Persuasion EXAM 1

How do academics view persuasion? Bettinghaus & Cody

" A conscious attempt to change attitudes, beliefs or behavior of another through the TRANSMISSION of some messages

Academics- O'Keefe

-O'Keefe: Refutes "Sharp edge" definition. Says any precise meaning sets up boundaries that are partially arbitrary. Features in cases of persuasion: -having a specific goal in mind -achieving it through the use of LANGUAGE or SYMBOLS -Producing a "change in the mental state of the persuadee"

Woodward & Denton see persuasion as 2 traditions-

1- As an ETHICALLY SUSPECT PROCESS, a form of HUCKERTISM, where advocates firm in their own beliefs ask for change from others 2- More conscious of how language and symbols shape consensus RHETORICAL

Academics- Hart& Daughton

A reciprocal or transactional art, where audiences- WILLING PRATICIPANTS

Academics- Herbert Simons

Attempted influence, in the sense that it seeks to ALTER the way others think,act,feel. emphasizes that it is a cooperative and coactive enterprise

41. What do "single shot" attitude change models posit?

Audiences can be persuaded by one element of persuasive message. I.E. Yale Group: Hovland • Attention • Comprehension • Acceptance • Retention • Action -It posits that all it takes is ONE well constructed and well delivered message to effect change. Heavy responsibility on source responsibility. Ex: Advertising

• Larsen's definition of persuasion:

Co-creation; of a state of identification or alignment between a source and receiver that results from the use of symbols. o Sender and receiver→ getting involved. EX: "yes" questions to the insurance company. Co-creation; of a state of identification or alignment between a source and receiver that results from the use of symbols. o Sender and receiver→ getting involved. EX: "yes" questions to the insurance company.

42. How do Skinner's schedules of reinforcement guide persuasive function?

Continuous: positive stimulus everytime action is done Ratio:perform task number of times to get reinforcement Interval: period of time to get reinforcement (paycheck) Random Intermittent: don't know how long until reinforcement is given. (most effective means of persuasion)

Academics- Chris Hitchens

It isn't always that someone plans something that will our kind, its that our mind changes us.

How do the authors- Woodward& Denton- view persuasion ?

It takes no single form It occurs in a diverse range of contexts and media, from simple exchanges from friends to elaborate campaigns

In the text (p.16) of discussion of the previously mentioned cases several conclusions were reached (suggested). Some of these are: · What do they mean by "persuasion is about sources and messages"?

Messages do not stand alone; consumers weigh both the credibility of advocates as well as the quality of their messages. [Aristotle says: Good character- high ethos- "may be the most effective means of persuasion" that a

31. What effect does the mass media have on unintended messages?

NOTES) indicate in our culture that we depend on information from media. Choose to be persuaded or not by different outlets.

29. What does it mean to "pander"?

Plato called excessive attention to audience beliefs "pandering". Claimed that it was a common if unfortunate feature of persuasion as taught by most of his peers.

Theorists Views

Quiltillan- One has to be a good person in order to be a good speaker Fotheringham- that body effects in receivers Larsen- co-creation of identification or alignment between a source and a receiver that results from a use of symbols. Cicero- says persuasive speech needs 5 things- Invention,organization, style, memory, delivery

23. Is reality objective or subjective?

Subjective

· That minimal effects are important?

We can never be indifferent about even small changes in attitude or behavior. For example, it is useful to think of the "6-percent rule" - If only 6% of all buyers of a product or voters on Election Day chose other options, enormous change would follow. Also, voting margins significantly less than 6% have decided many

common places

Widely shared cultural beliefs; It is the common standard that enables people to understand one another.

Euphemisms

Words or phrases designed to avoid a negative or unpleasant reality. We use euphemisms to be courteous and sensitive to the feelings of others. (instead of using "fat" use "husky")

Academics- Kenneth Burke

[IDENTIFICATION] Yielding, accepting, talking the SAME Language because the energy for changing how we think is ALREADY IN US.

• Fotheringham's definition of persuasion

body and effects and receivers that was a cause of unintended messages.

Double Speak

language that "pretends to communicate but really does not". Says one thing but means something else.

Inflated language

marked by euphemisms, jargon, and bureaucratse--is designed to make the common appear uncommon, the ordinary seem extraordinary.

Myths

part of the touchstone/foundation (notes)

• Bureaucratese

the piling on of compound words and complex sentences that actually communicate very little. Is often a combination of specialized jargon within rambling sentence structures.

Jargon

the specialized language created for specific functions by people in a trade or profession.

• Stephen Littlejon's definition of persuasion

the state of being challenged by human differences. [We experience conflict when differences matter and are potentially problematic to us](p.194) • Can be boiled down to 3 questions: o (NOTES): What kind of behavioral changes do receivers exhibit that can be linked to persuasion? Not just thinking and nodding, but acting o What are the processes that lead to change in people that can be tied to persuasion? What about your message made them respond? o How much does the receiver of persuasion have to do with determining how, when, and under what conditions change will take place? Co-creation idea (Larsen)

9. What is the theory of minimal effects?

· "In a nutshell, the analysis of many studies of persuasion confirms that even apparently fluent and effective messages will usually produce only minor changes in their intended receivers." (p.17)

Where did the study of persuasion originate? Is it interdisciplinary? Is it a unique field? How do the authors justify their position on persuasion's role in academia?

· "The processes of influence discussed in this book are drawn from a holistic perspective that marries the social and "hard" sciences to the humanities and the origins of persuasion in rhetorical theory." (still researching, not 100% certain) -Persuasion is interdisciplinary. Persuasion is a unique field.

8. Aristotle's view of persuasion and their practical application to the time in which he lived? What metaphors are used as descriptors?

· Aristotle believed that persuasion could be systematized · Aristotle also believed that the act of resistance, in relation to persuasion, is more commonplace than the exception i.Page · Good character - high ethos most effective means of persuasion · Noted that the resistance [of persuasion] was more the norm than the exception · Metaphor? Persuasion is a special subject made all the more interesting by its "tendency to put all forms of human genius and frailty on conspicuous display"

13. Do the authors agree with Plato's views of ethics?

· Eudaimonia, fulfilling moral duty (same viewings as Aristotle--his teacher) · Theory of forms: a person's well-being aims for the highest level of mortality, but a person's virtues provide the skills necessary to attain the desired mortality. His theory of ethics deems happiness as the ultimate level of perfection

14. How does James Madison view the public's role in democracy? How did the Constitution of 1789 treat the public's role? What about Thomas Jefferson? What did he think about the public's good sense?

· James Madison: had a general distaste for the power of unbridled persuasion. He noted that "a pure democracy" was no cure for the mischiefs of faction" (p.37) He had limited faith in how free citizens would exercise their liberty, and sought to control the "factions" -- a code word for angry citizens who might form political parties that could upset a government of independent thinkers. · The constitution of 1789: Only the members of congress would vote for a president, and citizen voting was restricted to white male landowners. · Thomas Jefferson: The unofficial philosopher of American independence expressed enormous faith in the ordinary citizen and favored local governments with direct ties to the"grassroots." He had strong opposition to a centralized federal government and his belief in the inherent wisdom of the common citizen. (p36)

Language

· Language: (p.55) An organized, agreed-upon, yet arbitrary system of symbols for communication.

Meanings

· Meanings: (p.52) The relationship between a symbol and the thing it represents. Meanings exist in people, not in the symbols themselves.

Can we predict with certainty how and when people are persuaded?

· No- "We cannot match the "hard" sciences in fully predicting whether our persuasive efforts will work in new situations." (p.19) "Persuasion is not a field that allows safe predictions" (p.20)

16. What are the essential characteristics of democracy?

· P.34 "Protogoras, offered this convenient declaration that could serve as a seven-word definition of democracy: 'Man is the measure of all things" · Basically saying that we are as much about what we believe as what we know.

11. Plato's dialogue: how does he distribute the arguments?

· P.34- Most of the dialogues of Plato are open to varied interpretations, but it is clear that he believed that most issues that invited persuasion had a single best or "true" answer. · Ex: beauty is not in the eye of the beholder. It's in comparison to the ideal of perfect beauty. · If there was an ideal form of communication, it ought to be that of two lovers: neither of whom would presumably seek to harm or mislead the other.

17. How does technology affect open and closed societies?

· Page 38-44....Open society = freedom of expression. There's increasing commercial dominance of the Internet portals and more mainstream media by a limited number of companies. "Net neutrality" - where search engines give equal access to all forms of web content- dispenses with restrictive gatekeepers. "Media conglomerates", while a few remain, own a large percentage of the most popular television and print outlets in the I.S. The effect of their control is often to narrow the range of voices which most of the American public have easy access. Major corporations- rather than governments or individuals- now play a major role in encouraging and sometimes impeding the flow of information.

Does persuasion theory justify the cases of persuasion discussed in the text?

· Persuasion Theory- What good theory does: 1.) Gives systematic meaning to communication events. 2.) Raises relevant research questions. 3.) Makes intellectual processes possible. 4.) Guides effective practice. 5.) Promotes interdisciplinary growth and identity. 6.) Invites interdisciplinary interaction.

10. Who does Plato side with in describing and utilizing persuasive practices?

· Plato argues that persuasion that elaborate efforts for persuasion without an equal elaborate effort towards finding the "truth" leads to an exploitation of the audience

12. How do Aristotle and Plato agree on persuasion? How do they differ?

· Plato: At times, saw persuasion as little more than a "knack"-- "a part of some business

What are the three types of communication and how do they differ? Are the concepts of information, communication, and persuasion interchangeable?

· Pure Information: "Information-giving" Communicating facts, attitudes, or data with minimal interest in whether or not others accept them. · Expression: A desire to speak one's mind RATHER than have others agree or disagree. Example: Unloading your fears, anger, joy, or anxieties to someone because it provides cathartic release. You don't care if they agree/disagree. · Pure Persuasion: A concern with how our ideas or actions will affect someone else. Constructed to be believed, not merely understood. *"Communication and persuasion are not interchangeable terms. Not all communicators have as their primary goal the listener's acceptance of the legitimacy and importance of their messages." (p.20)

Signs-

· Signs: Natural indication of the existence of a condition (high fever is a sign of illness) (p.51) A symptom of a particular happening; two linked by a direct relationship. Signs are natural indications of existence of a condition. (Icons,

Symbols

· Symbols: (p.52) Stimulates a sensation, stands for something other than itself, and depends on convention (establishes through agreement) for what it stands for. There is no natural relationship between the symbol and its meaning. (Words are symbols that are conventionally agreed upon to represent certain things. Words are convenient symbols)

15. What were the Founding Father's views on a democracy versus a republic?

· Thomas Jefferson and John Adams shared an aversion for formal political parties. Jefferson is remembered for his strong opposition to a centralized federal government and his belief in the inherent wisdom of the common citizen. · James Madison: Feared that the "turbulence and contention" of pure democracies could produce angry citizens who might form political parties that could upset a government of independent thinkers. For him, a republic was a safe refuge from rapid changes in public opinion.

7. What are the basic objectives of persuasion? (Notes)

· To convince - It is in the head: Change attitudes, ideas, beliefs, values · To actuate - Goes beyond the speech to convince and advocates action on part of the audience (Change in attitude etc. needed for action, but doesn't necessarily guarantee action) · To amplify - To strengthen existing attitudes, beliefs, and/or action (existing is the key)

34. How do we form our attitudes? Values? Beliefs?

• "There are six generally agreed-upon sources that influence the construction of our beliefs, attitudes, and values: families, schools, social/peer groups, specific role models, societal institutions, and the media"

40. What is "identification'?

• (Notes) Can persuade someone only insofar as you're able to associate with their ideas, attitudes, and beliefs. o How you're able to speak to them in their own language. • (p.6) Burke's redefinition of persuasion with old name of rhetoric to newer name of identification. o Rhetoric: Aristotle identified three forms of "proof" available to the persuader: Credibility (ethos), Logic (logos), and Emotional (pathos

32. What is the boomerang effect?

• (p.20) Persuasion that backfires and pushes members of a target audience away from the action we wanted them to take. • (p.144) A theory of unintended consequences where a persuasion attempt returns with the reverse of its intended effect--undermines the goals of the original source.

38. What is moral authority?

• Authority is used in a social and political context to protect rights, provide order and security, manage conflict, and distribute benefits and burdens in society. • Moral Authority is a concept that rests on voluntary consent; without it, social violence, chaos, and coercion would be the norm o A government is only as good, decent, and moral as its citizens. o The collective social values of citizens become the conditions necessary for the existence of political authority.

50. What are different categories of communication ethics? (Ronald Arnett)

• Democratic: focuses on how to improve the functioning of democracy in the US. Guidelines address the need for openness, accuracy, mutual respect, and justice. • Procedural/Code: in organizations and professions: developed standards of conduct. Range from very narrow and specific to the most broad and idealistic. • Universal-Humanitarian: identifies universal, concrete guidelines for social interaction. Concepts important to this approach are: wisdom, mortality, social and human values, rationality, character, commitment, and responsibility. • Contextual: Situational approach which emphasizes audience adaptation, symbolic choice, and flexibility as key issues. Lying may be acceptable if situation calls for it as a strategy (e.g. security concerns) • Narrative: Combination of the other 4 (newest and most theoretical). Core belief is that social drama, vision, and storytelling interact to construct community values. Recognizes dynamic nature of ethics, resulting in a process created through public/private dialog.

44. What is the difference between "foot-in-the-door" and door-in-the-face" persuasive strategies?

• Foot-in-door: you have "a shoe in", meaning that you are not completely rejected. • Door-in-face: complete rejection [Door-in-face: First make a request of the other person that is excessive and to which they'll naturally refuse. Then make a more reasonable request that the person will be more likely to accept. EX: "Will you donate $100 to our cause?" [response is a no] Then, follow up with: "Well could you donate $10?" DITF works by getting a "no" then getting a "yes" AKA rejection-then-retreat] [Foot-in-door: Works by first getting a small yes and then getting an even bigger yes. EX: A person asks for directions, and after you give them directions, they ask you to walk them to their destination.]

27. What are (USP) Unique selling propositions?

• Goal setting strategy used for audience targeting (notes) • Novelty plays important role in activating our brain's reward center (notes)

30. What are the distinctions between high credibility and low credibility persuasion? (and the variations thereof)

• High Credibility/High Agreement Persuasion (p.172): Advocate and audience agree. This form of persuasion seems unnecessary. • High Credibility/ Low Agreement Persuasion (p.172): Advocate has earned the goodwill of the audience but tests their sympathy by arguing the merits of an unpopular idea. (political leaders often test the patience of their most ardent supporters by advocating ideas many of them may not like). • Low Credibility/ High Agreement Persuasion (p.173): Audience fundamentally agrees with the ideas being expressed but has low regard for the advocate. • Low Credibility/ Low Agreement Persuasion (p.174): Audience is hostile to both the persuader and his/her ideas

36. What are the different ethical perspectives of ethics

• Human Nature: Probe essence of human nature - what makes us fundamentally human. Ethics to identify universal, concrete guidelines for social interaction • Situational: The context ("situation at hand") • Religious: (NOTES) moral guidelines, "thou-shalt-nots", look to religious morals as filter. • Legal: (NOTES) illegal is unethical • Dialogical: (NOTES/p.344) A mutual give and take - most recent; communication as dialogue (Honesty, trust, genuine, empathy, humility, sincerity, concern etc), not monologue (deception, superiority, dogma etc) - stifles communication. * • Political: (NOTES) values crucial to health and growth of a form of a political-governments system

33. Why should human communication concern itself with ethics?

• It could help us sort out our motives, suggest our biases, and help focus primary issues of conflict

47. How does racist and sexist language violate ethical codes of persuasion and communication?

• Language of oppression (bomajian)

45. Reasoned skepticism and appropriate feedback apply to ethics in what way?

• Listen openly, objectively, and without a doubt

46. Do subliminal persuasive messages work? Are they ethical?

• Messages are received below the threshold of awareness and integrate into pre-existing thought patterns/modes.

49. Similarly, Robert Cialdini, uses the metaphor of bunglers, smugglers, and sleuths. Which of his categories is the most ethical and why?

• Most ethical: Sleuths - Function like detectives to study persuasion and search for clues on most effective means of persuasion

25. How would the authors conceptualize the social bases of persuasion?

• Reflection of the society in which we live • Contact with others shapes us

48. Wayne Brockriede used the metaphor of persuaders as lovers. What are the categories he describes?

• Seducers: Not equal - look for unwitting victims [Charm, trickery, deceive] • Rapists: Personal attacks and coercion [Threats, force, coercion] • Lovers: Treat each other on equal playing fields [re-affirm the other's self worth]

37. What are ethics?

• The moral codes from which individuals and groups base decisions and actions; what is determined as right and wrong behaviour. • Value judgments

52. What are some legal restrictions on free speech?

• blasphemy • Libel/slander • Hate speech