Philosophy Midterm

1. What is a boundary of human knowledge (give an example) and what is a boundary concept?

A boundary of human knowledge is something that lies on the borders of knowing as philosophical questions pertaining to whether the human knowledge as we know it is even real. Boundaries are God, justice, space-time A boundary concepts is a concept that lies at the foundation of all things.

Explain the difference between nominal and real definitions.

A nominal definition asks the meaning or the essence of something while a real definition, which is harder to answer, asks what something is.

Who was the first to propose the natural evolution of the human species

Anaximander

Explain how Anaximander's philosophy is a continuation of that started by Thales and why he might have thought it necessary to replace the water with the apeiron because (unlimited or infinite).

Anaximander replaced water from Thales's concept with the word 'apeiron' because it meant being eternal and inexhaustible, but also without any qualities of features. He thought it was necessary because of all other definite things he saw coming into being and passing away.

Explain why, according to Parmenides, being cannot have gaps or be incomplete.

Because saying it is 'incomplete' implies that it lacks something, but this something is truly nothing, so it lacks nothing, so it is complete!

Explain why definitions are important for both philosophy and science.

Definition is important for both philosophy and science because Philosophy, as a form of science, aims at establishing truths by giving objective reasons for those truths.

Be familiar with the definitions of piety presented in the Euthyphro and be able to explain which criterion or criteria of real definition they violate.

Euthyphro believes it is pious to prosecute anyone for their wrongdoings but this violates the Goldilocks Principle.

Understand why Euthyphro makes a good person for Socrates to question.

Euthyphro well represented Socrates as a person in the dialogue, though the even never took place.

1. Explain why Descartes proposes the hypothesis of an evil genius and what he hopes to achieve by means of it.

For this purpose the author proposes the strongest possible skeptical thesis: That there could be a supremely powerful and clever evil genius. I can think of such a being, much like God, powerful enough to produce such ideas without their being real.

Be able to state, generally, what the "form" is supposed to be and how it is supposed to provide a rule or standard for decision.

Form is supposedly the characteristic of something. Forms are present in many things, however those many things are not the same. The form is an explanation that makes us able to judge if something or a subject exhibit that form or not.

In what ways are Heraclitus's ideas still with us?

He is the father of three great philosophical ideas that are with us today like: the question of logos, the deep significance of war, destruction, and strife, and radical skepticism.

What does Heraclitus mean when he says that people walk around as if they are asleep? How are they to wake up?

He means that as long as we don't have an understanding of reality, we live in our own understanding and see what we want to see. To wake up is to retreat into the soul and discover logos. If want to understand yourself and the world, try to understand yourself first

What does Heraclitus mean when he says the "account" (logos!) is common?

He means that there is a connection between human language and thought. All things come about when men think and express it according to its nature.

Explain why Thales might have regarded water as the arche.

He regarded water as the arche' because water has motion, and he believed that whatever had motion, therefore has a soul.

Explain the importance of the term "nothing" in Parmenides's thought.

He says that it is necessary to say and think what is; for being is and nothing is not. Nothing comes from nothing.

What are Heraclitus's main ideas and what are the main themes in his writings?

His main ideas were the Logos: (1) Flux, (2)War, (2)Tension, (3)Identity of Opposites, (4)Relativity of Things

Why might early philosophers associated the "logos" with something divine, such that they regarded the logos that proved some mathematical theorem to be worth making sacrifice for? (Explain the Pythagorean theorem example.)

It has a special relationship with the structure of the world. It is as if by your words you take part in the ruling or governing powers of the universe. Philosophy started with using formal methods. The Pythagorean theorem for example is a method that is perfectly true in all cases.

Explain how Pyrrhonian skepticism is supposed to be different from all the above forms.

It is different from all the forms because it is a way of life.

Explain Anaximander's theory of the apeiron.

It is the thing from which all others come and are made and to which they return to "From dust to dust. From apeiron to apeiron."

What does it mean to define philosophy as "the science of the highest or ultimate good"?

It means this definition captures the idea that philosophers, just like scientists, belong to a community of cooperative but also competitive investigators trying to solve the 'truest true'

Know the basic set-up and historical context of the Euthyphro

It speaks on piety in the Greek culture. Both are at the courts for related reasons. Socrates has been charged by Meletus with impiety, Euthyphro is accusing his father because he believes it to be pious to do so.

Explain how and why in each of the three early philosophers the arche was regarded as infinite or indefinite.

It was regarded as the principle or the beginning and the laws of governing transformation.

What are the four main "boundary concepts" of early Greek philosophy?

Kosmos (to order or command, beaty) Phusis (to grow), Arche' (to begin or to commence) and Logos (to speak on account or defend what you say).

1. How is philosophy different from mythology?

Mythology tries to answer the fundamental aspects of tradition and beliefs. Philosophy tries to answer the fundamental nature of knowledge and reality.

What types of definitions are relevant to philosophy?

Nominal definition and real definitions are relevant to philosophy

Explain one of Zeno's arguments and what he was trying to achieve by means of them more generally.

One of Zeno's arguments is the was argument 1, in which an arrow cannot move. He was trying to achieve the concept of how nothing is ever in motion as we say it is and that motion is real, as it is just a bunch of small point in time put together in order.

Explain some problems and ideas from Parmenides that remain with us until today.

Parmenides founded a 'school' of thought, which included Zeno of Elea, and profoundly influenced all later philosophy.

1. Explain why those that take this path are said to be "two-headed" and to always be turning back or in a circle as they try to proceed.

People who take the way of appearance confuse being with not being, they are two headed because they have two minds that contradict the other.

How does Heraclitus view the poets, traditional religion and other philosophers like Pythagoras?

Philosophers saw religion as an enemy and as competition.

1. In what way does philosophy aim to be "fundamental"?

Philosophy has many boundary concepts. An example of a boundary concepts is a fundamental concept. In any case where a fundamental concept is being reconsidered, philosophy is present.

How is philosophy different from a set of opinions?

Philosophy only cares about why opinions are true, not actual opinions

How was 'philosophy' supposed to be different from that was taught by the sophists

Philosophy was supposed to be different by figuring out what was entirely true via definition and what is not. Instead, the sophist practiced defending both sides of any argument, based on the idea that there is no truth at all.

What is Aristotle's argument for the "highest good" as a boundary concept for practical reasoning?

Proof by Contradiction

Explain the aim of creating a real definition. Provide an example.

Real definition aims to define a thing and involves the assertion that there is in fact such a thing and that the definition tells us perfectly "what it is."

How is philosophy different from religion?

Religion has a source of faith while philosophy has a source of logical principles.

Who is known as the father of modern philosophy

Rene Descartes

What, roughly, have some philosophers regarded it to be?

The aim for the highest good

Explain the argument from predication and its conclusion and be able to state, generally, how it can be seen as a more specific version of Parmenides's lesson that we must not confusing being with non-being, or in this case, what something is with what it is not.

The argument consists of a subject, copula, and predicate. The predicate is the form that the subject is in. Different subjects, as in A, B, or C, can all be P. But A, B, and C are not the same thing. They just have the same form, but they are not the same thing.

Explain how one's ontological and epistemological views limit or otherwise influence how one goes about giving real definitions.

The epistemological views are based on out previous knowledge about other things that can influence our definition and ontological views influence definitions by assumptions of what is truly real and how other things depend on it.

Explain the various stages of doubt in Meditation I.

The first one is the senses, in which we can trust our senses most of the time and can also be deceived by them. the second on is parts of such dreams where there are copies of what we see in day to day basis in our dreams

Explain the purpose of Pyrrhonian skepticism.

The purpose of Pyrrhonian Skepticism is to focus on "modes" or ways of reaching tranquility.

Explain the purpose of the five "modes" of skepticism?

The purpose of the 5 modes of Pyrrhonian skepticism is to lead not only to the suspension of judgment, but to the suspension of holding any belief at all.

1. Explain in what sense and why the senses cannot be trusted.

The senses cannot fully be trusted because we dream about

1. Explain the umbrella argument and its philosophical significance.

The umbrella argument is the same as the hat and coats. Both arguments have the same eventual outcome that if we didn't have mind of thinking then we wouldn't have any observation.

Explain why the 'way of appearance' is no true way and consists in a confusion of being and nothing.

The way of appearance is no true way because it only based one one's perception and how one perceives the world around them instead of true world and how it actually exists.

In what way does philosophy aim to be "scientific"?

There is a lot about science, even if we cannot entirely define it. This is enough to let us say a lot about philosophy understood as a science.

1. What does it mean to define philosophy is the "Science at (or of) the boundaries of human knowledge"?

These are concepts we cannot progress pass without using philosophy, which is why philosophy sits at the boundary of human knowledge.

How does this definition help to explain the history of philosophy and its relation to other sciences?

These concepts are accepted in science because science started with philosophy

Explain what the skeptic here means when they say they hold no beliefs but accept appearances and some other things

They accept appearances because we live in accordance with them every day. We do this with the influence of thing that are already in place without holding opinions to them because we see it with out own eyes.

What do Pyrrhonian skeptics accept? How does this make them socially conservative?

They accept everything that is apparent because they are everyday observances and whatever we think and perceive guided by nature and feelings.

How does the work of these three philosophers confirm the use of the rational commitments mentioned in question 13 above?

They accepted the arche' as of COMMON STANDARDS OF EVIDENCE.

How are philosophy and mythology different

They are different because myth is not open to rational criticism or counter arguments.

Explain how the Pyrrhonians try to achieve this purpose.

They oppose every argument with an equally powerful argument.

1. Explain why Descartes use of the first person "I" is important and is indicative of modern philosophy (clue: it has to do with not relying on authority and thinking for oneself, among other things).

This first person method allowed the reader to take an intellectual journey with the author.

Why is the question "What is philosophy?" perhaps the most philosophical of questions

This question is a what-question. Philosophy begins with the discovery of the importance of this sort of question.

Explain why skepticism is so important and how responding to it can lead to the discovery of positive philosophical truths.

This skepticism can be useful, because it helps uncover the presuppositions of our logical, semantic and other practices/views.

Explain what seems new in the philosophy of Anaximenes and why he might have regarded infinite air as a better theory of the arche.

We witness the natural change of water turning into to air as water vapor. The molecules do not change but their distance from one another can change. Infinite air seems to be as a better theory that water because air is close to the indefinite, and yet it has some character.

Explain the typical strategy for responding to skeptics and why it does not prove the thing they are skeptical of to be in fact true.

a. A typical way is to try to show that the skeptic is somehow presupposes the very thing they claim to reject. Ex: By denying truth, the skeptic of truth can't claim "There is no truth" is true.

Explain why Descartes is not a skeptic and what the aim of his philosophy is more generally.

a. He could no be a skeptic because skeptics believe there is no truth. Descartes did find truth in physic, hence why he was a mathematician. b. The aim was to provide a philosophical foundation for a method of doing science for his system of physics that he put together.

Explain the breakthrough idea of Thales and why it was so important.

a. He was the first to introduce the study of nature as one governing pattern b. It was important because it set the tone for all later philosophy and science.

1. Explain each of the modes and give examples.

a. In the dispute mode, there is an undecidable dissention about the matter proposed that comes about in both ordinary life and philosophy. b. In the infinite mode, whatever is brought forward a s source of conviction needs another source. That source also needs another source. There is no point in which to begin from. c. In the relativity mode, the existing object appears to be relative y to the subject judging and to the things observed together with it. d. Thy hypothetical mode begins from something from which it does not establish but claims to assume simply without proof and virtue. e. In the mode of reciprocity, we suspend the judgment of what needs to be confirmatory and what needs to be convincing by the object under investigation.

Where did western philosophy originate? Among what sorts of individuals?

a. Modern day Greece, Italy, and Turkey. b. Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes

Explain and illustrate the four criteria of real definition.

a. The goldilocks principle: the definition must not be too small or too specific. b. Informative: what makes the thing the kind the thing it is. c. The things mentioned in a definition must be "prior to" or "better known" than the thing defined; like Feynman's example of rubber bands d. Must contain the why or, show the genesis (the way a thing comes or can come to be): expresses the cause or reason of the thing (Euthyphro, from what is loved or not loved by the gods)

Distinguish the three types of skepticism: Particular, Universal, and Helpful. Be able to give examples of each.

a. The particular claims that there are certain things that we cannot know. b. The universal or philosophical skeptic, in the true sense, appears to make the claim that we cannot have any knowledge at all. c. The helpful skeptic is an important element in every philosopher's toolbox.

1. Explain the principle of non-contradiction and why denying it undermines meaning (This is another way to ask the last part of the question above.).

a. The principle of non-contradiction states that nothing is both A and not A at the same time, so there for A and not A must be false. b. Something can both be and not be in the same respect. (Denial of the principle of contradiction.)

1. Explain the wax argument and its philosophical significance.

a. There is no certainty of wax, not matter how it changes. You only observe it and use things from out mind to understand the wax. b. The wax is no different from any other eternal thing: I cannot perceive anything without presupposing an awareness of my own mind and its existence.

Explain some typical ways to respond to the particular skeptics, including the "parity of evidence" response.

a. We address their concerns, refine the argument and marshal our evidence. b. We can also argue that that the opposing side is violating the parity of evidence or that there is something in one of their opposing sides reasoning contains something in out argument.

Explain each of the three ways in which universal skepticism that makes a claim presents itself.

a. We cannot know anything to be true, this leaves some possibility that things might be true. b. Something can both be and not be in the same respect. c. There is no such thing as truth at all.

What are at least two types of value or goodness

a. choice worthiness as a means b. choice worthiness as an end or ultimate goal

What does history - both ancient and modern - tell us are the main rational and ethical commitments that make science scientific?

a. communication of one's ideas and one's reasons b. acceptance of common standards of evidence c. the importance of knowledge and its good for humankind

What are the main features that are usually ascribed to philosophy?

a. there are "eternal" laws governing nature b. these laws can be understood by seeing the patterns within nature. c. That these laws can be understood by using natural reasoning abilities that have logical condition

In what way does philosophy aim to be "holistic"?

holistic refers to something as a whole the philosophical aspects deal with wholeness and addressing something as one, at one time philosophy is always aimed toward holistic questions

What is the origin of the word "ontology" and what does it mean?

it meant the logos of being.

Explain the different types of definitions and which are relevant to philosophy?

lexical definition, Negative definitions, Ostensive definitions, and Definitions by extension are irrelevant to philosophy.

How are philosophy and mythology similar?

myth is open to change just like philosophy,.

What is the origin of the word "epistemology" and what does it mean?

the logic or study of knowledge.

Explain the structure of Parmenides's poem, the point of the introduction and the difference between the 'two ways.'

the way to truth the way to appearance

1. Explain the dream argument.

•Therefore, I can never be certain that things are real by means of the senses. •Consequently: The senses are not a source of certainty.