions" were vacant (due to recruiting) 2. Average performance appraisal score of new hires (this year compared to last in the same job) 3. Manager satisfaction with new hires (survey of hiring managers, results compared to last year's average) 4. The turnover rate of new hires within the first year 5. % of diversity hires in managerial and senior positions"

What is the difference between personality-based and overt honesty tests? Which constructs are measured by each of these types of measures? What are their validities?

Honesty tests, also known as integrity tests, measure conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability. A comprehensive meta analysis found a validity of .41, with overt tests much lower at .13. They are categorized as either overt or personality oriented. Overt tests assess THEFT and DISHONESTY such as endorsement of common rationalizations of theft/dishonesty, beliefs about their extent or frequency, punitiveness toward theft, and perceived ease of theft. Examples: Reid Report and Personnel Selection Inventory Personality-oriented tests take a more indirect route to measure honesty. They measure personalities that are predictors of counterproductive behavior such as substance abuse, insubordination, absenteeism, bogus workers' comp claims, and various forms of passive aggression. So, they assess broader dispositional traits such as SOCIALIZATION and CONSCIENTIOUSNESS. Examples: Reliability Scale of the Hogan Personnel Selection Series Both have a common structure reflecting conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability; however, they differ in content. Integrity test use has increased dramatically in the past decade. Written honesty tests (also known as integrity tests) fall into two major categories: 1. overt integrity tests "manifest"- have a clear purpose ex: Reid Report and Personnel Selection inventory typically include two types of questions One assesses attitudes towards theft and other forms of dishonesty (rationalization of thefts and other forms of dishonesty, perceived ease of theft, ect.) The other deals with the admissions of theft and other illegal activities (dollar amount stolen in the last year, drug use, gambling, ect.) 2. personality-oriented measures "latent"- general purpose not designed as measures of honesty per se, but rather as predictors of a wide variety of counterproductive behaviors (substance abuse, insubordination, absenteeism, insubordination, bogus workers; compensation claims, and various forms of passive aggression) Ex: Reliability Scale of the Hogan Personnel Selection Series, which was designed to measure "organizational delinquency". Includes items dealing with hostility toward authority, thrill seeking, conscientiousness, and social insensitivity. Overall, assess broader dispositional traits, such as socializations and conscientiousness. Ones et al. (1993) conducted a meta-analysis which showed that the average validity for overt tests for predicting theft was .13. however, Bernardin and Cooke (1993) found that scores on two overt integrity tests successfully predicted detected theft for convenience store employees with .28 validity. r up to .55 predicting bad behaviors. Ones & Viswesvaran (2007) conducted a study on a Fortune 500 company that found the correlation between a personality-based integrity test and maximal performance was r=.27. r up to .32 predicting bad behaviors. Integrity tests can also predict performance r up to .30.

What kinds of unique information about performance can each of the following sources provide: Immediate supervisor, peers, self, subordinates, and clients?

Immediate supervisor: will provide performance information in light of organizational objectives and can tie performance to employment actions (discipline) taken Has access to all other forms of feedback (from others) and can also compare performance to goals that were potentially set with employee previously Peers (includes peer nomination, rating and ranking): more likely to know about typical performance Able to see "behind the scenes"and potentially sees more than immediate supervisors (dependent on type of job) ; however must be collectively rated due to potential dishonest responses Self: best used for counseling and development than employment decisions; self-appraisals tend to show more leniency, less variability, more bias, and less agreement with the judgments of others Depending on personality, can be inflated /deflated. Subordinates: the extent to which a manager does or does not delegate, planning and organization skills, their leadership style, and communication skills Sees what managers may be comfortable/uncomfortable with- something that may not be seen when managers are asked to do self-reports Sees what works and does not work when doing a task. Clients: can provide information useful for employment decisions, HR research such as validation studies or training outcomes, or for self-development activities. There are no specific examples in the book but based on common knowledge: Clients have good knowledge of a worker's interpersonal skills, product knowledge, communication skills, persuasion and sales skills, reliability, integrity, and professionalism. Provide unbiased ratings of individuals; unlike raters from inside the organization. Provide feedback from particular instances which may have been forgotten about by employers throughout the year.

Differentiate between job analysis and job specification and explain the difference in validity between job descriptions and job specifications.

Job analysis: Refers to the systematic process of gathering and analyzing detailed information about the content and human requirements of a particular job, as well as the conditions under which the work is performed. Job analysis may include research of KSAOs necessary/required for a specific job. Two outcomes of job analysis include job description and job specification. Job specification: Is a statement of the minimum qualifications (KSAOs) deemed necessary for an individual to perform a particular job. Job specification helps to ensure that an appropriate individual is hired for an appropriate position. ○ Job descriptions specify what a worker actually does. Specifically, it is a concise, organized factual statement of job demands in the form of duties and responsibilities, authority, purpose and scope of a specific job. Job descriptions help ascertain whether (or not) an applicant is eligible as per the set standards. Job descriptions: Are valid to the extent that they accurately represent job content, environment, and conditions of employment. Job specifications are valid to the extent that individuals possessing the personal characteristics believed necessary for successful job performance in fact do perform more effectively on their jobs than individuals lacking such personal characteristics. job analysis - process of defining jobs, specifying what employee behaviors are necessary to perform them, and developing hypotheses about the personal characteristics necessary to perform those work behaviors. (the big picture, the whole shebang) job specifications - represent the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other personal characteristics deemed necessary to perform a job. should indicate minimal acceptable standards for selection and later performance. job description - basically outlines the work to be done; it is a statement of what a worker does, how he or she does it, and why job specifications can be the bare minimum of what the job may need - for example a company will sometimes state "Bachelor degree or equivalent experience" - creating more flexibility for people the company can hire. there is still content validity, however because job descriptions are more rigid and exact to what the job entails, job description content validity will be higher than job specification content validity.

How do labor market conditions affect wages and yield ratios? What can you do to improve yield ratios?

Labor market - supply pool from which employers attract employees (people who can do the job) Yield ratios - comparison of the number of applicants at one stage of the recruiting process with the number at the next stage (the small number of people that move from one stage to the next - from phone interview to in face interview, from in face interview to being chosen from the job) Labor market condition - whether there is a good supply of people available who can do that specific job (good condition) or not (bad condition) Labor market conditions affect wages because if there are many people who can do the job wages tend to be lower due to companies being able to pick and choose from the high pool of applicants (McDonald's). Wages will be higher if fewer people can do the job (doctors - takes a lot of training and schooling). Labor market conditions affect yield ratios depending on the amount of people applying for the position and how many of those people are moved onto the next step. If a job has more people applying, the yield ratio will be lower because the company will have many options to choose from. If a job has less people applying, the yield ratio will be higher because the labor market is smaller - the company will have fewer options to choose from. To improve yield ratios, you can use the Internet to make the process between each step faster. By only using the sources that give the best yield ratios, companies can improve yield ratios by analyzing the sources from which candidates are generated (recruitment/resume websites like LinkedIn or monster). "If the supply of suitable workers in a particular labor market is high relative to available jobs, then the price of labor generally will be cheaper. On the other hand, if the supply is limited then the search must be widened and additional labor markets investigated in order to realize required labor markets"

Explain one advantage and disadvantage of each of the following prediction models: Multiple regression, multiple cutoff, and multiple hurdle. How do you decide which prediction model to use and why?

Multiple Regression: Advantage is that it can minimize errors in prediction, and combines the predictors to yield the best estimate of criterion status. Disadvantage it that the weights used to combine the predictors can become unstable with smaller sample sizes. Multiple Cutoff: Advantage is that candidates remaining in applicant pool after applying are all minimally qualified on all predictors. Disadvantage is that it is non-compensatory, and thus makes the relationship between predictor and criterion curvilinear. This prediction model is good to use in the event that you want a candidate to be at least minimally qualified on all predictors. Multiple Hurdle: Advantage is that applicants don't have to go through all the predictors. Disadvantage is that it can take up more time than the previous two, and thus more costly to the organization. This model is good to use if you want to weed out poor applicants early on, and decrease the possibility of a false positive.

Would you consider not using a valid cognitive abilities test that produces adverse impact? What factors guided your decision? What trade-offs are involved?

No, because any measure that leads to adverse impact can lead to serious consequences for an organization. When deciding to implement anything in an organization it is imperative to consider the impact and any unintended consequences. If an organization uses a measure that leads to adverse impact then this can potentially lead to the involvement by the EEOC and potential monetary consequences. Another unintended consequence is that possible job candidates that are qualified may not apply because of the lack of visible diversity. This can lead to the organization missing out on true positives because they are not likely to apply. Furthermore, adverse impact could continue to be a problem because once the selected employees begin their position if they refer job candidates this will also continue to add to adverse impact. Trade off you may have to use several predictors to screen out applicants and this can lead to more cost on the end of the organization because it can lengthen the selection process and the organization must decide what other predictors are valuable. If the multiple predictors substantially lengthen the selection process it is possible that some applicants may not complete the process because they may receive another offer. They will also have to decide how to disqualify applicants. It would depend on a number of factors. If the test has high power, good sample size, good validity, and good reliability then I would consider using the test even if it produces adverse impact. I would also make sure that the test would hold up under the court's standard and the uniform guidelines (1978). In order to help counteract the effect of the adverse impact, I would recommend improving the recruiting strategy for minorities, use the cognitive abilities test in combination with noncognitive predictors [personality tests, structured interviews, and biodata], use measure of the specific cognitive abilities and not just the general cognitive abilities, and consider implementing test-score banding to select among the applicants. i.The larger the pool of qualified applicants in the minority group, the higher the selection ratio and the lower the probability of adverse impact [183] ii.The largest differences between ethnic groups in mean scores from measure of general cognitive abilities. Thus, adverse impact can be reduced by adding additional noncognitive measures. [183] iii. Differences are smaller for specific abilities [such as reasoning and quantitative abilities] especially for jobs high on job complexity [183] iv. Helps to increase the proportion of individuals that may otherwise be underrepresented [184]

What do test norms tell us? What do they not tell us?

Norm referenced tests report whether test takers performed better or worse than a hypothetical average student, which is determined by comparing scores against the performance results of a statistically selected group of test takers, typically of the same age or grade level who have already taken them. Employment tests are used to make inferences about people's characteristics, capabilities and likely future performance on the job. Norm-referenced test interpretations: score that the applicant receives are compared to the test performance of a particular reference group (e.g., other members of the same occupation) The reference group is the norm group. Consist of large representative samples of individuals from specific populations. Their average test performance and distribution of their scores set the standard and become the test norms of the group. To ensure valid scores and meaningful interpretation of the norm-referenced test, make sure that your target group is similar to the norm group. Compare education level, occupation, language, cultural background and other demographics of interest. Potential advantages: Reliable test quality, standardized procedures, meaningful information about average performance and facilitates decision making. "They provide a frame of reference for interpreting test scores. They indicate the average performance but also the relative spread of the scores above and below average. It is possible to evaluate a test score in terms of the examinee's relative standing within the standardization sample" (Textbook p. 119) Examples: GRE, ACT, SAT, etc.... "Norm-referenced tests report whether test takers performed better or worse than a hypothetical average student, which is determined by comparing scores against the performance results of a statistically selected group of test takers, typically of the same age or grade level, who have already taken the exam." "Norms do not automatically imply a standard. A norm-referenced test does not seek to enforce any expectation of what test takers should know or be able to do. It measures the test takers' current level by comparing the test takers to their peers. A rank-based system produces only data that tell which students perform at an average level, which students do better, and which students do worse. It does not identify which test takers are able to correctly perform the tasks at a level that would be acceptable for employment or further education." "Norm-referencing does not ensure that a test is valid (i.e. that it measures the construct it is intended to measure)."

What key elements would you design into a rater-training program? What are the advantages of a well designed rater-training program?

Objectives of rater training: 1. Improve the observational skills of raters by teaching them what to attend to 2. Reduce or eliminate judgmental bias (leniency, central tendency, and halo effects) 3. Improve the ability of raters to communicate performance information to rates in an objective and constructive manner. Rater Error Training (RET) exposes raters to the different errors and their causes. Although, raters may not necessarily avoid these errors even though they are aware of them. The most effective type of rater training program is frame-of-reference training (FOR). It provides trainees with "theory of performance" that allows them to understand the various performance dimensions, how to match these performance dimensions to rate behaviors, how to judge the effectiveness of various rate behaviors, and how to integrate these judgments into an overall rating of performance. Training should focus on different frames-of-reference Step 1: specify objectives For Rater-Training Program 3 objectives (1) To improve the observational skills of raters by teaching them what to attend to. (2) To reduce or eliminate judgmental biases (3) To improve the ability of raters to communicate performance information to rates in an objective and constructive manner. Things that rater-training programs work to eliminate: Judgmental bias Leniency Central tendency Halo effect Rater training programs that work to eliminate systematic error only result in short term effects. For unintentional errors: Rater-error training (RET): exposes raters to the different errors and their causes. Awareness of the errors does not necessarily lead to the elimination of errors. Frame of reference training (FOR) procedures: 1. Participants are told they are going to be evaluating the performance of 3 ratees on 3 separate performance dimensions. 2. Raters are given scales and told to read them while the trainer reads the dimension definitions and scale anchors aloud. 3. The trainer then discusses rate behaviors that illustrate different performance levels for each scale. The goal is to create a common performance theory (frame of reference) among the raters such that they will agree on the appropriate performance dimension and effectiveness level for different behaviors. 4. Participants are shown videotape and then asked to evaluate the ratee. 5. Ratings are written and discussed amongst the participants and the trainer will identify behaviors used to assign ratings and clarify discrepancies. 6. The trainer provides feedback to participants, explaining why the rate should receive a certain rating on a given dimension. Advantages: Allows rater to understand the various performance dimensions, how to match performance dimensions to rate behaviors, how to judge the effectiveness of various rating behaviors and how to integrate these judgments into an overall rating of performance. Need to focus on the content of the rater's performance theories and on the process by which judgments are made. Trained managers can provide better development plans for their subordinates.

What are the implications of the typical vs. maximum performance distinction for personnel selection?

Performance distinction and performance prediction are two underlying roles in personnel selection decisions. The literature on job performance suggests that a distinction can be made between typical and maximum performance. Typical performance refers to an individual's average level of performance over time. Maximum performance, on the other hand, refers to an individual's performance during a brief period of in which they exert 100 percent effort. The two are often described in terms of what an individual "will do," versus what an individual "can do." Primarily, the definitions are related to a measure taken in a specific time frame. Employees tend to perform at maximum levels when they are aware that they are being evaluated and when the task they are instructed to perform takes a short amount of time. Additionally, individuals' motivation is more strongly related to maxim performance than it is to typical performance maximum performance was measured with a job sample test and typical performance was measured with a 30-day average of individuals' daily performance. They found that cognitive ability tests are better predictors of maximum performance criteria compared to typical performance criteria reflecting similar dimensions of performance. During a work sample, it is likely that a job applicant will exhibit maximum performance to increase their chances of being hired. Managers should be aware that this behavior might not accurately portray how an individual will perform on a day-to-day basis, and thus hiring decisions should not be solely based on an individual's performance during such a brief period of time. Failure to distinguish between maximum and typical performance may lead to poor hiring decisions. The example above indicates that a separate set of performance criteria is necessary for predicting individuals' future typical and maximum performance. More focus should be paid to the temporal dimensional of performance criteria. typical performance - employees performing under normal circumstances. what they might be doing from day to day maximum performance - employees making their best possible effort. usually happens when they are being observed implications might be when someone is being observed or tested as they are interviewing, they will show their maximum performance level to show the company what they are capable of at their best. this may not be how they will truly perform during day to day work, however. it does not allow for the interviewee to be honest about the work they would actually do every day. this happens often during state driving tests - people drive to the best of their ability while being tested because they have someone in the car with them critiquing every move. once the license is obtained, and nobody is with them in the car, the person might drive more recklessly - won't signal when changing lanes, won't stop completely at a stop sign.

What factors might affect the size of a validity coefficient? What can be done to deal with each of these factors?

Range enhancement occurs whenever the validating group is more heterogeneous than the group for which the predictor is intended, resulting in unnecessarily high variance in scores that will not normally be seen. To resolve this, validation measures should be conducted on groups similar to those anticipated to use the measure (e.g. if it is a measure for mechanics, validate the measure on a group of mechanics not mechanics, engineers, and rocket scientists). Range restriction occurs from truncating the predictor or the criterion range. Range restriction of a predictor can occur when measures are used for selection prior to validation, narrowing the applicant pool. For example, eliminating applicants that score below a cutoff. If this is done, criterion data for low scorers is unavailable. So basically: selection at the point of hire reduces predictor range while selection on the job reduces criterion range. To resolve this there are formulas that can be used to statistically correct for restriction or validation can be conducted prior to any selection censorship. Observed sample data are not available across the entire range of interest.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of recommendations and reference checks? How can the usefulness of recommendations and reference checks be improved?

Recommendations - ADVANTAGES: · Low cost for company · Potential to provide helpful information DISADVANTAGES: · Average validity · Considered by some to have little value · Rarely include unfavorable information (no discrimination among candidates) · Letter can provide more on the recommender than the candidate In order to a recommendation to be meaningful, recommender must - · have had an adequate opportunity to observe the applicant in job-relevant situations · be willing to be open and candid · give evaluations that the potential employer can interpret them *Recommendations can be impaired by any of the above, but most crucial is candidness How to improve recommendations? Include the following - · Degree of writer familiarity with the candidate - time known and time observed per week · Degree of writer familiarity with job in question - applicant should give recommender a job description of job applicant is applying for · Specific examples of performance - cover topics like goal achievement, task difficulty, work environment, extent of cooperation from coworkers · Individuals or groups to whom the candidate is compared Reference checks - ADVANTAGES: · Higher validity · Easily conducted (structured telephone reference checks) · most frequently used on outside candidates · Applicable for all job types and levels DISADVANTAGES: · Many employers believe they are not permissible under law (not true) · Cost for company How to improve reference checks? Include the following - · Consistency - if an item is grounds for dismissal for one individual, must be for all · Relevancy - employers should stick to items of information that really distinguish effective from ineffective employees · Written - employers should keep written records of the information obtained to support ultimate hiring decision made · Based on public records, if possible - such as court records, worker's comp, and bankruptcy proceedings Recommendation and reference checks rely on the opinions of relevant others to help evaluate what and how well the applicant did in the past. b. Advantages- • You receive additional information regarding the applicant. In general there are four kinds of information that is obtainable. 1. Employment and Educational history (including confirmation of degree and class standing or grade point average. 2. Evaluation of the applicants character, personality, and interpersonal competence; 3. Evaluation of the applicant's job performance ability 4. Willingness to rehire • If done it can lead to a decrease of liability for the employer. Employers can be found guilty of negligent hiring if they should have known at the time of hire about the unfitness of an applicant that subsequently causes harm to an individual. • Meta- analysis found an average validity of .26 c. Disadvantages- • The preconditions (explained next are not met) Usually being honest is the one that is the most serious. • There are legal issues because if the truth of any unfavorable information cannot be demonstrated and it harms the reputation of the individual in question, providers of references may be guilty of defamation. Therefore, they may not be willing to provide any information if they do not have solid evidence. • The average validity of recommendations is .14 • They rarely include negative information and therefore do not discriminate against candidates. • In many cases the letter may be providing more information about the person who wrote it than about the person described in the letter. This is because the affective disposition of letter writers has an impact on letter length, which, in turn, has impact on the favorability of the letter. d. Ways to improve • If letters are to be meaningful they should contain the following: 1. Degrees of writer familiarity with the candidate- include time known and time observed per week. 2. Degree of writer familiarity with the job in question- to help the writer make this judgment, the person soliciting the recommendation should supply to the writer a description of the job in question. 3. Specific examples of performance- this should cover such aspects as goal achievement, task difficulty, work environment, and extent of cooperation from coworkers. • There a certain preconditions that must be satisfied 1. The recommender must have adequate opportunity to observe the applicant in job-relevant situation 2. He or she must be competent to make such evaluations. 3. He or she must be willing to be open and candid. 4. Evaluations must be expressed so that the potential employer can interpret them in the manner intended. • The most useful reference checks should be 1. Based on public records if possible (court records, workers comp, and bankruptcy procedures. • Take the supervisor out of the judgmental past and into the role of an evaluator of a candidates abilities. • Remove the perception of potential liability for judging a former subordinate's performance by asking for advice on how best to manage the person to bring out his or her abilities. • The goal with any reference should be to go beyond merely coming facts on a resume. 1. Always ask how the reference knows the candidate. He might have managed your candidate for five years or be the candidate's brother-in-law; you don't know until you ask. Some candidates pick people as a reference who are well known in their field but whom they haven't worked closely with. A fame-based reference isn't helpful to you as a manager. 2. Compliment the candidate, and describe the job. Remember the reference was chosen by the candidate and will want you to like the candidate, too. Describing the job helps orient the reference. Follow up with, "What aspect of this job will play to Chris's strengths?" and "What will be new to Chris in this job?" 3. Never show any skepticism or negativity toward the candidate or the reference will clam up out of sheer loyalty. It won't help your reputation either if the reference gets back to the candidate about you. 4. Try open-ended questions like these, "What were Jodi's responsibilities in the merger?" or "Tell me a little about the product development team Jodi worked on." Then match what the reference says to what Jodi said. Did Jodi overstate her role? 5. Stay grounded in the facts. Cut through any gushing about how wonderful the candidate is by asking what he or she actually did. "It's great her presentation was so successful, but tell me a little more about the content of the presentation and what made it so persuasive." 6. Don't interrupt; let the reference talk on and on. Sometimes a reference will drift from the script and give you important information if you just wait a little. 7. make sure to agree with the candidate on a comprehensive and relevant list of referees to call, including former bosses, peers, and subordinates at several previous places of employment. Narrow your list by thinking about the special skills you want to measure: former bosses are great at assessing strategic orientation and achievement drive; peers can help to measure influence; subordinates are often the best judges of leadership. 8. Provide the referee with the right incentives. Start the conversation by highlighting how important it is to have a reliable reference, since the candidate won't benefit from getting a job in which he's likely to fail. Explain that you realize no candidate is perfect. All have their individual strengths and weaknesses, and it's useful to know as much as possible so that if the person is hired you can provide the right kind of integration and support. Emphasize that the referee's comments will be kept completely confidential. And speak in person or on the phone rather than via email; it's easier to solicit the whole truth when you can hear hesitation or emotion in a person's voice or see it on their face. 9. Help the referee avoid frequent biases. Avoid broad questions such as "What can you tell me about Carol?" since the answer would probably focus on her best or most salient general characteristic (rather than the one most relevant to the job), which taints everything that follows because the referee wants to appear consistent. Instead, after checking the person's relationship with the candidate, be specific about the role you're trying to fill and its challenges. Ask whether the referee has seen the candidate perform under similar circumstances. Then, and only then, ask what his or her exact responsibilities were, how he or she performed, and what the consequences were.

Name the five types of records that must be kept by an organization when recruiting and evaluating applicants. Why are these important and how are these used?

Records are required to be kept only by sex and by specified race and ethnic groups so as to permit the identification of discriminatory practices on any such basis. The groups for which records are required to be maintained are the groups for which there is extensive evidence of continuing discriminatory practices. The Guidelines call for records to be kept and determinations of adverse impact to be made of the overall selection process on a job-by-job basis. In a discrimination lawsuit, such records are investigated to determine whether (or not) discrimination occurred. ○ When procedures are frequently administered for large numbers of applicants, this information may be retained on a sample basis, provided that the sample is representative of the applicant population and of adequate size. ○ The records must be maintained by sex and the following races and ethnic groups: Blacks, American Indians, Asians, Hispanic, and whites other than Hispanic. These records must only be used for appropriate purposes such as determining adverse impact, or for developing and monitoring affirmative action programs. ⇒ 1) Job analysis or review of job information, which details the content of the job, as well as a description of the procedure used. • Where a review of job information is used without a full job analysis, the basis for the selection of criteria should be reported • Where a job analysis is required, a complete description of the work behaviors/outcomes, and measures of their importance should be provided − The report should describe the basis on which the behaviors or outcomes were determined to be critical or important, such as the proportion of time spent, level of difficulty, frequency, consequences of error, or other appropriate factors. ⇒2) Description of the selection procedure(s) utilized. ⇒3) The relationship between the selection procedure(s) and the particular job, including the basis for the selection of criterion measures and references to the evidence considered in selecting criterion measures. • Validation, which is the establishment of a clear relationship between a selection procedure and the requirements of successful job performance. − The Uniform Guidelines recognize three aspects of validity: content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity. *****Specifically, evidence of validity must include: − Dates and locations of job analysis or review of job information − Information on the users, locations, and dates of content, construct, and criterion-related validity studies − The time between collection of data on selection procedures and criterion measures − A full description of all criteria collected and the means by which they were observed, recorded, evaluated, and quantified. − If rating techniques are used as criterion measures, the appraisal forms and instructions to the raters. − All steps taken to ensure that criterion measures do not unfairly alter the scores of members of any group. − A description of how the research sample was identified and selected, as well as the size of each subgroup, and how the sample compares with the relevant labor market or work force. ⇒4) The uses and applications of the selection procedure(s). ⇒5) Evidence that indicates the impact of the selection process and the component procedures on identifiable race, sex, or ethnic groups. • The number of individuals hired, promoted, and terminated for each job by race, sex, and national origin. • The number of individuals who were applicants or candidates at any stage of the process by race, sex, and national origin. − Whenever the total selection process for a particular job has had an adverse impact in the past, but no longer has an adverse impact, information of the individual components of the selection process should be collected for at least two years after the adverse impact has been eliminated. − When there has not been a sufficient number of selections to determine whether or not there is adverse impact, information on the component procedures should collected and maintained until the information is sufficient to determine the impact of the selection process. − If employment tests have a disparate impact, they are lawful only if they are ''job-related" and consistent with "business necessity"

Provide 3 arguments in favor of and against the use of test-score banding. What would your recommendation be to a client considering using test-score banding?

Test-score banding is the process of grouping test scores into ranges, and treating the individual scores as equivalent within the range when making a personnel decision. The idea behind the idea of banding is that small differences between test scores may not result in large differences in job performance. (It is like the grading system; GPA = A's, B's, C's, etc...) The Arguments In Favor of Test-Score Banding: 1. It reduces adverse impact: this in turn can decrease legal challenges to an organization, and enhances legal defensibly. It increases the job opportunities for people of protected groups. 2. It increases diversity: if job applicants with similar scores are grouped together and considered equal, it encourages hiring managers to look at aspects of diversity when making a hiring decision, rather than just selecting the individual with the highest scores. 3. It enhances flexibility of hiring managers to find the right person for the job, among the best qualified applicants. The Arguments Against Test-Score Banding: 1. It introduces selection criteria that are not usually apart of the selection process: this criteria can be used to differentiate among applicants without disclosing this to the applicant. 2. It can result in preferential treatment: if race, gender, or ethnicity is used as the sole determinant for selection. 3. It can increase perceptions of unfairness: if a test-score band is too wide and applicants feel as though the differences between individual scores in a range are large, then they may perceive more unfairness. My recommendation would be to use test-score banding due to the number of advantages that it has to an organization. However, I would encourage a client to use test-score banding with more narrow bands, or narrow range of indifference.

What are some advantages and disadvantages of work samples as predictors of work-related success?

The ability to predict future performance of incumbent employees or candidates for employment has been one of the main contributions of psychologists to industry. A work sample, whether used as a predictor or a criterion, is constructed to allow a measure of performance on a structured task that is directly reflective of the types of behaviors required in the job situation. Consequently, regardless of its use in the literature, either as a predictor of future performance or as a measure of present ability, the work sample by its very nature can be considered a criterion measure. MEASUREMENT ISSUES Few work sample studies report the reliability of behavioral observations obtained by raters. In many cases, only a single rater or observer evaluates testees, and rarely is there a follow-up evaluation to provide any kind of test-retest reliability. Unfortunately, a large gap exists in the literature in regard to work samples as measures of incumbent employees' performance. This use of work samples as a criterion measure apart from other forms of performance appraisal may be beneficial, however. In jobs that require a high degree of specific technical skills, or in which a core of critical job behaviors can be identified, work samples would be an additional method of obtaining performance data. If properly constructed, they eliminate rating biases by requiring the evaluator to describe the employee's behavior on a standardized form rather than to evaluate the behavior observed. This may reduce or eliminate some of the more common rating errors, such as halo, leniency, or central tendency, since the rater's only judgment is whether a behavior has in fact occurred, and not to what degree or how appropriate that behavior is. ADVERSE IMPACT Work samples appear to have less adverse impact against minority groups than do paper-and-pencil tests. The job knowledge test was found to be a valid predictor of the proficiency criterion for all groups except the minority sample. The job knowledge test was predictive of overall job performance only for the female sample. No validity coefficients for the personnel classification test reached significance. The job knowledge test showed no significant minority-nonminority differences for the slopes and intercepts of the regression lines for the two criterion. ADVANTAGES The research concerning work sample testing suggests that they can produce high predictive validities, and that when used as criteria they compare favorably with supervisor ratings and productivity measures. Work samples appear to be particularly relevant in training situations, as both a measure of training success and as a means of assessing the trainability of individuals prior to a full-length training program. Also of considerable importance is the fact that work sample tests seem to reduce adverse impact, particularly if the ratings concentrate on relevant job tasks. In the few studies that address reliability issues, work samples show good test-retest and interrater reliabilities. Because of their standardized nature, and the fact that rating occurs while the behavior is taking place, work samples are less prone to the errors arising from a time lag between observation and rating. As mentioned early in this paper, because of their close tie to actual work behaviors, work Work samples, if tested for criterion validity, can be useful when they evaluate behaviors that are actually required of the job. Work samples are highly valued for their ability to predict behavior on the job since they are direct observations of the work completed on the job. Advantages: high predictive validity; highly cost-effective; high face validity and acceptance. Originally believed to reduce adverse impact. Disadvantages: can be expensive and time consuming; new research claiming that past studies utilizing incumbents rather than applicants caused restriction of range and masked the true effect on adverse impact. More recent studies including samples of job applicants have shown adverse impact towards minority groups.

Which personality traits would you use in the selection of managers? How would you minimize the effects of faking?

The finding that Conscientiousness is on average the most highly valued attribute certainly does not mean that that attribute is most highly valued for all occupations or is most highly valued by all individual interviewers even within an occupation within which that attribute is identified as generally most highly valued. Although Conscientiousness emerged as the most important attribute across jobs, differences were found for specific occupations (e.g., Openness to Experience was most important for news reporters; Extraversion was most important for insurance sales agents). Faking or the ability to fake may not always be bad. In fact, it may be job-related or at least socially adaptive in some situations. Corrections for faking do not appear to improve validity. However, the use of bogus items may be a potentially useful way of identifying fakers. "One projective instrument that has shown potential for forecasting managerial success is the Miner Sentence Completion Scale (MSCS), a measure of motivation to manage" [293] -Subscales are authority figures, competitive games, competitive situations, assertive role, imposing wishes, standing out from group, and routine administrative functions. "Conscientiousness is the best predictor of job performance across types of jobs...agreeableness and conscientiousness predicted peer ratings of team member performance above and beyond job-specific skills and general cognitive ability" [288] In regards to faking... "perhaps even more critical issue is that validity coefficient in terms of performance prediction are not very impressive and have not changed much over time, particularly if one examines observed coefficients...find an alternative to self-reporting personality tests" faking is impossible to avoid

Describe the usefulness of general mental ability as a selection tool. What are the advantages of using general mental ability? What are the disadvantages?

What is general mental ability? ● Term used to describe the level at which an individual learns, understands instructions, and solves problems. Tests of general mental abilities include scales that measure specific constructs such as verbal, mechanical, numerical, social and spatial ability. ● Examples of mental abilities: verbal, quantitative, reasoning and spatial abilities. Usefulness of the GMA: ● Used to measure ability to learn and perform particular job responsibilities. Fundamental to success in many kinds of jobs, especially where cognitive activities such as reading, computing, analyzing or communicating are involved. ● Avoid pure intelligence tests. ● Before test administration, conduct a job analysis to identify the job requirements and duties. Test should be chosen to measure aptitudes and abilities related to the job. ● When employer use GMA to select employees who have high levels of performance on the job, that employer is also selecting for those who will learn the most from job training programs and will acquire job knowledge faster from experience on the job. ● Using a structured interview and a GMA measure is very good. Yields 63% of the maximum possible practical value at a reasonable cost. Advantages: ● Procedures can be used for all jobs, whether entry level or advance it has the highest validity and lowest application cost. ● Research for the validity of GMA measures for predicting job performance is stronger than that for any other method. ● GMA has been shown to be the best predictor of job related learning. It is the best predictor of acquisition of job knowledge on the job. ● Theoretical foundation for the GMA is stronger than for any other personnel measure. ● Are among the most useful predictor of performance across a wide variety of jobs. ● Are usually easy and inexpensive to administer ● Highly reliable ● Verbal reasoning and numerical tests have shown high validity for a wide range of jobs ● The validity rises with increasing complexity of the job ● Combinations of aptitude tests have higher validities than individual tests alone ● May be administered in group settings where many applicants can be tested at the same time ● Scoring of the tests may be completed by computer scanning equipment ● Lower cost than personality tests Disadvantages: ● Use of ability tests can result in high levels of adverse impact ● Example of AI when using GMA: mental abilities test can impact some racial minorities groups and if speed is also a component of the test, older workers may be adversely impacted. ● Results of the test can be affected by extraneous factors. References: The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: practical and theoretical implication of 85 years of research findings. (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998); Testing and Assessment: An employer's guide to good practices. General Mental Ability "g"- intelligence test/ cognitive ability tests: Measures general intelligence- verbal, non verbal, numerical, and spatial relations ability; perceptual speed and accuracy; inductive reasoning; and mechanical knowledge and/ or comprehension. Advantages: Criterion validity of "g" = .40-.60 Single best predictor job performance It has a strong effect on job knowledge and it contributes to individuals being given the opportunity to acquire supervisory experience because it is a good predictor of jobs with inconsistent tasks and unforeseen changes which is often the case with managerial jobs. Ghiselli (1966, 1973) reported that managerial success had been predicted most accurately by general intellectual ability and general perceptual ability tests (r=.53 and .43). Grimsley and Jarrett (1973, 1975) support Gheselli's (1963, 1973) conclusion that differences in intellectual competence are related to the degree of managerial success at high levels of management. They concluded that differences found between top and middle managers were due to fundamental differences in cognitive ability and personality rather than on the job experience. There is substantial agreement among researchers regarding the validity of cognitive ability tests. A survey of 703 members of the SIOP showed that 85% agreed that "general cognitive ability is measured reasonably well by standardized tests." Disadvantages: Although general mental ability seems to be the best single predictor of job performance, it is also most likely to lead to adverse impact. This has led to a separation of people who endorse using general mental ability as a predictor of performance and those who do not. Perceptions of a low performing worker are that they have low cognitive abilities, and can become a reinforcer for low performance. General mental ability represents a limited conceptualization of intelligence because it does not include tacit knowledge (knowledge gained from everyday experience) and practical intelligence (ability to find an optimal fit between oneself and the demands of the environment; "street smart"; "common sense") General mental ability tests are better at predicting maximum performance compared to typical performance Scores can improve after retaking the same test several times because the factor underlying retest scores is less associated with "g" and more associated with memory than the factor underlying initial test scores. Too simplistic to predict complexities of performance The imperfect nature of cognitive ability tests has led to the development of test-score banding. It has been suggested that tests of general mental ability should be viewed as a starting point rather than an ending point. It should not be overemphasized or have sole reliance in selecting managers and employees. It should be combined with other instruments, such as structured interviews, biodata, and objective personality inventories. Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence: "g" plus practical, and creative (process theory):Rejecting traditionally narrow definitions of intelligence, Sternberg defined intelligence as mental activity central to one's life in real-world environments; individuals "succeed" in life when they use mental skills to adapt to, select, and shape external environments. As per its original name, the theory comprises three types of intelligence: analytical (also referred to as componential); practical (also referred to as contextual) and creative (also referred to as experiential). Analytical intelligence is evoked while analyzing, evaluating, criticizing, reasoning, and judging. Practical intelligence is used while implying, implementing, and using. Creative intelligence is manifested while discovering, inventing, dealing with novelty, and creating. The theory predicts that "intelligent" people will identify their strengths and weaknesses, make the most of their strengths and compensate for their weaknesses.

Provide three examples to illustrate how the selection ratio and base rate affect judgments about the usefulness of a predictor.

selection ratio - ratio of available job openings to the number of available applicants base rate - proportion of people who were a good fit If an SR is low, a predictor with low validity can be useful as an make improvements over the base rate. With a low SR, most predictors will be useful, but the more valid a predictor is, the more useful it will be for Selecting new hires. For example, if a college sets a standard for SAT scores that is high enough to create a selection ratio of .1 (or 1 in 10 admitted) the college is likely to select high achievers who will likely be successful on college as the choose only to select "the cream of the crop". Conversely, high srs make predictors less useful as most applicants end up being selected the probability of selecting failures is higher as a result. The higher a BR is, the more difficult it is to improve on selection procedures. High BRs basically indicate that most people selected meet the criteria to be considered successful. As a result, a predictor has to produce better results to be considered useful. For example, if using SAT scores produced a BR of .8, adding a predictor would have to improve on this BR incrementally to be considered useful. Similarly, a very low BR also makes it more difficult to improve on selection procedures. A low BR often indicates high performance standards and a tendency to predict failure. With such high standards, it can be difficult to find a predictor valid enough to select better than the existing method. For example, if a college was using sat scores and only had a BR of .20, adding an additional predictor would have to improve on this significantly to be worthwhile. Selection measure are most useful when a BR is about .50 because there is greater variance between successes and failures. When the variance is greater, there is greater potential for the predictor to demonstrate reliable results. For example, if the sat scores were only producing a BR of .50, adding an additional predictor such as grade point average that could improve selection by as little as 20% (or a BR of.60) would be considered useful.) Selection Ratio: (number of positions / number of applicants) - Lower the SR, the more selective you can be (Higher Criterion) and fewer false positives (More Misses). Base Rate: (number of acceptable job performance / number of applicants) - Percentage of present employees who are successful. Can have greatest impact on orgs with base rate around 50%. Example 1: If you have a high selection ratio and low base rate then the predictor usefulness will be low, and allow for more erroneous acceptances. Example 2: If the both the selection ratio and base rate are near .50, then the chances of making a correct acceptance, correct rejection, erroneous acceptance, and erroneous rejection are about the same meaning that the predictor is pretty useful. Example 3: If the selection ratio is low and the bate rate is high, then the predictor is very useful because the chances of making erroneous acceptances decreases, and the chances of making only correct acceptances is very good.