PHILO PART 2

SPENCER

* "The Great Political Superstition." * tendency of smaller movements being subsumed into larger ones, this thinker coined the term "equilibration." * spat erupted among the faculty at Yale University when president Noah Porter forced William Graham Sumner to discontinue teaching one of this thinker's books * spent nearly forty years completing his multidisciplinary treatise titled System of (*) Synthetic Philosophy, whose section Principles of Biology contains his best-known contribution * attacked the "New Toryism" of William Gladstone in his book Man Versus the State, and expounded upon the "right to ignore the state" in his best-known book, which states that laissez-faire capitalism is necessary to achieve human happiness. * Social Statics and coined the term "survival of the fittest." * life gradually moves towards self-sufficiency in a book that integrated the scientific method with the search for natural law * this man argued that "over-legislation" and the army of bureaucracy led to a "New Toryism" akin to socialism * System of Synthetic Philosophy introduced the "first principle" of equal freedom in a work that defended the "right to (*) ignore the state's" assaults on the social organism * claimed that men will evolve away from government to a "social equilibrium" in a process often called "Social Darwinism" * Victorian author of Social Statics, who popularized the term "survival of the fittest" * claimed that parliaments suffer from a "great political superstition" in a work that argued for small governments that allow for voluntary self-improvement. This author of Man Versus the State described a namesake "law of multiplicity" in his System of (*) Synthetic Philosophy * included several chapters about biology * men have a "right to ignore the state" if it does not follow the law of equal freedom in a work that applied Lamarck's evolutionary theories to society * Social Darwinist. * The Nature and Reality of Religion and, in another work, argued that the uniformity of law depended on what he termed "the persistence of force." * deployed an obsolete analogy stating that just as a well-intentioned doctor is free from prosecution if a patient dies under his care, so too should a legislator be free from moral blame if his measures result in evil, at the end of his chapter "The Sins of Legislators." * The Man Versus the State which was written after his First Principles laid out the basic foundations of his philosophical project including his "Development hypothesis." * universal suffrage in his first major work subtitled "The Conditions essential to Happiness specified, and the First of them Developed." * one of the first to apply the theories of Lamarck to society. * 1851's Social Statics, a British philosopher best known for coining the expression "survival of the fittest." * asserted that nothing should infringe on the "laws of life" in a work including a chapter called "The Great Political Superstition." * "coercive" aspects of reform movements in a work subtitled the "Conditions Essential to Human Happiness." T * System of Synthetic Philosophy * argued against the liberal policies of Gladstone in The Man Versus the State * society as a living organism in his Principles of Sociology * development of societies from military to complex and industrial and outlined "individuation" in Social Statics, which also introduced this man's interpretation of natural selection * ideas were applied to American society by William Graham Sumner * supported the Lamarckian view about the inheritance of acquired traits in his early paper, "The Developmental Hypothesis. * William James, he wrote Principles of Psychology, although he collected it with works like Principles of Biology in his Synthetic Philosophy * "What knowledge is of most worth?" in the first chapter of his Education: Intellectual, Moral, and Political, and outlined his most famous theories in his ten-volume System of Synthetic Philosophy * "new Toryism" in his The Man Versus the State, and also for predicting that humanity would evolve into a state of perfect equilibrium

WILLIAM JAMES

* "The Will to Believe" suggests that one ought to value truth only so much as it is useful. * rejected W.K. Clifford's ethics in a lecture where he said people must often pick between two "live options" without intellectually solid evidence * coined the term "stream of consciousness." * The Will to Believe argued, like his colleague C.S. Peirce, that ideas are true insofar as they work for the person who holds them * Harvard professor, * Principles of Psychology and Pragmatism * presents the metaphysical idea of "pure experience" making up both mind and matter * Essays in Radical Empiricism also examined Walt Whitman as an individual with a soul of "sky-blue tint" and knowledge of "the goodness of life" in his work The Varieties of Religious Experience * chapters "The Stream of Thought" and "The Consciousness of Self" in the textbook Principles of Psychology, and in another work, he discussed a man chasing a squirrel around a tree while advocating for the title school of thought * described his resolution of a debate about a man chasing a squirrel around a tree. This man wrote an essay that describes a reasonable way to think something is true without proper evidence called "The Will to Believe." * write a textbook that resulted in his writing the two-volume work, (*) The Principles of Psychology. * work of Charles Sanders Peirce ("purse") to develop the philosophy of pragmatism * divided philosophers into "tough-minded" and "tender-minded" categories. In one essay, this man analyzed an argument over whether a man chasing a squirrel around a tree is going around the squirrel * "what is useful" in a book subtitled, "A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking." * contrasts "monistic" and "pluralistic" idealism "as the all-form and the each-form." * begins with a section that argues that "empiricism means the habit of explaining wholes by parts," "The Types of Philosophic Thinking." * A Pluralistic Universe, this author's essays "A World of Pure Experience" and "How Two Minds Can Know One Thing" are collected in Essays in Radical Empiricism. * morality has a "foothold in the universe" in his essay "The Moral Philosopher and the Moral Life," which appears in a collection with an essay using the example of having faith in crossing a ledge. * cast aside the notion of a succession of ideas in favor of a "stream of consciousness" (*) in addition to arguing that the focus of spirituality should lie in what he termed religious "genius." * "religion of healthy-mindedness" with "the sick soul." * opened another lecture by describing a man running around the tree as fast as a squirrel on its trunk. * The Varieties of Religious Experience and Pragmatism * identified three classes of options in deciding which of two hypotheses to follow: living, forced, and momentous * argues against W. K. Clifford's evidentialism in defending religious practices. * discusses the methods of analysis, introspection, experiment, and comparison in the title discipline * rebutted the moralist views of W.K. Clifford in an essay which categorizes live, forced, and momentous options. * first namesake of a theory which states that emotions result from the perception of a physiological stimulus, rather than emotions preceding autonomic responses. * essays asks whether a man chasing a squirrel around a tree is by definition "going round" the squirrel. * "The Will to Believe" and The Principles of Psychology argued that "truth" is only what is most expedient to believe. He collected his Gifford Lectures at Edinburgh as The Varieties of Religious Experience, and his Lowell lectures were collected as a work which shares its name with a movement started by C.S. Peirce * wrote an essay in which he questioned why dogs don't form rational ideas, entitled "Brute and Human Intellect," and in a later work, he called for a scientific determination of the limits of human ability in "The Energies of Man." * proposed that a genuine option must be live, momentous, and forced in a volume that included the essays, "Reflex Action and Theism," "Is Life Worth Living?," and the title essay, "The Will to Believe." * "Remarks on Spencer's Definition of Mind as Correspondence." This philosopher stated, "Human beings, by changing their minds, can change the outer aspects of their lives," in "Great Men and Their Environment." * wrote Human Immortality and argued for a multi-verse in A Pluralistic Universe. * argued for self-fulfilling prophecies in The Will to Believe * After his study of art with William Hunt, he abandoned painting for medicine * toward pluralistic philosophy, which he expounded in early works such as The Sentiment of Rationality and The Will to Believe and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy * dead choices with genuine choices, which are live, forced, and momentous, and he argued that some propositions must be accepted without prior evidence in "The Will to Believe." * formative event for this man was working as an assistant on a glacier researching trip to Brazil led by Louis Agassiz. * "and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy" include "Great Men and Their Environment" and more characteristic works like "The Sentiment of Rationality" and "Reflex Action and Theism." * argues for the value of "the crudity of experience," a key component of his doctrine of radical empiricism

AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING HUMAN UNDERSTANDING

* "relations of ideas" and "matters of fact," which leads the author to question whether we can trust scientific claims, which are based on inductive inferences * identifies learning from experiences and inferring causal connections between events as two abilities that humans share with animals. * claims that less civilized nations report transgressions of the laws of nature more frequently * exception to its claim that the memory of an experience is weaker than the experience was itself, this book imagines a seeing person who has never come across a particular shade of blue. * "relations of ideas" and "matters of fact," one manifestation of its author's namesake "fork." * revision of an earlier work that the author said "fell stillborn from the press." * Devoid of its author's views on personal identity, it discusses the role of habit in the theory of knowledge. The role that testimony plays in epistemology is subject of its section "Of Miracles," and the section on the difference between impressions and ideas shares the concept of a man who has seen all the spectrum of a colorexcept one shade, known as "The Missing Shade of Blue." * fictional speech by Epicurus and asks whether we can infer that an unfinished building will be finished * compounding, augmenting, diminishing, or transposing. Another section discusses the reliability of testimony, and argues that events that contradict the law of nature should be discounted * "Of Miracles", its section "Of the origin of ideas" discusses the missing shade of blue. For 10 points, name this work about epistemology by David Hume. * distinction between chance and probability and describes how events that occur in the universe cannot be determined by chance, in "On Probability." * dismissed the claim that ideas can arise without impressions, a problem raised by determining a missing shade of blue. This work critiques the possibility of a "violation of the laws of nature" in its section "Of Miracles." * two approaches to moral philosophy, one of which offers easy and accessible thoughts to the "man of action" and the other of which assumes man wants to analyze his actions * pretends to be Epicurus defending his religious beliefs. * declares that mathematical sciences are Relations of Idea, which are distinct from Matters of Fact. * cause and effect in arguing that we understand complex ideas because of simple ideas, a concept called the Copy Principle * attacks Pyrronian skepticism for being too broad and advocates replacing it with an "academic" skepticism limited to matters of fact and abstract concepts * epic poetry to explain the three form of association. It claims that both external observation and internal reflection are necessary in order to understand causal relationships * argues that experienced "impressions" are always more complete than (*) "ideas" of thought. * Christianity is better when founded on faith in a section that denies the existence of the namesake religious phenomena because they contradict the laws of nature. * allows that a person could problematically conceive of a never-before-seen shade of blue if given all other shades of blue * "Relations of Ideas" and "Matters of Fact" in drawing a contrast between analytic knowledge like algebra and synthetic knowledge of nature, a concept that is known as its author's namesake "fork." * Treatise on Human Nature and said to have awoken Immanuel Kant from his "dogmatic slumber," for 10 points, name this philosophical work about knowledge by David Hume. * how incomplete knowledge of causes leads to a belief in luck in the section "Of Probability". It argues that ideas lack the forcefulness of actual and that the source of all ideas is ultimately impressions in "Of the Origin of Ideas

TRUTH

* Frege [FRAY-guh] wrote that attributing this property to a statement does not add value to the statement, which is a deflationary approach to this. * J.L. Austin defined this property as the correlation between demonstrative and descriptive conventions. * Russell used the sentence "Bishop Stubbs was hanged for murder" to attack a definition of this as "coherence". Late in life, Heidegger rejected his own definition of this property as "disclosedness" or "aletheia". Kripke wrote an "Outline to a Theory of" this property, of which Tarski introduced a "semantic conception". The problem of self-reference and this property is called the "liar's paradox". For 10 points, "correspondence theory" defines what property as "agreement with reality or fact" * fixed point of the sequence of partially interpreted languages that differ only in their interpretation of this property * axiomatized by Solomon Feferman and created by Saul Kripke * argued that accounts of this property must be formally correct and materially adequate, and claimed a language cannot contain its own predicate for this property. * "semantic conception" was developed by Alfred Tarski * Coherence theories oppose correspondence theories, which assert that statements have this property when they correspond to the world. Deflationary theories assert that the sentence "snow is white" has this property if and only if snow is white * Plato's Republic, this concept is analogized to rays from a sun which represents the form of the Good * "meta-language" * logical empiricism by A. J. Ayer. Coherentists reject the (*) correspondence theory of this concept. * Wittgenstein developed a diagram showing outputs of this property and its opposite after applying logical operators, called its namesake "tables." * Nietzsche described the will to power as the only basis for a "will to" this concept in Beyond Good and Evil * Deflationist and coherence theories describe this concept, which Charles Peirce ("PURSE") called the "end of inquiry." * Donald Davidson's argument that there is only one thing with this property is known as the slingshot argument * prosentential theory of this concept is similar to disquotational theories such as Frank P. Ramsey's redundancy theory. In logic, a formula is valid if and only if it has this property under any interpretation * "in formalized languages" * three-value logic to create "fixed-point semantics". A 1933 paper defines this property as holding for X if and only if X appears in a metalanguage * Like Kurt Gödel [GUR-dul], Tarski also wrote that some sentences with this property could not be proved * number one in Boolean algebra, and this is sometimes confused with validity * Isaac Israeli defined this concept as the "equation of things and intellect." * linguistic tool * "deflationary" and "consensus" models of this concept, respectively. * Aristotle defined this concept as "to say of what is that it is." * theories of this concept state that this property is redundant. Donald Davidson developed a form of semantics in which a statement's meaning reduces to the conditions for this. * If P has this property, then not P has the opposite of this property * Parmenides divided his teachings into "the way of opinion" and "the way of" this concept. In A History of Western Philosophy, Bertrand Russell commented that "the merit of the Copernican hypothesis" was "simplicity," instead of this concept. * "verifiability" are contained in an A.J. Ayer work grouping this concept with "language" and "logic." * justified belief with this property provides one definition of knowledge. * postmodern thinking often rejects the universal variety of which concept, whose literal opposite is falsehood? * Quine and Hartry Field have defended disquotationalist theories of this idea, while deflationary theories of this concept, such as those advanced by Frank Ramsey, hold that this concept has no substantive properties of its own. * Donald Davidson warns of "The Folly of Trying to Define" this idea, and Davidson himself endorsed a coherence theory of it. * F.H. Bradley proposed an identity theory of it and G.E. Moore and Bertrand Russell both espoused a correspondence theory of it, according to which it consists "in some form of correspondence between belief and fact." For 10 points, identify this philosophical concept, formal theories of which are often plagued by the Liar paradox. * William James expressed this concept as "the expedient in our ways of thinking," while Jurgen Habermas advocates its "consensus" form. If A and B both have this property, applying (*) de Morgan's law negates this property for A but not for B

ETHICS

* G.E. Moore wrote a book on the principles of this subject, in which he described the naturalistic fallacy * too much love for a thing that is "liable to many variations and that we can never fully possess" is "a sickness of the mind" * everything "strives to persevere its being", a concept referred to as conatus. Its format was influenced by (*) Euclid's Elements, as its propositions are "demonstrated in geometrical order". * Thought and Extension are two of the attributes of God according to this book, whose final section, "Of Human Freedom", follows its section "Of Human Bondage". * attacked as an atheist because it equates God with Nature. * states that everything strives to persevere in being and claims that every material thing is represented by an "adequate idea * "perception", "reason", and "intuition" are ordered by level of reliability in its hierarchy of knowledge. * depends on something else for its own existence as a "mode", which is contrasted with a "substance", which is independent * contrasts the "continent," who successfully resist irrational internal pressures, with the "incontinent," who fail to do so. * many who argue against hedonism do so insincerely, but for good reasons. * one should draw conclusions "roughly and in outline," since many rules hold only for the most part * classifies justice as either (*) distributive or rectificatory. * interpreted as stating that every virtue lies between a vice of excess and a vice of deficiency that is the Doctrine of the Mean. * ultimate goal of life, eudaimonia. For 10 points, name this work of moral philosophy, edited by and named for the son of Aristotle * theory of moral philosophy which investigates qualities conducive to the "flourishing" of a human being. * virtue ethics * erson who does something in ignorance of the consequences acts involuntarily only if he later realizes what he has done, but even then, he bears some responsibility for the ignorance itself. * five intellectual virtues which govern scientific and everyday reasoning * virtue is defined as the quality of easily doing what is right, in contrast to mere strength of will, which it calls (*) akrasia * practical wisdom as phronesis, and it claims that excellence is "not an act, but a habit." Postulating that man's ultimate goal in life is a form of happiness called eudaimonia, * humans seek to continue their current mode of life but are fearful when threatened by power * asserts that humility should be avoided because it leads to sorrow * time has no beginning or end and that nothing is free except God, who is a sanctuary of ignorance * e fifth section states that freedom is a result of understanding that emotions are governed by the laws of nature. * discusses humanity's acquisition of ideas, which its author earlier addressed in "On the Improvement of the Understanding." * cobbler exchanging one shoe with a farmer for one harvest to explain why justice must be distributed proportionally in a section that distinguishes between rectificatory and distributive justice * ninth section outlines three types of friendship claiming friendships based on utility or pleasure will dissolve. It uses the example of an archer who must aim between two extremes to demonstrate the doctrine of the mean * cites practical judgment called "phronesis" as one of the five intellectual virtues the soul needs to find truth * Sidgwick purports to describe "the methods" of these, and Simone de Beauvoir wrote a short treatise about those "of ambiguity." * G.E. Moore's best known work also references them * defines sensory perception, reason, and intuition as the three types of knowledge, and claims, in its third section, that humans deem things good because they strive for them * Spinoza's book on this philosophical subject is divided according to a "geometric" scheme. Aristotle's book on this describes the highest aim in life as happiness, and is named after his son Nicomachus. For 10 points, name this subject within philosophy which is concerned with questions of morality. * property kalokagathaia that work begins by refusing to agree with a poem by Theognis and was once believed to be by a Rhodesian student named Eudemus. * distinguishes one general form and many particular forms of justice in its fifth book. That work's last chapter advocates political life if the ideal (*) contemplative life is unattainable, and earlier advocates for eudaimonia, or happiness, as derived from virtues which are themselves the mean between two extremes. * good of anything with a function lies in the satisfactory performance of that function, and asserts that the function of a human is rational activity. * definition of happiness insists that happiness be evaluated over the course of a complete life, so that children cannot be said to be happy and Priam cannot be unhappy just because he is experiencing old age. * mere (*) strength of will to be less praiseworthy than active virtue, but more so than weakness of will, or incontinence, and asserts that the virtue of a particular trait usually lies between two extremes in its "doctrine of the mean." * Separate sections of this book claim that a thing is more perfect the more active as opposed to passive it is, and that a thing is more real the more perfect it is. Another section argues that the human will is only a necessary and not a free cause of action, as the will is entirely dependent on the external will of God * Benevolence, cruelty, and despair are among the forty-eight terms included in a dictionary of emotions found in its third part. * killed by a falling stone to argue against (*) miracles, and in its fourth part discusses the tendency of man to be tied down by uncontrolled passions * defines God as the entirety of existence, leading its author to be accused of pantheism * "geometrically ordered" work which sets out the philosophy of Baruch Spinoza. * differentiated from random experience as a source of knowledge, and actions and passions, which are the two varieties of affects, are attributed to changes in one's striving for perseverance, or conatus. * analyzed physically or non-physically in terms of extension and thought, respectively. * Natura naturata is predicated by God, who is the one substance of the universe, a position later termed pantheism. * Anscombe coined the term "consequentialism" in a 1958 essay about the modern type of this field of philosophy. Henry Sidgwick outlined egoism, intuitionism, and universalism as the methods of this philosophical field * Fletcher proposed a type of this based on achieving agape (uh gah PAY), which he called its "situational" type * Peter Singer wrote a book about the "practical" kind of this field, which considers the problem of whether to divert a trolley in the path of one person in order to save the lives of five others * "vegetative" and "ethical" parts. One part of it outlines the five dispositions of the soul, or hexis. It examines the third type of action, the non-voluntary, in another section that claims that choice, will, and deliberation are characteristic of both positive and negative actions * contemplative wisdom can only be obtained after all other moral virtues are present * analogy of an archer to describe how a magnanimous man exercises the Doctrine of the Mean, and it argues that the end goal of life is happiness, or eudemonia. * who does anything for the sake of pleasure is self-indulgent, by citing Neoptolemus in Sophocles's play Philoctetes, who merely listened to Odysseus for a noble purpose * Bennett's "A Study of" this work argues that when we say something has a property, we are implying that the universe has that property at a certain location. * we can attribute nothing to a defect in nature because nature is the same everywhere, while in another section he notes that we call the eternal being "God or Nature." * discusses the "Origin and Nature of the Emotions," while the second claims that "extension is an attribute of God" in a discussion of the "Origin and Nature of the Mind." * "self-caused" and "substance" in the "Of God" section, while he argues that our key weakness is our inability to rein in our emotions in the fourth section, "Of Human Bondage." * emotivist form of this, and G.E. Moore advocated an intuitionist form of it. The "virtue" form of it is distinct from consequentialism, which is part of Jeremy Bentham's utilitarianism, and deontology, which is the form of it used in Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative. * most famous work of Baruch Spinoza, as well as a "Nicomachean" treatise by Aristotle * proposition Substance is by nature prior to its affections in its 1st part, Of God, while the fourth part is called Of Human Bondage. Another work with this word in its title focuses on the concept of eudamia which is a form of satisfied happiness, and contains the doctrine of the mean * meta form is considered the most imprecisely defined part of moral philosophy, while its normative form attempts to define proper (*) conduct, such as in the Golden Rule

ARGUMENTS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF GOD

* Kant argued that a central property of this claim was "not a predicate." * attempt at establishing this property was rebuked in the essay In Defense of the Fool, by Gaunilo, which proposed a "lost island." * justified by the * kalam syllogism * Proslogion is an argumentative treatment of this property which starts with the idea of "that than which nothing greater can be thought." * watchmaker analogy is a teleological argument for this claim, which is also defended with cosmological and ontological arguments * religious conclusion whose disbelievers are called atheists * posited a "perfect island" and was advanced by Guanilo. * argument from degree is one of the Quinque Viae, or Five Ways, which are five proofs of this contention listed by Thomas Aquinas * St. Anselm attempted to prove this via the "ontological argument." Many "cosmological" arguments in favor of this are based on the assumption that there must be a first mover or first cause

CONFUCIUS

* Spring and Autumn Period championed Li and Ren, * "one day's absence is as long as three years" in a poem concerning kudzu [KUD-zoo] vine * espouse the concepts of the ideal person, the rules of propriety, and ideal relationships, also known as junzi [joon-zee], li, and ren * Analects, an ancient Chinese philosopher * conservative disciple of this man's ideas adapted them into the 294-part Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government * simple manner and slow speech to a group of special men whose name literally means "lord's son" * "sprout" to describe four feelings from which innate human goodness emerges. * unmoving "pole star" and argued that words must be made to fit (*) reality by rectifying the usage of names. * ethical Silver Rule believed that ritual helps men cultivate a trait called ren by maintaining the "five relationships." * sense of shame, which is necessary to prevent crimes. In a famous story about this philosopher, he refused to ask about the horses after the stables were burnt. * "what you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others," his so-called "silver rule." * philosophy are righteousness and ritual, referred to as yi and li * Lu state, and one follower founded a "neo-" version of this man's philosophy. * Mencius and author of the Analects, a famous Chinese philosopher * "transmitter who invented nothing" and was the first to suggest a limit on the power of a ruler. * virtue ethics * Father-to-son and ruler-to-ruled are two of this man's [*] five relationships * poem as "the place to which one's preoccupations go" in the preface to his Book of Songs * Chinese philosopher, who created the Silver Rule, the inverse of the Golden Rule, in his Analects. * only fit to drive chariots, the least of his Six Arts * greatest strength * advocated the middle way and taught the five excellent practices that are important to good governance * minister of the Lu * naming and defining relationships must precede social order in a doctrine known as the "Rectification of Names." * Ruler to Subject, Father to Son, and Husband to Wife were among the five relationships subject to filial piety * concern for the humans, not the horses, who survived a stable fire. * reciprocity was the single best word to live by, thus formulating his Silver Rule * Spring and Autumn Annals * theory of zhengming * social philosophy centered on the concept of ren, or love, and his political philosophy stressed a conception of virtue known as de. Some of this man's work was expanded by his more pessimistic follower, Xun Zi. * "five excellent practices" which are important to good governance, and his views on education encouraged teaching the "six arts". * central figure got down from his carriage in hopes of speaking to a madman, but the latter avoided a conversation by hurrying away * "men who withdrew from society" * "one cannot associate with birds and beasts."

THUS SPOKE ZARATHUSTRA

* camel, the lion, and the child are the three steps to becoming the Overman, or Ubermensch, according to this work * section of this work features a murderer haunted by his crime, the pale criminal. * describes a metamorphosis of the spirit, which becomes a camel, a lion, and, finally, a child * holds a feast and embraces eternal recurrence * herald of lightning and the Ubermensch, destroys himself by descending from the mountain to bring gifts to mankind. * title prophet, written by Friedrich Nietzsche * title figure of this work comes to a town where he sees a crowd watching a tightrope walker, he tells them, "Man is something that shall be overcome," * think he is announcing the tightrope performer * later explains that "everything goes, everything comes back," a statement of the concept of historical cycles known as "eternal recurrence. * includes the title figure's assertion that man is poisoned by those who teach that salvation is in the next world, not this one, saying that the man who overcomes will reject Christianity. * suggests that there is mastery to dying at the right time * accuses priests of seeing life as a torment, and therefore wanting to make others suffer as well. * democracy are depicted as tarantulas who seek revenge on those unequal to them * no devil or hell * repeats the refrain "remain true to the earth" and describes a "dancer" before he witnesses a tightrope walker plummet to his death. * considers a criminal who feels guilty for killing a man he wanted to kill but was too weak to deliberately murder. * Heraclitus with the assertion that the world is in a permanent state of becoming that section is titled "On Old and New Tablets." * bemoans the spread of literacy in the chapter "On Reading and Writing," and refers to democrats as the title creatures in "On the (*) Tarantulas." * town of Motley Crew. * ideal man as one who has embraced eternal recurrence, and uses metaphors like dancing and laughter to characterize him. * author proposes the metaphorical "Don Juan of the mind" who exhausts all knowledge without being able to enjoy it. * contrast is drawn between the earth-bound serpent and sky-ruling eagle, and the image of the sun's rebirth every morning foreshadows a central theme * attention is given to a figure that despises his former self, is able to acknowledge his mortality, and embraces the truth of eternal recurrence * "On the Despisers of the Body" claiming that the enlightened one knows that he is body and nothing more. * "On the Flies of the Marketplace" and important themes include those of eternal recurrence and the will to power. * "A Book for All and None," it begins when a prophet descends from the mountains to preach about the Ubermensch, and it reintroduced its author's earlier statement from The Gay Science, "God is dead." * "brotherly love" have led to "the best lying and dissembling" in its section "The Spirit of Gravity," and it called for the creation of new values in the section "Old and New Tables." * The (*) Gay Science, and it discusses the ideas of the "superman" and the "the will to power" and was also the inspiration for a Richard Strauss tone poem * Old Man. The title figure of this work converses with "the saint," and then addresses a crowd, urging them "not to believe those who speak to you of superearthly hopes," for they are "poisoners," while also asking what any of the crowd has done to "surpass man", a speech he makes after descending from the mountain

HEIDEGGER

* concept of "Dasein" in his Being and Time, and who was a supporter of the Nazis. * analyzes the word deinotaton in the "Ode on Man" from Sophocles's Antigone in a lecture course that analyzes the title river of a German poem as an enigma at encompasses both locality and journeying. * Hölderlin's Hymn "The Ister" discussed the hermeneutic circle between fundamental ontology and specific modes of existence in another work * The Question Concerning Technology and "The Origin of the Work of Art" wrote that a hammer can be approached from the perspective of presence-at-hand or readiness-to-hand * Nazi-sympathizing phenomenologist who introduced the concept of Dasein in Being and Time * Sloterdijk's "Rules for the Human Zoo" was written as a response to an essay by this philosopher, which itself was a response to an essay by Sartre, arguing that Sartre had misread this philosopher * Derrida borrowed this philosopher's technique of sous rature, or erasure, which involves striking out a word but leaving it visible. * adapted the ancient Greek concept of aletheia, meaning "disclosure," and related it to his own notion of (*) "world disclosure." * magnum opus argued that individual existences are "thrown" into the world and used the example of reaching for a hammer to illustrate the distinction between things which are present-at-hand and those which are ready-at-hand * "playing forth" to describe the swaying of alternate beginnings in a work organized into six "joinings," his Contributions to Philosophy (From Enowning). * compared a hydroelectric power plant to a windmill in a work that contrasts the "supreme danger" and "saving power" of the title concept. * The Question Concerning Technology contrasted the definable causes of "fear" with the indefinable cause of "angst" in his most famous work, which introduces the concept of "being-there," or the Dasein * Nazis and who wrote Being and Time * Nader El-Biziri's Being at Home Among Things examines this philosopher's argument that in dwelling on earth we inhabit the poetic rather than the scientific, an argument outlined in this man's Building Dwelling Thinking * Theodor Adorno criticized his work in Jargon of Authenticity, and Nikolas Kompridis formulated reflective disclosure as an extension of this philosopher's assertion that humans assign meaning to things based on the context in which they learn about them. * Greek temple as an example of something that has lost the ability to effect the struggle between "Earth" and "World" in a work that discusses a pair of boots painted by Van Gogh. * author of The Origin of the Work of Art differentiated "being" from "a being" and described the uniquely human condition of Dasein. * Jeff Malpas analyzed this philosopher's concept of place in a book about his "topology." In What Computers Can't Do, Hubert Dreyfus applied this philosopher's arguments about the impossibility of representing meaning through predicate logic to criticize attempts to produce strong AI by manipulating formal symbols. * Victor Farias wrote a book attacking the ideas of this philosopher. Adorno charged that this philosopher's language mystifies and conceals existing (*) ideologies in a book accusing him of using "jargon." * later works discuss the oneness of the earth, the sky, divinities, and mortals as the "fourfold." He discussed how a person's self is neutered by "Das Man," or "the they," in a book that uses the example of a hammer to explain his concept of "readiness to hand." * German philosopher who considered the meaning of existence as dasein in his book Being and Time. * chastises science for only studying what is instead of what is not. * examines the feeling of dread and "deepest boredom" that humans encounter when they contemplate the nothing * goal is to "destroy the history of ontology". That book by this man distinguishes between the states of "present-at-hand" and "ready-to-hand" * "What is Metaphysics?" describes a character who consists of existence, (*) thrownness, and fallenness in a book that contemplates the meaning of Angst * book by this man equates the two title concepts for the "being for whom being is the question", the Dasein * Husserl who wrote Being and Time. * this thinker contrasted a poetic description of the Rhine with the power generated by a hydroelectric plant on the river. He defined an inauthentic person's failure to properly orient towards Death as a cause of Angst and wrote that a human's existence is a "thrownness" into the "there" of the world. * "The Question Concerning Technology" taught (*) Hannah Arendt and served as a rector of the University of Freiburg * ontological form of being he termed "Dasein" in his magnum opus * concepts argued that technology is fundamentally a way of enframing. Resolution is described as an acceptance of another of this philosopher's concepts, which is described as manifesting the freedom of man to choose himself and take hold of himself. * formulator of the concept of "Gestell" described "Angst" as a way in which another concept is shown as a contingent being. * formulated by this thinker is considered via questions of fallenness and thrownness and comes from a term for existence * silver chalice to illustrate Aristotle's four causes in a work that contrasts forms of revealing, or aletheia, called bringing-forth and challenging-forth * Wilhelm Dilthey on this thinker, who at times described his works as a study in the "hermeneutics of being." * incomplete second half of his most famous work was to be a complete history of philosophy, culminating in its destruction * "kehre." * famous work begins by inquiring about an entity about to consider its own being he called that entity Dasein. * rejected the scholastic interpretation of Aristotle's categories of subjects. He wrote about John Duns Scotus in his doctoral thesis, and later wrote an essay titled The Question of Technology * Western philosophy should be subject to "Destruktion," influencing Derrida's deconstructionism. * rejected his influence on existentialism, and worked under Edmund Husserl at the University of Freiburg * "Dasein" to posit his "question of being." For 10 points, name this German author of Being and Time, a fervent Nazi supporter. * between the Greek words "aitia" and "poiesis" and illustrated the four traditional modes of causality using the example of a silver chalice before asserting that enframing rather than instrumentality is the essence of technology. * Friedrich Holderlin * Pre-Socratics, namely Parmenides, humanity has misunderstood what it means "to be," arguing that our notions of "common sense" lead us to errors in understanding * wrote an analysis of Vincent van Gogh's painting "A Pair of Shoes," called (*) "The Origin of the Work of Art," along with a work in which he contrasts the "openness to being" to Nietzsche's "will to power," Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics. * quoting Plato's Sophist, Being and Time. * "virtuous circle" rather than a "vicious circle" in examining both the title entity and the process of creating it * people should be more authentic in their interactions, responding to the "call of conscience" to achieve their possibilities. * described the existence of the individual as being engaged with other people and things, which he called "Dasein" * etymology of the Greek word aletheia to show that truth is a "bringing forth," which is in conflict with the "penumbra" of unrepresented truths * described the way "mere things" are made into tools for an end. That essay also contrasts gentler machines with more modern "abominations" that alter man's relationship with the world and points out that a certain Greek word meant both (*) "art" and "craft" * "enframing" describes a Greek temple to explain the rift between "Earth" and "World". * use of clothing and tools as "the naturalized character of prostheses." One of his works contrasts the role of the windmill in pre-industrial states with the construction of a hydroelectric plant on the Rhine to argue that technology has reframed Being * "What Are Poets For?" and "The Origin of the Work of Art." He succeeded Edmund Husserl as the chair of philosophy at Freiburg University, where he delivered the speech "What is Metaphysics? * What is Called Thinking? and outlined "Two Ways of Transcendental Deduction" in Kant and the Problems of Metaphysics. * "turn" or "Die Kehre." * "what is it to dwell?" in "Building, Dwelling, Thinking" and considered the effects of a "destitute time" on the works of Rilke in "What Are Poets For?", both of which appear in his Poetry, Language, Thought * What is Philosophy? and also wrote about Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics, though he is better known for a work which introduced ontological hermeneutics * special type of participating in society in "On the Origins of the Work of Art," found in Poetry, Language, and Thought. * Max Weber, he gave a noted address at Freiburg, though his was called "What is Metaphysics?" * this teacher of Hannah Arendt argued that the three fundamental human features are factuality, existentiality, and fallenness * f sein and dasein, for 10 points, name this Nazi- sympathizing philosopher who wrote Being and Time. * hymn in relation to Holderlin's poem ODer Ister,O while he argued that each new work of art inherently changes the meaning of existence in his essay OOrigin of the Work of Ar * Off the Beaten Track. * hermeneutic circle

FREE WILL

* contrasted with determinism * argued against the existence of this concept using his "Basic Argument" in a 1986 book titled for this concept "and Belief." * Schopenhauer divided this concept into "physical," "intellectual," and "moral" types in an essay written for a contest held by the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences * Bergson described duration in a book titled for "Time" and this concept. * two-stage model of this concept, which compatibilists attempt to reconcile with determinism * ability to make your own choices. * "the duration" in order to argue against Kant's claim that this subject can only exist outside of time and space. Lucretius' poem On the Nature of Things posits that the "swerve" of atoms is the origin of this philosophical concept * chopenhauer wrote an essay asserting that this concept exists outside of the realm of human actions * Compatibilism is a belief stating that this concept can be reconciled with determinism, which is distinguished from the extreme position of fatalism * dialogue named for this concept, Evodius talks about eternal and temporal law with Augustine * God and immortality, this is assumed by practical reason but outside the realm of pure reason among Kant's three metaphysical concerns * Plantinga argued that God could only create worlds where this concept exists in its namesake "Defense" against the problem of (*) evi * Challenges to this idea include Laplace's demon. Bergson paired this concept with Time, and Sartre believed that this concept is absolute as an axiom of existentialism * if God's foreknowledge precludes this concept, and compatibilists accept both this concept and its seeming opposite, determinism * Schopenhauer attempted to derive this property from self-consciousness by positing three types of freedom * James proposed a two stage model of this idea - that model was compared to biological evolution by Ernst Mayr * "varieties of [this concept] worth wanting" proposes that intuition pumps have been unconsciously used to explain it * explained in (*) Daniel Dennett's Elbow Room. Because it does not possess this property, the ass in Buridan's thought experiment will eventually die. * reconciled with a fixed universe * Frankfurt contrasted different narcotic addicts in an article claiming this concept arises from "second-order desires." * Strawson argued against this concept a 1983 work which examined the "cognitive phenomenology" of belief in it. * "Concept of a Person," Harry Frankfurt argued that it is connected to second-order desires, and paradoxes concerning this idea are sometimes known as "Frankfurt cases," due to a 1969 paper of his * Fischer has proposed a "Garden of Forking Paths" model of this idea, and in a book in which he coined the notions of sphexishness and intuition pumps, Elbow Room, Daniel Dennett wrote about the "varieties" of this which are "worth wanting. * Non-causal, event-causal, and agent-causal accounts of this idea belong to incompatibilist theories of it, while compatibilist theories of this idea attempt to reconcile it with determinism * doctrine of incompatibilism, it has been stated that Laplace's demon is an argument against this concept. * Daniel Dennett defended this concept from that attack by arguing that rather than a concrete future there can only be expectations. * rejected by Jean Calvin and opposed to the idea of predestination, this concept is defined as the ability of a rational actor to choose a course of action from among various alternatives. * Source models attempt to trace the ultimate origins of this philosophical concept * Harry Frankfurt posited that this thing is connected only with "effective" desires * Robert Kane champions an incompatibilist theory of it, which supports this phenomenon's existence * reject the existence of this idea include fatalism and a belief in divine foreknowledge. * Evidence against this concept's existence can be found in Libet's experiments on the Bereitschaftpotential. * types of this concept "worth wanting" and contrasts humans and digger wasps that work is Daniel Dennett's Elbow Room. * proposed and then filtered. Aquinas stated that man has it because rationality trumps natural instinct, unlike in animals. * Compatibilism is the stance that this can exist alongside determinism. * existence is that it is incompatible with Calvinistic predestination * conflation of quality with quantity was paired with "time" in Henri Bergson's doctoral thesis, while Thomas Hobbes thought that form of it as absurd as "accidents of bread in cheese" and defined it as one's last appetite or aversion preceding action * thinker argued that knowledge exists to serve it, since Schopenhauer believed The World consists of it and Representation * Wanderer and His Shadow introduced and The Gay Science explained another kind of, FTP, what term that Nietzsche paired with "to power"?

MACHIAVELLI

* critique of Roman history in his Discourses on Livy. * argued that the secure life available through lawful regimes like France was not actually a life of liberty * contrasts the dangers of independent barons with the security of appointed bureaucrats * compares the effectiveness of the (*) cruelty of Hannibal and Scipio Africanus and outlines the virtues of Cesare Borgia to illustrate its claim that it is better for the title figure to be feared than to be loved * Italian political philosopher who wrote Discourses on Livy and a work dedicated to Lorenzo Medici, The Prince * "There are three classes of intellects: one which comprehends by itself another which appreciates what others comprehended and a third which neither comprehends by itself nor by the showing of others." * actions in another writer's book Ab urbe condita, a history of Rome * wrote it is safer to be feared than loved, and he described different ways for leaders to gain and maintain power. Name this thinker who worked for Piero Soderini * dedication to Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici in his book The Prince. * preface to one work by this thinker states that it has always been more dangerous to discover new countries than to found new institutions that work argues that the defeats of the Samnites and Latins had more to do with skill than luck as the author deals with the titular Roman historian * use of mercenaries and makes frequent references to the personification of Lady Fortune * Discourses on Livy warned the titular figure of another work to be both a lion and a fox. * not Sun Tzu, this man wrote a version of The Art of War * claimed that the people were "more prudent and of better judgment" than lone rulers. * Luccan ruler Castruccio Castracani and completed a seven chapter treatise on The Art of War * republic over other forms of government in his Discourses on Livy. * notes that "armed prophets have been victorious, and all unarmed prophets have been destroyed" * "it is much safer to be (*) feared than loved." * asserts that founding fathers can inspire continued loyalty in the law. That book also argues that states must maintain vivere libero for all citizens by constantly revising themselves and claims that rulers who strive to preserve freedom over their own power exhibit true virtu * argues solid laws and a strong military are the two essential components of successful state, and it a compares the fickleness of fortune to a lady * Discourses on Livy also praises Cesare Borgia for his strength and claims it is better for the title ruler to be feared than loved. * calls for Christianity to resemble ancient Roman religion in order to become a more effective civil religion * lengthy discussion of conspiracies and asserts that political debate and dissent are essential to the formation of a healthy republic. * use of mercenaries and insists that lady fortune must be overcome by (*) force * title figure should emulate Cesare Borgia and be both a lion and a fox and that it is better for the title ruler to be feared than to be loved. * the Mandrake, the Golden Ass, and the History of Florence * magistrate Piero Soderini for example, he prevailed on Soderini to use a local militia instead of mercenaries for defense

BLAISE PASCAL

* eighteen anonymous documents, he defended Antoine Arnauld and argued against casuistry. This author wrote the anti-Jesuit Provinicial Letters after siding with Jansenism. * divided hypotheses into three categories depending on what absurdities would be implied by accepting th * consults with a monk to better understand the concept of proximate power. * participated in the Formulary Controversy with a series of letters in which he attacked Antonio Escobar's use of casuistry and lambasted the moral lapses of the Jesuits. After a carriage accident and a subsequent religious vision, he published his Memorial, which led to him taking up the cause of the Jansenists * belief in God represents the possibility of infinite gain while only imposing a finite loss. * Provincial Letters and Pensées, a French philosopher who is the namesake of a "wager" and a mathematical triangle. * "the whole aspect of the world would have been altered" had Cleopatra's nose been shorter. * ouis de Montalte in writing a set of eighteen epistles defending Antoine Arnauld * attacking the Jesuits, the Provincial Letters, in which he also defended Jansenism * accept God because, should he exist, the returns would be infinite in an argument known as his Wager. * "very center-point" between nothingness and infinity. He ended one note with verse 16 of Psalm 119 and kept it sewn into his coat for life after seeing fire in a mystical experience * divided hypotheses into three categories depending on what absurdities would be implied by accepting the hypothesis as true or false. * Pensées argued that the possibility of eternal hell makes it more reasonable to live as though there's a God via his namesake "wager". * experimented with fluid pressure. * posthumous work of this philosopher contains sections such as "Thoughts on Mind and on Style" and "The Misery of Man Without God." * Louis de Montalte, he criticized Jesuitism and supported Jansenism in his Provincial Letters * decision to live as if God (*) exists was included in his Pensees. * claimed man was the exact point between infinity and nothingness, equally capable of perceiving either. This thinker disputed the idea that a man could adopt a "probable opinion" based on the authority of a priest in a work that condemned casuistry. * underwent a "Night of Fire," after which he wrote a work asserting that belief in God was logically justified because the consequences of belief are low and the benefits high, in contrast to the high consequences of disbelief. * Montaigne's assertion that certainty in mathematical axioms is impossible without God's intervention in "On the Art of Persuasion," and proposed theorems of projective geometry in Essay on Conics * masqueraded as Louis de Montalte to refute the Jesuit concept of "actual grace" and to support Jansenism in an epistolary work. * trivial causes of love, the case for belief in God, and how different the world would be without the distinct nose of Cleopatra.

SANTAYANA

* examined the "stages of human progress" in four different aspects of human society in The Life of Reason * matter was a metaphor since it symbolized the unknown and that knowledge had to be characterized as "essence", a term he used to refer to concepts and ideas. * Skepticism and Animal Faith who is best known for an aphorism about repeating the past. * delivered a lecture describing a "crude but vital" popular mentality that "inhabits the skyscraper" as opposed to one that inhabits "colonial mansions." * book that described essence, matter, truth, and spirit as four constituents of a group of foundations for experience * writer of "The Genteel Tradition in American Philosophy" argued that philosophy should rely on instinct instead of rational thought, and that it begins in medias res * wrote The Realms of Being and Scepticism and Animal Faith * Spanish-American philosopher who said that "those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it." * claimed that while pleasure is universal, its causes are subjective in a work that disagrees with Kant's dispassionate analysis of the universals of art. * outlined the influence of the title subject through "society", "religion", and "science" in a book that rejected true equality in favor of "natural aristocracy" and laments Catholicism as a "splendid error". * In Realms of Being, this man expanded upon a book that asserts (*) doubt makes idealism irrelevant and advocates pragmatic living through the title "sense" * The Sense of Beauty argued "philosophy begins in medias res". For 10 points, name this Spanish-American philosopher who wrote Skepticism and Animal Faith * "those who cannot remember the past are doomed to repeat it" * rejected religion's moral and factual truth but praised its poetic capacity to produce piety and spirituality in the section "Reason in Religion." * efined essence as embodiments of character through which humans perceive the world, contrasting it with matter, truth, and spirit. * argued that knowledge can be defined not by reasoned awareness but only by its application in action, meaning philosophy must begin in medias res. * early works were derided as the "perfection of rottenness" by William James, referring particularly to his book Interpretations of Poetry and Religion. He wrote a book on aesthetics which defined beauty as "pleasure regarded as a quality of the thing." * book on epistemology which argues against Cartesianism and claims that the human belief in matter is unavoidable * "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it." * The Sense of Beauty and Scepticism and Animal Faith * Harvard, this thinker rejected Kantian thought by defining beauty as "pleasure objectified" that gives us our idea of God, rather than the other way around * critiqued Cartesian foundationalism by arguing that humans are certain in their knowledge not out of reason, but because of a pre-rational belief in matter, concluding that philosophy must begin "in medias res." * The Sense of Beauty described matter, essence, truth, and spirit as the "realms of being" and wrote Skepticism and Animal Faith * portrays Jesus Christ as a poetic figure in The Idea of Christ in the Gospels * title entity of another of his works is related to the four qualities of matter, essence, spirit, and truth, in a system this man developed in The Realms of Being * grouped matter and essence with truth and spirit, and believed that arational awareness was the foundation of knowledge, an idea this author of (*) The Realms of Being expressed as "philosophy begins in medias res." * "Philosophy begins in medias res," and is titled Skepticism and Animal Faith. For 10 points, name this Spanish-American philosopher who said "those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it." * analyzed Lecretius, Dante, and Goethe in Three Philosophical Poets. * The Last Puritan * idealized Jesus and Mary may have historical roots in a section that explores the role of the religious imagination in forming the title concept. * American Intellect inhabits the "colonial mansion," in his lecture "The Genteel Tradition in American Philosophy." * philosophy begins with the non-conscious creating beliefs "radically incapable of proof." * five-volume work by this man examines the title concept in Common Sense, Society, Religion, Art, and Science. * "The Genteel Tradition in American Philosophy" in his critique of contemporaries like Bergson, Winds of Doctrine * rejects Kant's theory of disinterestedness and posits that the title concept arises from personal connection rather than art. * The Sense of Beauty claims that philosophy must begin "in media res" and asserts that idealism is irrelevant since the world is understood through the pragmatic belief in our senses embodied by the first titular concept * philosophy of Henri Bergson in The Winds of Doctrine, and held that to judge something as beautiful was to differentiate between fundamental ideals and transitory ones in The Sense of Beauty * atheist, advocates an understanding of religion while condemning those who interpret it literally in a work entitled The Life of Reason * asserts that men do not live by idealism and claims to have found epistemological truths through doubt in a work entitled Skepticism and Animal Faith * Alden's discontent with his titular faith leads to his self-destruction in this philosopher's work entitled The Last Puritan. * defined one of the title concepts of one of his works as an irrational belief in the natural world. He claimed that philosophy must begin in medias res. * wrote a five-volume work which treats the title concept "in science," "in art" and "in religion" and is titled The (*) Life of Reason. * author of of Skepticism and Animal Faith, a Spanish-American philosopher who claimed that "those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it." * single instant of awareness is empty of concepts and that the other title concept is the irrational basis for knowledge claims. * Ezra Pound amusingly used the example of a bunch of illiterate fishermen worrying about Greek pronunciation to parody this man's The Idea of Christ in the Gospels * major concepts aspires to "the full truth and perfect good" which "dwells like the God of Egypt in a dark inner chamber" * claimed that if Hamlet were reported in a newspaper, it wouldn't be transcendent, showing that "the expression of the object" of art can transform tragedy into beauty. * argued that no real knowledge can be gained in an "instant of awareness" in a work that asserts belief does not derive from reasoning, but is an inevitable idea necessary for a man to act * A Sense of Beauty and Realms of Being. For 10 points, name this author of Skepticism and Animal Faith * Ezra Pound compared this man's manner of pronunciation to Benito Mussolini's in his 81st Canto. * existence into Essence, Matter, Truth, and Spirit in one work, and he described himself as an "aesthetic Catholic" in his essay "Reason in Religion" from his collection The Life of Reason

EXISTENTIALISM

* identified with the "for-itself" and "in-itself" from an essay which introduced self-deception as "bad faith". * treatment of the intersubjective self discussed lovers experiencing each other as ambiguous subjects and others, and the look that brings self-awareness of being-for-others * Rejecting the Cartesian ego, a proponent of this movement described the authentic being-for-itself as a being who rejects bad faith and creates its own meaning in an absurd world through its own existence * expressed in this movement's maxim "existence precedes essence" * Soren Kierkegaard, Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre * morality of Maggie Tulliver in The Mill on the Floss has the same origin as the desire of La Sanseverina in The Charterhouse of Parma * considers a young man whose brother is killed by enemy forces, concluding that Kantian and Christian ethics cannot help him decide whether to join the army or tend to his bereaved mother. * Heidegger responded to this work in a famous letter to his student Jean Beaufret. * responding to the Communists' accusations of quietism * "abandonment" and "anguish." * lecture at the Club Maintenant, coined the phrase "existence precedes essence." * Jean-Paul Sartre essay, which explains the applicability of his philosophy * philosophy "is a Humanism" according to a 1945 lecture that argues that one's essence is created as a result of living * Christian version of this theory is described by The Sickness Unto Death * "Hell is other people," and is titled No Exit those works are by Soren Kierkegaard and Jean-Paul Sartre * analyzed the "practico-inert", which limits human activity or "praxis", in his Critique of Dialectical Reason * urged a leap to faith to overcome despair, a state of sin * defined suicide as an attempt to escape the absurdity of being, which he compared to eternally pushing a boulder up a hill. * "seven modes of the encompassing," and another wrote about I-it and I-thou relationships * Karl Jaspers and Martin Buber, this school of philosophy has a "feminist" type espoused by the author of The Second Sex, Simone de Beauvoir. * "bad faith" in Being and Nothingness. Its concept of Dasein was introduced in Being and Time, by Martin Heidegger. * deceased Robert Solomon wrote books called From Rationalism to this, From Hegel to this, and a book tying it to the Meaning of Life while Anne-Marie Cazalis attempted to create a fashion movement connected with this system * John Macquarrie published Studies in a Christian type of this, a movement he's associated with, while a Catholic type is associated with the man who coined this word, Gabriel Marcel * key tenet of "mauvaise foi" or "bad faith" and authored books called this and Human Emotions and a book claiming this Is a Humanism. * The Phenomenology of Perception, and was named Maurice Merleau-Ponty. * Difference and Being and Time, Martin Heidegger, was associated with this school of thought * "Other" and the "Look" are two concepts associated with this school of thought, which is also associated with the author of The Rebel and The Myth of Sisyphus as well as the author of Being and Nothingness. * Sartre and Camus * Jean-Paul Sartre offers that his system is not one of despair and contemplative quietism but it is a recognition of the condition he and his readers find themselves * Shestov and Berdyaev were Russian proponents of this school, as was the German author of Way to Wisdom, Karl Jaspers * Merleau-Ponty was closely associated with two philosophers of this school. * wrote a book that concerns a story about Agnes and the merman and considers four "Problemata." * Tillich and Jaspers

SOCIAL CONTRACT

* normative version of this concept, writing that the sovereign gives voice to the general will and that man is "born free, but everywhere he is in chains." * rejects rule-bound religions like Catholicism in favor of a system that blends "religion of man" with a civil code. * work opens by distinguishing the "will of all" from the "general will". * "particular will" but the sovereign should only act to ensure the (*) common good * while the state of nature gives men physical freedom, the greater, civil freedom can only be found by creating a society bound by the title agreement * "man is free, but is everywhere in chains", a work of political philosophy by Rousseau. * Ronald Dworkin argued that this concept's reliance on double hypothetical agreements does not accurately represent reality. * veil of ignorance is a component of the original position, a thought experiment on this concept in A Theory of Justice by John Rawls * invoked after leaving a state of nature, and David Hume argued that most governments did not follow this model in the essay "Of Civil Liberty." * Second Treatise on Government, this concept is the subject of a work that begins "man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains", written by Rousseau * Hugo Grotius' theory of the natural right of individuals was a precursor to this philosophical concept. * Proudhon proposed an anarchist version of this concept, which another philosopher described in a work that explains how every individual's opinion in isolation will together produce the best decision for the state, otherwise known as the "general will." * entering into a state of slavery is illogical and begins "man is born free but everywhere he is in chains." * philosophical concept in which individuals improve upon the state of nature by surrendering certain rights, the title of a work by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. * thinker argued that this concept must achieve the condition of "full publicity" and is established under the "veil of ignorance." * primary concern of this concept, while Kant claimed that it is solely an idea of reason with the purpose of protecting the will of the subjects * divides law into four realms: political, civil, criminal, and the extra-governmental moral. * state of nature and creates society through the title arrangement by, For 10 points, what concept which titles a work by Jean Jacques-Rousseau? * "tribe" became "almost a chimera" in ancient Rome as it lost legal meaning in a section on the comitia and twice references Caligula's reasoning that people needed him as a god. * sign of successful states. * "alienate" all his liberty to another. This work notes that (*) hotter climates are more suited to despotism. * "the sovereign," which operates according to the general will and leaves each man "forced to be free." * Pierre Bayle and William Warburton on the relationship between religion and politics * "partial society within the State" * no communication with each other when voting. * sovereignty is inalienable, and its author contrasts one of its central concepts with the "will of all," which is the sum of all private interests * Japanese stage-magicians who dismember and rejoin children as a simile for the author's critics. * religion of Lamas and Catholicism among the worst of three types of religion, religion by priest * "alienation" critiques Grotius's view of a right to slavery, claims that differences in amount of arable land make despotism more suited to warm climates. * not God, but Chapter 4 of John Stuart Mill's On Liberty claims that no benefit is derived from imagining this entity. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon believed that the idea of it only served a purpose between individuals. * "a war of all against all", so long as people acknowledge the commonwealth * Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan, John Locke believed that it protects natural rights and allows the people to dissolve government if they disrespect it. * "forced to be free" in another interpretation

EITHER/OR

* part of this work consists of letters, one of which is named "Ultimatum," while another discusses the validity of marriage, those letters were written by Judge Wilhelm * man purchases a writing desk at a second-hand store and hacks it open to find two manuscripts. A person in this work asks "Who deserves to be the unhappiest?" * section addressed to the Symparanekromenoi (SIM-pah-rah-neh-KROmeh-noi), a club that writes posthumous papers. It asks "What is a poet?" in its group of aphorisms, Diapsalmata. T * advocates staving off boredom with "crop rotation." Stages on Life's Way is a follow-up to this book, in whose second section Judge Vilhelm tries to convince "A" of the validity of marriage * aesthetic life view is contrasted with the ethical and religious in this 1834 work, which is attributed to Victor Eremita. * claims that the victory of married love lies in an internal history beyond immediacy. The narrator of one section of this book describes seeing his first love at a performance of Eugène Scribe's First Love * concludes with an upbuilding discourse that asserts, "against God we are always in the wrong." * notes (*) Don Giovanni's ceaseless search for variety in "The Musical Erotic." Johannes Climacus woos and tosses aside Cordelia in its section "The Seducer's Diary." * affirms Aristotelian logic against Hegel. This book consists of two sections written by "A" and "Judge Vilhelm," who represent the aesthetic and ethical stages of existence. * man purchases a writing desk at a second-hand store and hacks it open to find two manuscripts. A person in this work asks "Who deserves to be the unhappiest?" * "Shadowgraphs" and "Diapsalmata" uses a theory of social prudence to defeat boredom in its section "Crop Rotation." * Johannes Climacus describes how he woos women mostly because he finds it interesting in this work's section "Diary of a Seducer." * describes how a modern Antigone becomes a virgo mater because she alone knows that Oedipus married his mother. This work notes that Mozart uses the most abstract medium to represent the "sensuous-erotic genius" of Don Giovanni. * t "against God we are always in the wrong" in a discourse supposedly recovered from the letters of Judge Wilhelm * lectures of Friedrich Schelling that its author was attending. It traces the movement of the beautiful from time to space in a section on the "validity of marriage". * boredom by comparing it with the fertility that arises from the rotation of crops. It encourages inwardness and the unified consciousness of the ethical thinker Judge Williams * Hedonists, like the author of the "Seducer's Diary" live only in the present and are grouped with abstract intellectuals as aesthetes in this work. Subtitled "A Fragment on Life," * portion of this text examines Scribe's The First Love while narrating its author's infatuation with a woman he meets at the play. Another portion of this book uses the example of an empty grave to question whether it is a person who is immortal or a person who must die who is ultimately "The Unhappiest One." * God titled "Ultimatum," while the rest of its second part is narrated by Judge (*) Wilhelm

SUMMA THEOLOGICA

* posits that an endless regress of causation and movement is not possible, and it contains the argument that there must be an unmoved mover. * states that power is twofold, passive and active, in response to a question asking whether there is power in God. * one of hundreds of questions in this work, which was written to educate Christian theology students * several references to the works of Peter Lombard, who lived about a century before it was written, and to Aristotle * Saint Thomas Aquinas * "an ordinance of reason for the common good" that comes from Divine Reason and natural law * second section of this work, entitled "Ethics," also discusses the irascible passion and presents just cause, rightful intention, and sovereign authority as the three necessary qualities for just war * refers to Peter Lombard as "The Master" and to Averroes as "The Commentator," * organized into various questions and answers. * motion and the nature of efficient cause are two of the five proofs for the existence of God found in this work * argues that our life can only result in imperfect happiness, and that all our good actions are working toward the ultimate goal of perfect happiness in the afterlife. * lists sovereign authority, right intention, and righteous cause as the three major components of a just war * argued that it is impossible for everything to be contingent, therefore God must exist * one borrowed from Aristotle, the "Unmoved Mover," as well as the teleological argument * states that monks and bishops are in a state of perfection, and theorizes that natural law is the participation of the eternal law * introduces proper authority, reasonable cause, and right intention as the three conditions for "just war" in its second section, which is titled "Ethics". * follows four objections to the question, the first of which is that God is the first agent, and the statement is followed by replies to each objection. * quinquae viae, five proofs of the existence of God * work explains that metaphors are used in poetry because representation is delightful to men. * spent seven long years creating it, after which he had a revelation so powerful that "all that [he had] written seem[ed] like straw." * explained by a quote from Paul, who said "Like babes in Christ I fed you milk and not meat" in the Corinthians, which this work quotes several times after the repeated phrase "but on the contrary." * Natural Law is described in the second portion of this work, in which a videtur, sed contra, and responsio comprise an article, many of which comprise a question, many of which comprise a major theological topic. * "aeviternity" as the mean between time and eternity, since aeviternal things have beginning and no end. * heavenly bodies are moved by immaterial beings called "separate substances." * separates concupiscible passions from irascible ones, sets out natural law as the mentally-innate part of eternal law, and puts forward three conditions for (*) just war * objection-contrary-response format cites many authorities, referring to Aristotle only as "The Philosopher." * claims that a just cause, rightful intention, and sovereign authority are the three major things necessary for a war to be just, and Ulpian is cited in this work as "The Legal Expert" * discusses drunkenness and concludes that it is not a sin because every sin is voluntary, but drunkenness is not voluntary. * Islamic scholar al-Ghazali is cited in this work in saying that it is "impossible for an actually infinite multitude to exist absolutely" and is called "Algazel", while Aristotle is referred to in this work simply as "The Philosopher" * soul gains knowledge by deriving intelligible species from sensible forms and that the will is subject to intelligence. * laws created by humans are designed to fit the majority * motion and the argument from the order of the world are two ways to adduce the existence of God according to this text * harmonizes philosophies from many backgrounds, and was written after its author wrote "Summation Against the Gentiles."

ADAM SMITH

* rejected Hutcheson's hypothesis of a sixth sense to explain morality, instead arguing that morality was determined by many psychological motives. * this man argues that the fall of the Roman Empire led to the rise of townsfolk with privileges over country folk. * "sympathy" of an "impartial spectator" as the basis for a 1759 work of (*) ethics that was inspired by his teacher Francis Hutcheson. * A Theory of Moral Sentiments discussed the "natural progress of opulence" in a huge book which noted the self-interest of brewers, butchers, and bakers in critiquing mercantilism. * "invisible hand" exactly once in The Wealth of Nations. * surname concludes that, because moral judgments do not correspond to a previously held desire, they are either not beliefs or not able to motivate, and therefore cannot be both objective and practical * surname is held by the Australian philosopher Michael, who wrote The Moral Problem, and by the coiner of the term "evolutionarily stable strategy" who wrote The Evolutionary Theory of Games, Maynard * noted that because love comes from a "habit of the imagination," it is difficult for a third party to sympathize with, but that most people hold the "social passions" in high esteem * "impartial spectator" in the Theory of Moral Sentiments * mandated universal education up to age ten in a book which worried that the repetition of one continuous task would dull laborers' minds. * argued that frequent exposure to strangers allowed individuals to build propriety and therefore suggested that commercial societies fostered moral values the most. * The Theory of Moral Sentiments criticized the mercantile commerce that sought to use the amount of precious metals as a measure of wealth * psychological theories that individuals act to win the approval of the "impartial spectator," and included sections entitled "On the Propriety of Action" and "Of Sympathy". * philosophical foundation to his other works, including A Treatise on Public Opulence and his Lectures on Jurisprudence * Theory of Moral Sentiments, his best known work opens with an analysis of a pin factory to demonstrate the advantages of division of labor * Lectures on Jurisprudence and The Theory of Moral Sentiments, but this thinker's most famous work included a critique of mercantilism that was later used in Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage * "inner man" or "impartial spectator" with man's capacity for sympathy, which, together with self-preservation, contribute to the common good * wrote a work in which he traced man's stages as a hunter-gatherer, nomadic agrarian, and feudal farmer

ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO

* sinful friends lead him to steal some pears in a work in which he also converts from Manichaeism to the Christianity of his mother Monica * before Quine, this philosopher used a distinction between "walking" and "hurrying" to illustrate the indeterminacy of meaning in De Magistro. * psychological analogy for the Trinity, found himself unable to explain (*) time and concluded that it was a distension of the mind, which God lies beyond. * coined the term "just war" in a work whose title construct triumphs over the Earthly City. * Neoplatonist and a Manichaean before eventually converting to Christianity * The City of God and Confessions. * theology was the basis for that of Michael Baius. * Marcus Terentius Varro's Antiquitates rerum divinarum * Cornelius Jansen's posthumouslypublished magnum opus was a treatise on this philosopher. * Matthew, not Mark, was the first Gospel written is named for him * argument that God created the world in an (*) instant, not in six days. He wrote a four-book work on how to teach the Scriptures called De doctrina christiana. * God and the Devil, and between the Earthly City and the title place, in a book written as a response to Alaric's sack of Rome. * "in the beginning" indicates not a temporal beginning, but the origin to which we return. He discussed different methods of interpreting signs when reading scripture in On Christian Doctrine * Ostia that he experienced with his mother, Monica * sack of Rome as an example of the defeat of an earthly construct "of man" that is in conflict with the title divine domain * voice of a child telling him to "take up and read" the Bible catalyzes his conversion from Manichaeism to Christianity * Church Father who wrote the City of God and Confessions. * old age this philosopher reviewed his writings and pointed out what he no longer agreed with in a work titled Reconsiderations * describes the superiority of the soul over the body * The Measure of the Soul wrote that Christianity had not led to the fall of (*) Rome in another work. * claim that he learned to speak by inferring the names of things is critiqued at the opening of Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations * claimed that God was the inspiration for all human knowledge in his book On the Trinity * fought against a group of heretics who condemned sexual immorality but claimed sexual urges were natural and God-given * sserts that we must reject pacifism in the face of grave harm and introduces a "just war" as an appropriate response * contrasts the worldly society of (*) pagans with the title place. * strident anti-Pelagian was commanded by a child's voice to "take and read", which led him to fully embrace the teachings of Ambrose of Milan. * Cassian's attempts to reconcile this man's thought with a heresy was disputed by a disciple, Prosper of Aquitaine * Frequent Communion and Moral Theology of the Jesuits, written by Antoine Arnauld. * St. Paul as a "chief of sinners" and called for church doctrine to reflect the teachings of this man, prompting Innocent X's Cum occasione and (*) Pascal's Provincial Letters * Platonic signs and classical rhetoric and feuded with a thinker condemned along with Nestorius at First Ephesus that man, Pelagius, claimed that this author of On Christian Doctrine * Evodius in his dialogue On Free Choice of the Will, and refuted Pelagius by asking that monk to behold human genitals. * Lucretia's suicide was not justified since the mental virtue of chastity is untouched by rape and retold an interchange between Alexander the Great and a pirate in one work in another, he is told "Take it and read" years after going on a mystic experience with his mom Monica * namesake hypothesis concerns the chronological ordering of the Gospels of the New Testament. * text dealing with rhetoric and its religious uses in On Christian Doctrine, and argued against Donatism. * "visible" and "invisible" churches, and he was inspired by the Visigoths' sack of Rome to write one of his works. * adherent of Manichaeism. * wrote that visible signs or sacraments were the only means to provide religious unity in his Retractions * asserts that Scripture must be interpreted reflecting charity and love, advocates memorizing Scripture * allegory in On Christian Doctrine * relationship between the title entity, the church, and potentially malevolent pagan forces in The City of God * relationship between the title entity, the church, and potentially malevolent pagan forces in The City of God

LEIBNIZ

* substances also being nonextendable, indivisible, and windowless * believed that Descartes's formulation of the ontological argument was invalid since it did not have a premise that a perfect being is possible * invoked Duns Scotus' (SKOH-tuss) term "haecceity" (hack-SEE-uh-tee) to argue that something is only a substance if it has a complete individual concept in Discourse on (*) Metaphysics * formulator of the Principle of the Identity of Indiscernibles took on the persona of Theophilus (thee-AWE-fill-us) in his chapter-by-chapter refutation of Locke entitled New Essays of Human Understanding * Principle of Sufficient Reason means that this is the "best of all possible worlds." * Theodicy who co-discovered calculus * prolific inventor of mechanical calculators and invented a namesake Wheel * Law of Continuity and Transcendental Law of Homogeneity were only mathematically implemented in the 20th century * described the universe as being composed of irreducibly simple units called monads * Theodicy he argued that this world is "optimal among all possible worlds," for which he was satirized as the Professor Pangloss in Voltaire's Candide. * developed integral and differential calculus independently from Isaac Newton * called everything that is true of an individual substance at a particular time its "complete concept." * Llull's Ars Magna inspired this man's plans for an "alphabet of human thought." * predicate-in-notion principle has a namesake "law" concerning the identity of indiscernibles. * replaced causation with his idea of "pre-established harmony." * refutation of Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding and a Discourse on Metaphysics used the principle of sufficient reason to address the problem of evil in his Theodicy * German polymath who believed in immaterial windowless unities called monads, and wrote that God must have created the best possible world before co-discovering calculus * possibility of an unordered universe with the analogy of deriving a function whose graph traces over randomly drawn points * Alexander the Great to argue that a substance was a concept complete enough to allow all of its possible predicates to be deduced from it, and that consequently, any substance mirrors the properties of the entire universe. * argued that for any (*) identical objects, any property of one is shared by the other, which is sometimes called his law * Discourse on Metaphysics divided truths into "truths of reason," which rested on the principle of contradiction, and "truths of fact" which relied on a principle he described in his correspondence with Samuel Clarke: his principle of sufficient reason * posited that a list of a substance's predications make up a complete notion of the substance. His namesake law states that if two objects have exactly the same properties, then they are the same object. * Predicate-in-Notion Principle and his concept of the Identity of Indiscernibles. * existence of simple substances that interact with each other via the Principle of (*) Pre-Established Harmony * any extrinsic difference between two substances, such as a difference in spatio-temporal location, must be due to some additional intrinsic difference. * Discourse on Metaphysics stated that everything happens for a reason, which is his Principle of Sufficient Reason * objects that share all properties are identical is this thinker's principle of the identity of indiscernibles * argued against the Cartesian account of substances by noting that matter is divisible, and wrote that since substances cannot interact, God has established mind and body in a "pre-established harmony." * argument that a substance expresses the whole universe, this philosopher developed the idea of "petits perceptions," found in a book in which he represented himself as Theophilius and John Locke as Philalethe * claimed that extension can only arise from things without extension, posting a single type of substantial form that is simple and indivisible. * German philosopher who wrote New Essays on Human Understanding, Theodicy, and Monadology, the inspiration of Pangloss in Voltaire's Candide * correspondence with Samuel Clarke until his death, and he claimed that we formulate perceptions subconsciously, which he called petites perceptions. * doctrine of marks and traces * principle of the identity of indiscernibles. This thinker, who satirized a John Locke title in his New Essays on Human Understanding and wrote the Theodicy, believed that everything was made up of entities that have unity, harmony, and the capacity for action. * foreigner Lady Masham helped spark his major philosophical feud * rejected deduction in favor of innate knowledge and compared the mind to a block of marble in a book containing a line by line refutation of a work by the author of the Reasonableness of Christianity * New Essays on Human Understanding asserted that God is always (*) omnipotent in a work addressing the problem of evil, Theodicee, and submitted that everything consists of a single type of fundamental particle in another work * unsuccessful summit between this man and the Jansenist theologian Antoine Arnauld, which was aimed at reunifying Protestants and Catholics, this writer put forth his theory of "the soul in a point" in his New Physical Hypothesis. * opposed the "mechanics" of Descartes with his own system of motion called "dynamics," and he strongly endorsed the "principle of sufficient reason," or the notion that this is the best of all possible worlds * alter ego of this man attacks the empiricist position of Philalethes, arguing in favor of innatism * That alterego, Theophilus, rejects the "tabula rasa" in a work meant to rebut Locke, New Essays on Human Understanding * no physical causation rather God designed everything to occur the way it does and created "pre-established harmony." * interlocutor as "Philalethe" in a chapter-by- chapter rebuttal of a work by John Locke. In addition to his Discourse on Metaphysics and the posthumously printed "New Essays on Human Understanding," he inspired Schopenhauer's discourse on the "Fourfold Root" of an idea that he devised, the "principle of Sufficient Reason." * medieval philosophers were valuable resources in a work that attempted to critique a dispute between Malabranche and Arnauld. * represented himself as Theophilus and John Locke as Philalethe in his chapter-by-chapter critique of Locke's New Essays on Human Understanding, and he expounded his idea of the Principle of Plentitude in his Theodicee. * introduced a theoretical, irreducibly simple "substantial form of being." For 10 points, name this formulator of the "orinciple of sufficient reason and author of Monadology * four days this thinker spent in 1676 with Baruch Spinoza are examined in the new book The Courtier and the Heretic * argued against Spinoza's monism by positing an infinitude of extensionless entities which manifest the universe, a contention which also denied the possibility of mind-body dualism

KNOWLEDGE

* three-page paper about this concept examines such situations as Jones' ownership of a Ford and two people competing for a job application * "common" type of this state is defined via an infinitary hierarchical definition in David Lewis's Convention. * Goldman advanced a causal theory of this state in which a fact p may cause someone to believe that p * imagines that (*) Smith believes a man with ten coins in his pocket will get a job. Michel Foucault combines this term and power with a slash, and he described the disunity underlying discursive formations in a book on "The Archaeology of" it * Gettier contested a definition of this concept considered in Plato's Theaetetus, that of "justified true belief." * Platonic dialogue on this topic features Socrates comparing the mind to an aviary to distinguish between possessing and having. * nature of evidence and "the right to be sure" appear in A.J. Ayer's essay about the "Problem" of this concept. * Three different accounts of this thing equate it with perception, true judgement, and true judgement with an account. * Theatetus (THEE-ah-TAY-tuss) is a Platonic dialogue that tries to define this concept, which is also the subject of the Gettier problems, which asks if this concept is "justified true belief." * Kant distinguished between a priori and a posteriori types of this concept to ask if this concept could be obtained without observation. * subject of epistemology. * houses with barn facades and a job interviewee with 10 coins in his pocket challenge the classical definition of this concept * degree of luck * Forms and achieved through recollection, according to the dialogue Meno. The world of the Forms outside the Cave represents this concept reached by philosophers in the Allegory of the Cave * evil demon challenges the extent of this concept, which can come in a posteriori or a priori types. * Ayer analyzed this concept with the example of a serial lottery winner in his book titled for The Problem of this concept * proper "growth" of this concept is assessed in Karl Popper's Conjectures and Refutations * Ryle distinguished between the "how" and "that" forms of this state * definition causes "cow in the field" problems. Edmund Gettier refused to equate this thing with (*) justified true belie * comes from the soul's recollection on previous lives * Francis Bacon equated with power. * Collier discussed the effects of hallucinogenic drugs in arguing against a definition of this concept put forth in a 1967 essay by Alvin Goldman, which defends a causal theory of this concept. * considers the possibility of zookeepers disguising mules as zebras and puts forth the relative alternatives theory of this concept. * Robert (*) Nozick proposed four conditions, two of which are counterfactuals, which comprise his "truth-tracking" theory of this concept * Smith's belief that the man who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket that counterexample was introduced by Edmund Gettier * Timothy Williamson, this concept is unanalyzable. * Theaetetus deals with the definition of this concept. * propositional variety is distinguished from the procedural variety, and it can be classified as a priori or a posteriori. * Gettier problems are used to argue against the traditional definition of this concept as (*) justified true belief. * Goldman added a "causal condition" to a common three-part definition for this concep * Moore's paradox considers assertions made in spite of this concept. Foucault writes about power-hyphen-this in The History of Sexuality, and Foucault's major methodological work analyzes the basic unit of discourse, which he calls the statement, and is titled after the "archeology" of this concept * Gettier gave scenarios such as "The Cow in the Field" to suggest that this concept was different from justified true belief. * proposed a thought experiment in which all one has of this is due to a demon, and Quine's argument that no statement can be truly analytic allows him to support a doctrine holding that certainty in this is impossible, called fallibilism * truth and its belief implies that it is this, while another philosopher discussed how this can be derived either through statements about "relations of ideas" or through "matters of fact" in Hume's fork. * epistemology

JOHN RAWLS

* "Original Position" involves multiple parties under a "veil of ignorance," such that no party has an advantage in making a choice, part of this man's idea of Justice as Fairness. * reworked his paper "The Idea of Public Reason Revisited * "four-stage sequence" of prior philosophizing, constitution-formation, legislature-selection, and bureaucracy-creation * The Law of Peoples rejected utilitarian measurements of happiness, instead creating a list of "primary goods" valued by citizens, whom he argued possessed "two moral powers" that include following a "conception of the good." * Sandel criticized this philosopher's Kantian approach in a book on the "limits" of his most famous subject * without prior knowledge, people would maximize the amount of utility accorded to those lowest in status, in a thought experiment in which humans engineer society from behind a "veil of ignorance. * analogy to the ordering of words in a dictionary to describe the "lexical" priority of some rules over others. * reliance on maximin allocation was attacked by John Harsanyi * "background culture" and took a "wide view" of the title phenomenon in The Idea of Public Reason Revisited. * "overlapping consensus," and changed his views through a process of reflective equilibrium. * wrote that all inequalities should benefit the worst-off, according to his difference principle * American author of Political Liberalism, who posited a thought experiment featuring the "veil of ignorance" to argue for a fair society in A Theory of Justice. * imagined a nation called Kazanistan that is decent but not liberal. * argued that utilitarians should appeal to a practice-based notion of rules in his "Two Concepts of Rules." * people can agree on political ideas and also accept different normative doctrines, an idea he termed "overlapping consensus." * s "liberty principle," this man argued that inequalities are only justified if they benefit those (*) worst off, which he called the "difference principle." * idea of the original position, in which decisions about society are made from behind a "veil of ignorance." * forth eight principles for determining the international order in a book that envisages a world in which the evils of history no longer occur, called a "realistic utopia." * called political theories that depend on compliant actors and favorable social conditions "ideal theory." * describe a method by which, through adjusting one's general principles so that they mutually support one another, one can arrive at a state of (*) "reflective equilibrium." * The Law of Peoples prompted Robert Nozick to write Anarchy, State, and Utopia * complained that classical utilitarianism does not take the difference between individuals seriously and defended one principle by arguing that it causes a congruence of good for society * maximin rule would cause "determinate-persons" to discard average utilitarianism in favor of the Difference Principle. * second half of a book laying out eight principles for interactions among nations. This philosopher cited Kenneth Arrow * "The Supreme Court as an Exemplar" of this thinker's conception of public reason. That work by this thinker aims to create a meta-system which can support "a plurality of reasonable but incompatible public doctrines." * lays out principles such as "Peoples have the right of self-defense but no right to war" * "Peoples are equal and parties to their own agreements." In addition to Political Liberalism and The Law of Peoples, Amartya Sen criticized this thinker's most famous work in the book The Idea of Justice * proposed "outlaw states" and "burdened societies" as two examples where non-ideal theory had to replace ideal theory. He stressed that individuals ought to aim for an impossible status in which all their beliefs cohere, called reflective equilibrium. * delineated eight principles for humankind in The Law of Peoples. * defender of the difference principle posited an original position in which "no one knows his place in society, his class position or social status" but must make law behind "a veil of ignorance." * claims that decisions affecting all people should be free of personal judgment and determined by public reason * attempts to free decision-making from differing moral convictions to form an "overlapping consensus". * rejected capitalism and state socialism in a work that claims only democracy and liberal socialism fulfill the two forms of the title principle. * Political Liberalism was a reworking of another work in which this man introduced the liberty principle. That work also stated that inequalities must be arranged so that they benefit the least-advantaged. * treated organizations such as the UN and WTO as voluntary organizations, and not ones that are organized internally, in his last major work. * discussed the extent to which liberal democracies can deal with political arguments based on moral doctrines in "The Idea of Public Reason Revisited" and Political Liberalism. * proposed a method of operating under the assumptions of ideal theory before attempting to reform the non-ideal world * support the same laws for different reasons in his conception of "overlapping consensus", * individual's specific judgments and general beliefs are completely coherent in his proposed state of reflective equilibrium * outlines the eight principles of citizens who share a common government, morality, and sympathies within a "realistic utopia." * "Social Unity and Primary Goods" to Amartya Sen's work Utilitarianism and Beyond. One of this man's works grudgingly accommodates what he terms decent hierarchical peoples, which are in opposition to liberal peoples that work generalizes his philosophy to international relations and is entitled The Law of Peoples * formulator of the Lexical Difference Principle, another of his works contains addresses the idea that government should be neutral between competing conceptions of the good by arguing for what he terms "overlapping consensus" and is entitled Political Liberalism * "Justice as Fairness" * John Harsanyi anticipated this man's major innovation, but used it to argue for utilitarianism. * attempted to provide solutions to the problems left open by both natural-right and classical social contract theories by introducing the idea of an "overlapping consensus." * mentor of Christine Korsgaard, Thomas Scanlon, and Amartya Sen * "The Role of Civil Disobedience" in the "Duty and Obligation" section of his most famous work and studied allocations of economic goods to theorize that inequalities are justified only when they benefit the most disadvantaged, which he termed the "difference principle.