PHI 105

BANDWAGON APPEAL

Definition The argument that since something is popular or everybody is doing it, so should you. Think of peer pressure or popularity as being the basis of the argument.

CIRCULAR REASONING

Definition This fallacy is also known as "talking in circles". The premise is restated instead of proven. The conclusion of the argument is actually one of the stated premises, so no evidence is offered to support the argument. Example Thunder Lope is a good mascot because Thunder Lope is good. We stated that Thunder Lope is a good mascot and our reason for believing this is because he is good. This type of reasoning does not advance understanding or add to knowledge. When we use the circular reasoning fallacy in our writing, our argument goes nowhere and literally moves in a circle providing no real evidence.

FALLACY OF DIVISION

Definition What is true for the whole has to be true for any of the pieces of the whole as well (Kirby & Goodpaster, 2011, p.192). Example Housing prices are down in the United States. This means that housing prices are down in my neighborhood. Since every neighborhood is different you cannot assume that just because prices are down nationally that they must be down in your neighborhood.

APPEAL TO AUTHORITY

An Appeal to Authority is a fallacy with the following form: Person A is (claimed to be) an authority on subject S. Person A makes claim C about subject S. Therefore, C is true (Nizkor, 2013). In the video above, we see a young man proceed with a lawsuit based on the advice of his doctor even though the doctor has no legal background whatsoever. This erroneous acceptance is based on the belief that the person is the expert or authoritative so therefore everything they say must be true. In this case, the doctor was not qualified to make a claim about the legality of the car cash, so his reasoning was fallacious.

APPEAL TO IGNORANCE

An appeal to ignorance uses lack of evidence (for or against) as the basis of the argument. For example, if something can't be disproven, it must be true! Example You have a family member who has a terminal disease. You hear of a possible new cure being offered in another country. You contact the group promoting this cure and ask if it works. They say, "No one has ever shown that it doesn't work, so of course it works!"

HASTY GENERALIZATION

Definition A hasty generalization occurs 'when a conclusion is drawn from a sample that is too small or selective to assume with any confidence that it represents the subject accurately' (Goodpaster & Kirby, 2006, p. 205).

APPEAL TO TRADITION

Definition An Appeal to Tradition is when the past or traditions are used as a source of authority. It is assumed that something is better or correct because "that is the way it has always been done". This type of reasoning if fallacious because age or the past has no relevancy on why it is better than something new. Appeal to Tradition is often used in political debates, especially when it comes to social issues. A politician might allude to the "good old days" or reference how something has been done since President XYZ was in office. For example, President Obama used Appeal to Tradition in a 2011 speech to the National Governors Association. He said "this hasn't traditionally been a partisan issue. Lincoln laid the rails during the course of a civil war. Eisenhower built the Interstate Highway System. Both parties have always believed that America should have the best of everything. We don't have third-rate airports and third-rate bridges and third-rate highways. That's not who we are" (White House, 2011, np). In this speech the president's argument is that this issue has never been a problem before. He refers to how in the past both parties believed in getting the best for America. He is using the past as the basis of his argument. The president might have a valid argument, but it should not be assumed that old is better than the new. Typical phrases Just like X Y Z. Tried and true! Time tested! The way it has been done for generations!

EITHER/OR

Definition An either/or fallacy does not acknowledge that opposing claims could both be true, that grey areas may exist between the two alternatives, or that other possibilities exist. Example An example of an either/or fallacy is saying that either hamburgers or hotdogs are the best food to have at a BBQ. Making a statement such as this limits the choices to only two, when in reality there are many more choices. At times there are only two choices, and the either/or fallacy does not apply. For example, a woman is either pregnant or not pregnant, or a field goal is either good or not good.

FALSE ANALOGY

Definition False analogy is also called a "weak analogy." This means that the similarities between the two things being compared are not substantial enough to assume that another characteristic of one of them probably applies to the other. Example: Coffee and cigarettes are addictive but are not illegal in this country, so marijuana should not be illegal as well. When faced with an analogy, critical thinkers will ask themselves two important questions: Are the similarities between the two analogies greater or more significant than their differences? If this analogy is taken at face value, will the obvious differences be ignored? If so, it is a contrast and not a comparison.

EXTRAVAGANT HYPOTHESIS

Definition Formulating a complex or unlikely explanation for an event when a simpler explanation would do. A "principle called "Occam's razor" states that the simplest explanation for an event is to be preferred over a more complex one, so long as the simpler one is adequate. The principle of Occam's razor has shown itself to be a good thinking principle over the centuries" (Kirby and Goodpaster, 2006, pg. 208). There is a theory that the lunar landing was faked by NASA and filmed in a studio as part of an elaborate hoax. Often people will find 'evidence' that the landings could never have taken place, but it rests on the arguments that the U.S. government: Spent billions of dollars for the illusion that the astronauts landed on the moon Crafted evidence of the lunar landing (e.g., lunar rock samples) Was able to keep the fact that it was a staged landing a secret for more than forty years Extravagant Hypothesis is the common fallacy that is used in conspiracy theories and other events where a complex hypothesis is offered when the answer is simple.

POST HOC ERGO PROPTER HOC

Definition Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc at times is one of the most persuasive fallacies. Assuming that because B follows A, A must have caused B. This is an easy fallacy to assume because this could happen, but we cannot always assume this happens. Some things just happen due to coincidence and the two things really having nothing to do with each other. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc can also be the source of superstitious thinking. Think about an athlete who wears his 'lucky' socks and the team wins the game, you might conclude that wearing 'lucky' socks leads to winning. Maybe you break a mirror and then soon after you get into an accident, you might conclude that breaking the mirror led to that misfortune. These occurrences are merely coincidental and are not the reason for one's misfortune.

FALLACY OF COMPOSITION

Definition Putting two or more "good" things together does not necessarily mean they will be good together. This fallacy looks at something from two perspectives: as a whole, and made up of parts. The argument is if something is true about the parts, then it is true about the whole. Example The coach recruited the best players from five different schools therefore his team should be the best in the league. In this case, the argument that the entire team will be the best in the league rests on the fact that each individual player is the best. Just because all the players are the best individual players, does not mean they will be the best team. Great teams require more than just individual talent, they also need teamwork and chemistry.

SLIPPERY SLOPE

Definition Slippery Slope can be described as an analogy to take the argument in one direction with a series of steps leading to a much more extreme outcome. Once someone asks for one thing and receives it, they will not stop until they have taken it all (Kirby & Goodpaster, 2011, p.209).

IS/OUGHT

The Is/Ought Fallacy occurs when the assumption is made that because things are a certain way, they should always be that way. It could also mean because something is not happening now it should never happen. It seeks to place value on facts based on moral perception. Just because something is a certain way does not necessarily mean that it ought to be that way. This may be one of the most difficult fallacies to pinpoint. Hopefully a few of these examples will help.