Philosophy 230 Knowledge and Reality

Moral Skepticism

"Cousins" of the academic skeptics. They are partial radical skeptics or negative dogmatists. They actively deny moral standards and believe in pragmatic self-interested rules. Some argue that there are no morals while others that the words themselves are too vague.

Equanimity

(Achieved through cognitive disengagement) According to Pyrrho, achieving this implies achieving a true happiness. This comes about by eliminating judgments of how the world ought to be.

Ataraxia

(Achieved through cognitive disengagement) The Greek Stoics believed in achieving this, also called equanimity according to Pyrrhonian skeptics. This entails being free from worry, stress, and suffering by the elimination of judgment.

Monism

(Much more elegant that dualism) there is only one substance that comprises all of reality. Either the mind (mentalism/idealism or materialism/physicalism)

Meditation 6 The existence of material things and the real distinction between mind and body.

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3 Purposes of the Evil Demon Hypothesis

1. Creates the most extensive form of Cartesian Doubt imaginable. (Skepticism has instrumental value) 2. maintains doubt so we stay present in this extreme skepticism. 3. Worst case scenario: If P is true under the evil demon hypothesis then P is true.

Two purposes of wax example

1. Descartes used the empirical method to show that it is inadequate. 2. When thinking about the nature of the wax Descartes could not think of anything. There is almost no information about the physical word-only it's properties can be experienced using the senses.

3 Kinds of Thought

1. Ideas-have 3 sources-those that are externally generated, those that are internally generated, and those that are innate. 2. Emotions-Duh. 3. Judgments-the only kind of thinking that can be true or false and thus lead to error.

3 Stage Progression into Cartesian Doubt

1. If the senses have ever deceived you, doubt them forever. 2. If dreams and reality have ever deceived you, doubt them forever. 3. It is very possible that an evil demon is tricking us into thinking that the world exists when in fact it does not.

Relativists 3 commitments

1. Statements are only true so long as certain parameters which are no stated are true. 2. The parameters can be a person, a group of people, a language, etc. 3. There is no truth without consideration of subjects but there is a discoverable "truth of the matter." Relativism entails holism and pluralism.

Descartes' 3 Purposes of Doubt

1. To rid ourselves of preconceived notions and biases 2. To free ourselves from the senses as a source of knowledge. 3. To discover indubitable truths to serve as the foundation for all other epistemic claims.

Property Dualism

A branch of dualism which affirms that the mind and the body are the same damn thing. Mental states cannot be reduced to reduced to physical properties. And qualia, or qualitative experience is a subjective experience that cannot be experienced by others. Biochemistry can be known but not the qualia.

Epiphenomenalism

A branch of dualism which affirms that the only possible interaction is from body to mind, not the other way around. (But what about crying because you are sad?)

Ontology

A branch of metaphysics. The metaphysical study of the nature of being and existence

Cosmology

A branch of metaphysics. The metaphysical study of the origin and nature of the universe.

Objective Reality

A function of formal reality. Objective reality, belonging to an idea, cannot exceed the formal reality belonging to its cause.

Formal Reality

Actual reality such as a human, with mind independent existence. The source of objective reality such as the idea of god.

Positive Dogmatism

Affirmation-you confirm philosophical positions. Pyrrhonians believe that this is a disease.

Epistemic Nihilism

All you know is that you know nothing at all. They believe that you can never know anything.

Rationalism

An epistemological viewpoint that emphasizes the fallibility of the senses. It stresses logical and rational thought.

Empiricism

An epistemological viewpoint that emphasizes the reliability of firsthand experience of the world as a means to attain knowledge. The world is measurable by the senses.

Foundationalism

Certain beliefs serve as the foundation for all other epistemic beliefs. For instance Descartes' Cogito serves as his foundation for all epistemic matters. Eliminates the error of circular reasoning present in coherentism.

Negative Dogmatism

Deny, refute, tear down. Actively deny in terms of epistemic matters. An example is the academic skeptics.

Skepticism

Doubting/questioning epistemic matters.

Parallelism

Dualism that argues against any causal interaction between the mind and body.

Meditation 1 What can be called into doubt

Everything can be called into extreme Cartesian doubt.

Coherentism

For a statement to be true a belief must be consistent with your other epistemic beliefs. This creates a "spiderweb" of beliefs in which all beliefs are supported by one another. At some point it is inevitable to come back to the central beliefs. In this way Coherentists commit circular reasoning.

Academic Skepticism

Formally trained total radical skeptics trained in The Academy. They are negative dogmatists and actively deny everything. There goal is to undermine all positive dogmatic thought. "All I know is that I know nothing at all."

Dogmatism

Having a philosophical position.

Mode 4 Circumstances

Human perception and judgment differs greatly depending on their life circumstances at the time. (Subject judging)

Mode 1 Humans and other animals

Human perception differs greatly from animal perception. (Subject judging)

Mode 2 Human Variations

Human perception differs greatly from human to human. (Subject judging)

Meditation 4 Truth and Falsity

If god exists then all CDP's are necessarily true. This is where Descartes commits the fallacy of circular reasoning or begging the question. He also affirms that we should suspend judgment in matters of which we are not certain in order to appease god and not be in err.

Types of Existence

Mind independent existence (formal reality)-such as humans-in which nothing needs to be there to perceive something in order for it to exist. And Mind dependent existence (objective reality)-such as a thought.

Pyrrhonian Skepticism

Nearly unrestricted partial practical skepticism. They believe that dogmatism is a disease, and strive to be completely non-dogmatic. They use the same logic as the relativists to come up with a different conclusion. They also do not care what their arguments consist of, as long as they make their opponents non-dogmatic.

Metaphysical Nihilism

Not only is there nothing, but there ought to be nothing. there is no objective purpose in life.

Materialism/Physicalism

Only matters and its properties (the physical world) exist. The problem with materialism is the fact that because things are caused by physics then we do not have free will.

Solipsism

Only our minds exist and everything else is an idea of that mind.

Mode 8 Relativity

Perception differs greatly because perception is relative. When describing both the subject judging and the subjects being judged, everything is relative. (The mode of all modes)

Mode 6 Mixtures

Perception differs greatly depending on the physiological mixtures within the senses. Also things in nature differ greatly from their "nature" when mixed.

Mode 5 Places and Positions

Perception differs greatly when in different positions.

Non dogmatism

Practical skepticism-suspending judgment regarding epistemic matters. True seekers of knowledge. Relativists believe that this is a disease.

Mode 7 Quantities

Substances differ greatly depending on the quantity of the substance.

Meditation 3 The existence of god

The CDP's are true therefore god exists. Because god has infinite objective reality and objective reality cannot exceed that which created it, god must necessarily exist.

Attitude of Equipollence

The attitude adopted by Pyrrhonian skeptics and relativists. It suggests that you cannot prefer one set of circumstances to another. For instance you cannot prefer X as it appears in F in S, nor can you prefer X as it appears F* in S*. This suggests that no judgment is more inherently valuable than another.

Interactive Dualism

The belief in the interaction of the mind and body and their causal relationship. This poses the problems that we do not know the medium by which the body and mind interact nor do we know what part of the brain contains the mind (general MBI problem.) We also do not know why our mind is ours alone and cannot be extended to others nor can we inhabit the minds of others (specific MBI problem.)

Moral Relativism

The belief that morals are subjective and the situation needs to be judged in it's context rather than objectively. Entails holism, or that belief that no part can be understood without understanding the whole. Also called Moral Subjectivism. (Positive dogmatic position)

Pluralism

The belief that there are multiple truths. For instance it is okay for a woman to get an abortion if she was raped but not if she was not.

Eliminative Materialism

The belief that there are no such things as mental states such as consciousness or belief.

Moral Absolutism

The belief that there is a universal code of conduct that governs everyone that exists ever. An example would be Immanuel Kant. Also Called Moral objectivism. (Positive dogmatic position)

Holism

The belief that you cannot understand the part without understanding the whole-parameters concerning beliefs. For instance you cannot judge abortion as being wrong without taking into consideration the context that that abortion is in.

Opposition in appearances.

The fact that X appears F in S, but appears F* in S*. According to this reasoning the Pyrrhonian skeptics suspend judgment while the relativists affirm.

Nihilism

The negation of meaningful aspects of life, such as morality and metaphysics.

Philosophy

The search for truth

Mode 3 The Senses

The senses within each individual differ greatly. (subject judging)

Cartesian Dualism

The separation of the mind from the body. They exist as two different entities. This is the most accepted belief because of religion. 2 basic dualist commitments are the fact that the mind cannot be identified with the body and that mental states are not physical states.

Epistemology

The study of knowledge-what can be known?

Metaphysics

The study of reality-what is real/what is there to know?

Metaphysics

The study of what is real (Beyond Reality.) The study of what there is to know.

Moral Nihilism

There are objective standards by which you can judge morality.

Meditation 2 The Nature of the human mind and how it is better known than the body

This is where Descartes discovers the Cogito "I think therefore I am" and the cogitons "doubts, understands, affirms, denies, is willing, is unwilling, imagines, and has sensory perceptions."