Philosophy of Religion

What does Augustine believe that evil is

The "probation of good" which does not fulfil its purpose

how does flew oppose religious experience as an argument for god's existence

a true logical statement has to be falsifiable but religious experiences cannot be falsifiable

what does equivocal mean

a word hat can be used with two completely different meanings

what does univocal mean

a word that has exactly the same meaning at all times

how does Mackie reformulate flew's critique

a world in which we all freely choose to do good is logically possible creating this world is within god's ability it is logically possible for one to choose to do good on any one occasion it is logically possible for one to choose to do good on every occasion it is logically possible for any individual to choose to do good throughout their life god is omnipotent and can create any logically possible world god could've created a world in which we were all genuinely free but choose to do good god did not create such a world god is not omnipotent or not wholly good

what is richard dawkin's opinion on religious experience

he sees no point in regarding someone's religious experience until it can be proven as the mind is very susceptible to halluncincations

What is the teleological argument?

the argument for the existence of God from the evidence of order, and hence design, in nature.

What is Mackie's modern inconsistent triad

god being omnipotent, omni benevolent and evil existing cannot all exist at the same time without contradiction

what is nautre msyticism

god is immanent and can be united with through nature

what is passivity as a mark of religious experience

the experience is beyond the individuals control and cannot be obtained by effort; it is a gift

how does William James define 'fairies of religious experience'

the feelings, acts and experiences of individuals mean in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine

what is the cause in fieri objection to Craig's Kalam argument

the first cause is not necessarily the sustainer of the universe, it could no longer exist or be involved in creation

what is a critique of Stephen Fry's argument of the problem of evil

he is not proving that God does not exist if he is considering him as a creator and of previous worth of respect

why is Aquinas sympathetic to via negativa thought

he knows that our ideas about god are limited but there are things we can do about this - using analogy

how does DZ Phillip object to Hare's response to the falsification principle

he liked Hare's response but believed it needed more questioning 1- flew argues that bliks do not account for the way religious believers are speaking as they see themselves as making genuine assertions and claims about the world

how does moody see NDE

he notes the range of similarities but notes that there could be other explanations because feelings do not act as good proof and that person could be: -dreaming -remembering some lost subconscious memory -having a hallucination cause by a lack of oxygen to the brain

how does Rudolf Otto support Aquinas' analogies

he praises them for retaining God's 'otherness' which is important to convey and not disguise

what does Jesus say about suffering

he promises his disciples that they will suffer but assures them that god will be with them

how does micheal argyle critique freud's objection to religious experience as proof of the existence of god

he proved that generally people who have had religious experiences are psychologically balanced, healthy and optimistic people

how does John Hick critique Tillich's idea of symbolism

he questioned the nature of participation of symbols and whether there were different levels of participation

what is platinga's 'Leibniz lapse;

he questions leibniz's idea that god can't create all possible world

how does Feud apply guilt to religion

he recognises the importance of guilt in our psyche which religion helps us to manage and deal with. underlying psychological motives underly religious beliefs eg. fear of death - afterlife or guilt - all forgiving God.

what is hume's third critique to the cosmological argument

he rejects the idea of the beginning of the universe and believes it could be infinite if we are discussing an infinite god

what does Peter vardy (modern philosopher) believe about aquinas' five cosmological theories

he saw contingency and necessity to be the most vital

how does Kant respond to plato's idea of immortality of the soul

he sees immortality as necessary for the purpose of existence of achieving 'summum bonum' which can't be completely achieved in one life. this means God is morally obliged to give us another opportunity.

what are new atheists?

they believe that religion should not be tolerated but should be criticised and exposed by rational argument whenever it's influence arises

what do catholics believe about original sin

they believe that the original sin of adam and eve can be wiped out by baptism

how did augustines argument undermine god's omniscience

why did god put the tree there if he was aware of the temptation - he must of allowed things to go wrong

how did augustines argument undermine god's omnibenvolance

why would one mistake result in everyones suffering and cause sin meaning people go to hell

what are the karmic effects?

1) fully ripened e.g. hatred leading to hell 2) effect similar to the cause e.g. being lied to means you are lied to by others 3) conditioning effect e.g. stealing leads to re-birth in poverty 4) proliferation effect e.g. past actions are repeated again and again These might be more significant in hinduism because you directly experience the consequences

what did the vienna circle think language needed to be to be meaningful

1- a synthetic proposition (verifiable) 2- an analytic proposition (true by definition)

what were Aquinas' two types of analogy

1- analogy of attribution 2- analogy of proportion

What is Anselm's ontological argument?

1- god is a being that which nothing greater can be conceived, atheists can define god despite not believing in him 2- something that exists in reality is bound to be greater than something that exists in thought 3- if there is no greater being than god, god must exist in reality as well as in thought, if god was only in the mind we would be able to think of something greater

what are the three different interpretive ways that religious believers interpret sacred texts

1- literalism 2- conservatism 3- liberalism Wittgenstein advocates that you should not impose a single, univocal meaning but look at form, intention and understanding

what are Aristotle's ideas on analogy

1- strength depends on the number of similarities in the two things being compared 2- similarity only exists in identical relations and properties 3- good analogies are based on understanding common causes or general principles 4- good analogical arguments do not need to assume aquaintance with the underlying generalisation

what is Gary Gutting's (2013) 'no argument argument for atheism'

1- the absence of good reasons to believe that God exists is itself a good reason to believe that God does not exist 2- there is no good reason to believe that God exists thereore 3-there is good reason to believe that God does not exist

who was Augustine's soul deciding theodicy

1-god created the world as good 2-sin entered the world because of the original sin of adam and eve 3-sin brought brokenness into our human nature and in creation 4-we all share in the evil human nature like adam and eve 5-evil is the absence of goodness 6-god is all loving because he provided Jesus as restoration to the broken order 7-god is justified in not stopping evil because he wants to give people a chance to respond

What are the seven points in swinburne's soul making theodicy

1-people gain knowledge by induction in the present about what will happen in the future 2-you must understand consequences to actions if you going to but go about or prevent certain circumstances 3-you can only know that certain actions have bad consequences if you have previous knowledge of the consequences 4-we can only know bad consequences if we have suffered them before 5-any evil must have been done at some point for the first time 6-the first murderer must be aware that his action will kill something from something 7-there must be natural evils to allow us to see the full range of possible evils giving us sufficient inductive knowledge

what are the two Principles Swinburne sees arguments of religious experience to rely on

1-the principle of credulity- if somebody believes they have experienced something they probably have. we should believe unless there is a good reason not to 2-the principle of testimony- it is reasonable to believe what somebody tells us, unless there is a good reasons not to

what did copleston and Russel debate

1947 - god's necessary existence on the radio

Who was Rene Descartes?

A French philosopher and mathematician who aimed to find certainty in the universe like in maths

Who was Augustine

A neo platonic early church father

What are religious experiences that are describable in ordinary langauges

Dreams and visions (Joseph)

What is Augustine's soul deciding theodicy

God created the world as good Sin entered the world because of the original sin of Adam and Eve This brought about brokenness both in our human nature and in creation We all share in the evil nature caused by Adam and eve because we all share the same nature Evil is the absence of goodness God is all loving because he provides in Jesus a way to restore the broken order God is justified is not stopping evil because he wants people to have a chance to respond

What did sir alister hardy do and belive

Founded the religious experience research unit in 1969. They found that those with religious expletives put authority in the phenomena which conceives then in their religious beliefs or persuaded them to change religious beliefs

What is the thought experiment for Hick's replica theory

Stage 1 - Joh smith living in America suddenly disappears in front of his friends and reappears immediately in India. He has exactly the same DNA, memories and self-concept so his friends would have to say, even if they din't know how, that it was John Smith Stage 2 - This time John smith in America dies and a 'replica' is created at the same moment in India. Even with the body in the USA we would have to say he'd has been miraculously re-created in another place. Stage 3 - John smith dies on earth and reappears as a resurrection replica in a different world inhabited only by resurrected persons.

What is Edwin starbuck's physchological view

Study of conversion prompted to draw parallel woth the normal process of finding identity during adolescence as most conversions take place between 15-24

what is Richard Dawkin's background

brought up as an anglican and stopped believing at age 9. he was reconverted after hearing the design argument but was later won over by natural selection and evolution. he bridges the agnostic/athiest gap as he sees God's existence as highly improbable but critiques mainstream ideas of atheism by suggesting that the universe can be amazing and beautiful without needing a supernatural power.

what are advantages of Tillich's idea of symbolism

by stressing the symbolic nature of religious language, Tillich reminds us of the dangers of anthropomorphising

what is Don Cupitt's non-cognitive analysis

cupitt's non-realism sees God not to objectively exist but exist in people's minds and have meaning for their life. This means that Christianity involves a symbol of God that represents to us what 'spirituality requires of us and promises to us' what the God-concept expresses matters more as it can transform out lives and communities despite not being 'out there.'

how can the coporate religious experiences be explained as a union with a greater power

david hay -sees them as being widespread over time and space they create profound and positive experiences in people's lives which are hard to explain without referring to god there are considerable similarities of religious experiences among between different religions which would not be present if made up

what is the 5th point of the soul making theodicy 'god's image-god's likeness'

humans are made in gods image but have to grow into gods likeness by overcoming difficulties and resisting temptation to do wrong

what is the 8th point of the soul making theodicy 'life after death'

humans are not capable in this world of being in the likeness of god you can only reach that state after death when you can compete your spiritual development

what is the problem with anthropomorphism in religious language

humans cannot say 'literal' truths about God as it omits him to our human experiences. Using analogies like 'light' points to wider truths.

what is Russell's objection to Craig's argument

if everything has a cause why shouldn't god have a cause -craig replied that 'whatever begins to exist has a cause' therefore god always existed and has no cause

what did John hick believe about the problem of evil

if god had made the world perfectly we would have the goodness of a robot and would automatically love god without thought. the love would be valueless and god waned humans to be genuinely loving so he gave us freedom to choose this for ourselves

what is the 6th point of the soul making theodicy 'part of being good is an effort of will'

if god stepped in ever time we made mistakes to prevent evil we would not have free choice and not learn from our mistakes

what is hick's theory of freedom and knowledge

if no harm could come from our actions god would have to constantly intervene causing nature to have no regularity. there would be no science and no explanantion for anything. we need freedom to observe the world and choose or reject god for oursleves

what is the contingency and necessity theory

if something is contingent it depends on something else there must be something that brings contingent thins into existence otherwise nothing would exist without a non contingent thing to bring them into existence there must be a being with necessary existence = GOD

how does evolution challenge god's creation

if species have adapted and evolved it means they can't have been created perfectly in god's image the order, purpose and regularity in the universe was brought about by nature and not the result of design

how can we evaluate the idea that we are a relationship between mind and body

if the brain is just an organ how does it connect with conscious thought

what are problems with hick's idea of eschatological verification

if there is no afterlife god cannot be falsified as you are dead and we reach flew's original problem. by moving reaching verification/falsification into the future he undermines Mitchell's idea that we should be aware of the challenges to our faith for it to be mature

What is the watch analogy?

if we compare the universe to a watch we conclude that there must be a designer the universe is far beyond human designer so the designer must be far beyond human capabilities

what is hick's theory of epistemic distance

if we were created perfectly with a full awareness of god, we would never exercise our free will. god wants us to choose to become who he wants to us to become rather than forcing us so remains instant from us in order for us to 'act naturally' and not be overwhelmed by his reality

how is mysticism involved in islam

sufism groups seek an innate belief in god and union with Allah

what do the Kalam arguments rely on

temporal causation

how is mysticism involved in judaism

the Kabbalah group seek abnegation of the ego

what is another word for via negative

the apophatic way (particularly in the Eastern Orthodox Church)

what F.R Tennant's is the anthropic principle

the universe 'knew we were coming' and was designed with us in mind. there must be a designer due to the tiny probability of things being perfect so we could survive

what is David griffin's process theodicy defence for god making the world with evil elements

the universe contains the material for evil and the material for good god was right to make the world despite, knowing evil would arise because complex beings can still experience joy in a world with suffering

what is the epicurean hypothesis

the universe is eternal and therefore, anything could eventually happen at some point so we could be at the random point where everything works

What is Copleston's argument?

the universe is the sum of the things that exist, these things rely on other things for their existence the cause for the universe must be external the cause for the universe must be a necessary being

how did Wittgenstein see language

the use of language is like partaking in a game, like chess, you have to understand a word before you can use it. it is meaningless to argue about how language is used but we should focus on playing the game and accepting the rules.

what is materialism

the view that physical matter is all that exists. they state that everything a human does is absolutely reducible to statements about physical processes (neurone, brain activity etc) however, rejection of substance dualism does not necessarily mean materialism

what is design qua purpose

the world's designs are fitted to their purposes

what does theodicy mean in greek

theos=god dikaios=justification

what does postmodernism think about religion

there are no universal religious or ethical laws because everything is shaped by the cultural context of a particular time, place, community. this suggests that religion is an entirely human made phenomena. it is created, altered and renewed in various formal interactions between human beings. this means that there is no right/wrong religion or domination.

what is the 2nd point of the soul making theodicy 'evil is necessary to know whats good'

there has to be evil to appreciate what is good

why does G.E.Moore critique rebirth

there is no hard evidence for the law of karma affecting our lives. It can fall into the 'naturalistic fallacy' because it confuses moral ideas with factual information about how the world works

what does Swinburne believe about the afterlife

there may be an afterlife to compensate for suffering but by including this point it undermines the probability of his theory to be correct as suffering has to have an impact to teach us stuff

what did Rudolph otto believe about religious experiences

they are all of the numinous nature

what does numinous mean

"apprehension of the whole other" -otto

how does marx view religion

'the opiate of the people' a from of social control that dulls the proleteriat's pain and masks their exploitation. mystical experiences are the outward manifestation of this drug induced state

what is Aquinas' belief about the soul

'the soul is the first principle of life' but different to the physical principles of life (body, heart.) he recognises how your life needs the body to be animated and to be you. the soul is not material and should be understood as connected to the mind rather than opposed.

What does Hume believe about the problem of evil

Agrees with mackie that as evil exits the god of classical theism does not

what is gottfired leibniz's modern response to the cosmological argument

"argument from sufficient reason" there is a reason why everything exists and it is not good enough to say 'it just does' the reason must be external because it is not contained within the universe there must be a being that can create existence =GOD

how does rudolph otto describe god?

'wholly other' because he is completely differnt and distinct to human beings. we are unable to know god unless he chooses to revel himself to us.

who was irenaeus

(130-202) he learnt from polycarp who was a disciple of John and lived when the early church was experiencing persecution allowing him to questions god's one and suffering

what is Kant's critique 'existence is not a predictate'

"bad grammer" he reiterates that Descartes sees is as predicate of God but in reality it is a describing quality of the version of God Descartes interprets based on his personal and flawed understanding and evidence

What is Eriugena's argument for via negativa

'his light is called darkness as no creature can comprehend either how or what it is'

how did Peter Cole question the idea of a bodily resurrection?

'if christians are in a physical, resurrected state in a physical environment, will they have to queue to see Jesus'

how does russel explain corporate experiences as physcophysical effects

'if you eat too little you see visions and if you drink too much you see snakes' it can be the product of ill health or hunger ect.

when do people use religion language

- to explain religious experiences - to discuss beliefs / non-beliefs - to worship

what is William palsy's argument

-complex mechanisms must have a designer because they have been put together for a purpose -everything in the universe is complex and serves a purpose -therefore, the universe and everything in it must also have a designer (GOD)

what are controversies with philosophy of religion

- does questioning suggest we know better - does questioning suggest we have little faith - if we cannot understand god then why bother

why does Irenaeus praise Hick's replica theory

- it solves body soil difficulties -goes with biblical teaching -works with Irenaus' theodicy and Hick's ideas of soul-making

what does freud see as the cause of conversion experiences

- people want to submit to a father figure for protection and sexual desires -in times of guilt we search for a loving, forgiving figure to free us

what are hindu ideas about the soul

- you start off as a 'lower being' and undergo evolution through animals and future humans. After being born human, you keep being born as a human unless your actions were so bestial that they warrant being reborn as an animal -reincarnation is known as samsara and is often depicted as an infinity symbol: -brahma: gives life -vishnu: preserves life -shiva: claims death. This is repeated until one achieves moksha

how does Wittgenstein's language game theory differ from Aquinas' analogies

-Aquinas believes that language reflects our thoughts whereas, Wittgenstein thinks that our use of language makes thought and activity -Aquinas deals more with problems when talking about God whereas Wittgenstein's ideas are more about the ways language work and our perceptions of that language

what are the ideas of resurrection in the bible

-Ezekiel 37: valley of dry bones -Gospel writer: resurrection of Jesus 1 corinthians: Paul argues in favour of the resurrection body

what are Dawkins' main arguments against religious belief

-God's existence is a scientific hypothesis which could only be proven by God, but by basing it on reason and practice the probability is far from 50% -the impression of design is because only what "works" has made it through evolution, however, he suggests that some people are less developed and need religion and God to nurture them -he completely separates religion and morality and doesn't believe that the purpose of human life isn't as grand as religion suggests -by teaching dogma, he thinks that religion perverts scientific understand by teaching you to not change your mindset. -he disputes the fine tuning argument because of chance and the possibility of a multiverse

what are the ideas of resurrection that Paul promotes in 1 corinthians

-Jesus was resurrected, so christians should hope for this too -God's creative power means that the resurrection is not a weird idea and can make human bodies perfect imperishable -without believing in Jesus' resurrection and ours too there is no point having faith in him

what are weaknesses of the verification principle

-Keith Ward argues that God can verify his own existence meaning that religious stamens can be verified -If a statement is meaningful it doesn't mean that it is true -historical statements cannot be empirically verified under the strong verification principle -Swinburne suggests that it is possible for statements to be meaningful and understood without being verified as it is unverifiable and fictitous -karl popper argues that we can't scientifically verify everything -the verification principle itself is not a tautology or empirically verifiable so can be deemed meaningless -It ignores all statements presented by the creative arts

what are possible criticisms of Stevenson and Almeder's ideas on reincarnation and their responses

-Some people suggest that it is fraud however, Almeder analogies that if 100 people fell of the empire state building and 5% were harmed it still should be explained as it is 'statistically deviant' -There is not an explanation of the process but does this undermine that the events occur

what are weakness of the process theodicy

-compromises god's transcendence because he is part of the natural process rather than acting beyond with control over it -compromises god's omnipotence -God can appear to not be omnibenvolant because he allowed so many people suffer with little good benefits

what are the fruits of religious experience identified by William James

-a feeling of being in a wider life than the world's interests and a conviction of an ideal power -a sense of friendly continuity of the ideal power with our own life and a willing self Surender to it's control -an immense elation and freedom with the meltdown of the outlines of the confining self -shifting of the emotional centre towards loving and harmonious affections

what does AJ Ayer suggest about verifiable langauge

-accepts the a priori/a posteriori division -wishes to follow the thinkers of the vienna circle in rejecting metaphysics as meaningless -it must be tautology, have practical verificability or to be verifiable in principle to be worthy of discussion -he suggests that a lot of what we take as knowledge defies strict verification

what were Craig's three forms of cosmological arguments

-arguments based on the impossibility of an actual infinity in temporal regress (Kalam) -arguments based on the impossibility of infinite contingency (aquinas) -arguments based on the principle of sufficient reason (leibniz)

what are criticisms of Freud's psychological explanations of religion

-assumes that all aspects of religion are immature and therefore rejects the diversity and development of different religious beliefs -Freud's anti-religious stance may be just as neurotic as the religion idea of others -widely criticised for not being objective in his methods and experiments ad therefore has less influence

what is a response to Le Poidevin's agnosticism

-atheism is probably true -if atheism is very probably true then it is rationally permissible -atheism is permissable however, -if strong agnosticism is true then atheistic belief is not rationally permissible therefore, strong agnosticism is false

what are arguments against resurrection

-based on scripture alone so could have been fabricated by those sympathetic to christ but also cannot persuade non-believers -is it plausible to believe that the physical body is re-made in the 21st century? -we do not have enough information about how it works and why Jesus continued to have the scars from his death but did not look the same -if the body is a main source of flaws and limitations like desire and disease why aren't we resurrected as non-material souls or spirits -no empirical evidence of resurrection so is not supported by followers of the verification principle -means there must be a physical heaven

what is Anthony Flew's falsification principle

-believed that a statement is meaningful if it is known what empirical evidence could count against it -he was frustrated that religious believers do not give the condition which will count against there claim as some theists would response with constant qualifications like 'it is a test' and therefore, render the religious statements worthless because they die the 'death by a thousand qualifications'

what are arguments for via positiva

-belives it is possible to say something possible about God -our language may not be precise but it may be indicative of something correct about god

what are strengths of the verification principle

-can we really prove whether or not God exists -what should truth be based on -the scientific approach is appealing to modern society

what is the history of ideas of life after death

-chinese emperor shin Huang ti was buried with 6000 terracotta soldiers to protect him in the next line -ancient Egyptians bred with wealth -modern population culture of ghosts who are stuck between heaven and hell, spirit appirations whether threatening or comforting for relatives and friends

what are the 3 levels of consciousness in the human mind that Carl Jung proposes

-consciousness: part of the mind that is directly accessible to the individual -personal consciousness: unique to the individual and developed over their lifetime (memories, social conditioning) -the collection unconsciousness: does not depend on personal experience but deep extensive parts of the psyche that are common to all of humanity

What is William James classical model of conversion

-context -emotional stirring -guilt -desire for salvation -unawareness of time or place -asking for forgiveness -realisation of forgiveness -inner renewal -transfigured view of sprry songs -happiness/joy -desire to share with others

what are Russell's arguments against religious experience

-copleston makes a jump from an internal, mental state experience to proving God's existence -experiences that don't involve things outside of you can profoundly alter your character and the wholesome effect on your life cannot act as evidence that it involves god -copleston's argument can be used to prove the existence of satan -no matter how intense the experience, there is no link between a private experience and the existence of something causing that experience

What are swinburnes' private experiences

-describable in ordinary languages -non describable experiences -non specific experiences

What were st Teresa's tests to determine whether the experience was genuine

-does it fit with Christian teaching ? -does the experience leave the individual feeling at peace

where did the via negativa idea emerge

-emerged amongst eastern Neo-platonic though -can be linked back to the book of Job when Job learnt not to compare to God -it aims to move beyond limits of darkness

what are the 3 key principles William James bases religious experience on

-empiricism; is it measurable? -pluralism; have other experienced it too? -pragmatism; does it make a positive difference to their life?

what is new atheism's 3 legged objection to religion

-epistemological objection = sees belief in God as essentially irrational -metaphysical objection = argues that only reality is empirical so supernatural reality can not be -moral objection = they see that one can be ethical and virtuous without God. there is a secular cassis to goodness without having to appeal to a deity

what are DZ Phillips six objection to Hick and Swinburne

-evil does not give oppurtunity for character development as not everyone learns from it. character development is a reaction to it but not a reason for it to happen -evil isn't logically necessary as if god could do all things he could make us free beings who don't commit moral evil -evil does not spur us on to be better people -it undermines suffering to say things are not as bad as they seem -euthanasia proves that suffering can be more than we can bear -everything being redeemed after death doesn't appreciate the suffering individuals face

what are weaknesses of religious belief

-experiences can be explained in other ways -existence of evil and suffering is incompatible with omnipotent and omnibenevolent God -world is explained better through science -no sufficient evidence that God exists -religious arguments and teachings include inconsistencies -God invented people who are weak and rely on him -some prayers aren't answered -teachings are outdated -religious teachings can lead people to do terrible things -Eythyphro argument

what are strengths of hick's theodicy

-explains the purpose of evil -shows why it is logically necessary to have good and evil in the world -doesn't limit god's omnipotence as god can only do what is logically possible (cannot make bravery without fear) -consequentialist, ends are justified

what are common accounts of near death experiences

-feeling yourself floating outside of your body -describing looking down on themselves from above -the feeling of travelling down a tunnel; towards a very bright light (a peaceful, warm feeling) -beams of light

how does Lyon think that postmodernism impacts religion through the internet

-global mass media has 'dissembled' religion. this means that religious beliefs and practices have been lifted out of their normal physical context. this means people can practice religion at their own convenience -he suggested that the 'electronic church' is becoming the norm due to websites and satellite TV channels meaning that attendance and spirituality are measured differently -religion has become de-institutionalised and instead has become a cultural resource that individuals can adopt and adapt for their own purposes

what are arguments for Via Negativa

-god is greater than only thing we can comprehend therefore, statements about him cannot be made accurately -language applied to God is equivicol

what are objections to wswinburne's argument

-god provides unlimited lessons in evil, where is love and justice? -if evil is to teach then where is mercy when people do not learn and keep commenting great evils? -it does provide an answer to the sufferer -it is utilitarian and unfeeling -doesn't consider capacity of brain to develop from experience -suffering isn't lessened or justified before death -is an afterlife enough to justify for all suffering

what are weaknesses of Aquinas' analogies

-he does not clarify in what definite way and to what extent a thing is similar to God -the understanding of God remains limited so could be misleading -it is dangerous to anthropomorphise as it requires bringing god down to our level -challanged by via negativa

what are weaknesses of plato's ideas of the soul

-he does not clarify the interaction between the body and the soul -if the soul is superior it should be able to stop bodily desires overriding our will (falling asleep) or could tell our bodies to stop eating so we die and the soul is freed -falls into a 'reasons are causes' problem -he suggests that if we know the right thing to do, we are bound to do it which isn't realised

how does Lyon think that postmodernism has impacted through it still being relevant

-he is critical of the view that religion is being replaced by a rational, scientific worldview -society is experiencing a period of 're-enchantment' in which there has been a growth in unconventional religious beliefs, practices and spirituality -he suggests that religious beliefs and processes are just as strong as ever just with different forms from the past.

how does Ian Ramsey add to Aquinas' analogies

-he suggests that models and qualifiers are needed to talk about God -models assist us in understanding the thing that it represents. Qualifiers modify the models to highlight that god is not the same eg. my mum is good God is infinitely good

What are different ideas about what happens after we die

-heaven -hell -purgatory -nothing -ghost -memory lives on -re-incarnation -re-birth

what are advantages of language game theory

-highlights non-cognitive nature of religious language -distinguishes religious language from other types of language -provides boundaries for the correct use of language -believers can be initialized into the rules of language -defends language against criticism from other forms of life as truth is to be understood as relative as statements are judged against their context not on inherent objective true/false.

what are advantages of language game theory

-highlights non-cognitive nature of religious language -distinguishes it from other types of language -language games provide boundaries for the correct use of language -believers can be initialised into the rules of language -defends language against criticism from other forms of life as truth is to be understood as relative and statements are judged against their context

what did Emile Durkheim see as the functions of religion

-hold and bind societies together -preserve and enforce the social and moral order -create general cohesiveness between individuals -gives meaning and purpose to life

what are criticisms of aquinas' five cosmological theories

-how can you conclude that they are all the Christian god -you cannot assume that there can't be infinite regression -they could lead back to a collection of origins -some matter in the universe is eternal

what are implications of language games on religious believers

-how do debates between theists and atheists work when they are playing different games and discussing contradictions -It can help us identify conceptual confusion as we see where differences in language are occurring -having a religion involves faith and Wittgenstein's ideas make it necessary to contemplate the different games that are associated with this idea. applying a language game to math remind use that concepts of religious belief change over time or new ideas and interpretations arise -It encourages us to take care over terms and avoid conflict

how can language games be critiqued for choosing between language games

-if all language games have autonomy why can you justify paying attention to one game rather than another

what is the non cognitive argument of language game theory

-if we take this view it means that nothing is true or false but a feature of a game that helps express a feeling. -expressivism is the view that moral/religious statements express evaluative attitudes or opinions but don't relate to objective -if wittgenstein is right and there are only language games what do the words 'true/false' mean? they are not categories that apply to religious language games

how does Daniele hervieu-leger think that postmodernism impacts religion through religious consumerism

-individual consumerism has replaced collective tradition with regard to religious belief and practice -people today feel they are consumers of religion and consequently they have become spiritual shoppers in a religious market place characterised by great diversity and choice

what are critiques of Richard Dawkins' ideas

-intolerant and aggressive approach -it should be considered anti-theism rather than atheism -can be unscientific by suggesting that it is verifiable that God doesn't exist -religion cannot be described as a virus because ideas aren't transmitted genetically but can be rejected, accepted, critiqued or adapted. He is proof that people can change their beliefs. -his argument leads to determinism and suggests that we have no moral responsibility as it is all handed down to us genetically -he reduces what it means to be human down to pure science and evolutionary ontological reduction for survival which does not correlate with our mental life, creativity and hobbies -post-modern world has no objective viewpoint so he can't push others down by suggesting that science answers all our questions and this follows ideas from the modern era.

what are arguments against rebirth

-it also assumes a dark view of reality by constantly focusing on suffering which may make life less enjoyable -it is difficult to live without the idea of a fixed or true self as it is important to know 'what we are really like' -it is seen as an equaliser bit isn't fair as it may be easier to reach enlightenment in the higher castes

what are arguments in favour of rebirth

-it has moral value because people must constantly strive for good karmic effects rather than just be damned or saved -some people find the idea of having no 'true self' appealing especially if they think the idea of the immaterial soul is too metaphysical or doubtful -there is some psychological truth in the idea that we are people constantly changing -by focusing on the enlightenment of the Buddha, rebirth stresses the importance of personal spirituality and compassion over blind faith.

what are criticisms of Plato's idea of the soul

-it is clear there is a continuing mystery about the nature of the soul - it is dangerous to make a simple conclusion about something very complicated, even established ideas are challenged. -there are no precise definitions of body, soul, mind, consciousness etc. and the terms are used interchangeably -the answers given often reflect the starting point of the question (e.g. plato desiring to find certainty in an uncertain world or hick trying to make it fit with christianity) -modern neuroscience assumes that the mind is a product of brain function -dualism is not a traditional part of religious teaching -whilst Descartes has proved that we thinking that does not suggest that our thinking self exists independently

what are copleston's arguments on religious experience

-some forms of 'true' religious experience can only be explained by a being that has the loving and transcendent qualities featured in the experience -follows 3 lines of argument: precise nature of religious experience, moral effect on people, factor that the experience is of an ultimate reality

what are weaknesses of swinburne's arguments from religious experience

-it is easy to validate and trust observable experiences whereas internal religious experiences are in another category -many ordinary experiences are third person public sp others can confirm the claims whereas, religious experiences are first person private so they cannot be confirmed -people may be truthful when explaining what they believe to be true

what are problems with religious language

-it is not always clear when religious language is non-congitive -many people interpret religious language literally, but it could've originally meant to have been symbolic -religious language is subjective -can non cognitive language still point towards a cognitive truth

how was the toronto blessing seen by skeptics

-mass hysteria -expectation

how does John Hick criticise Stevenson and Almeder's ideas on reincarnation

-most of those claiming memories of former lives are children. This could be because children remember past lives better as they are closer to the death of their previous incarnation but it could also be because they are open to persuasion and fantasying with common occurrences of imaginary friends. -most of the cases occur in countries and people where the doctrine of reincarnation is generally accepted and commonly held. This could be because they take it seriously and are more likely to report it or because it is socially desirable to claim such experiences and be encouraged by the cultural context

what was aquinas' argument

-obsevred that everything in the world follows a natural law -even non-couscious, non-thinking beings work towards a goal -non-conscious, non-thinking beings cannot direct themselves toward a goal -therefore, they must be directed by something (GOD)

why does postmodernism suggest about truth

-people have turned to 'relativism' where all options have some validity

how does Lyon think that postmodernism impacts religion through religious choice

-people in postmodern societies construct their identities through what they choose to consume -people have not abandoned religion but it has been re-located to the sphere of consumption and people have become conscious consumers choosing to relate to those bits of different religions that they find useful

what is the mysticsm of knowledge and understanding

-people urge to "know the secret of the universe" -we gain the whole story through experiential knowledge of god -the knowledge is intuative and 'noetic'

what were Emile Durkheim's functionalist explanations fo religion

-people who think that are experiencing a divine power are unconsciously experiencing the power of their own society -when people feel that they are guided and controlled by God they are actually being guided by other people in society -moral guidance from God is the unconscious recognition of society's rules -God is a symbol of society

what are William James' philisophical interests

-phenomenology; study of the phenomena -pragmatism; theory of truth, truth is an instrument that helps us get from one place to another

what are strengths of Aquinas' analogies

-positive ways of describing God (via positive) -helps convey complex ideas about god -accessible to everyone but reveals deeper meanings to different believers

how does Daniele Hervieu-Leger think that postmodernism impacts religion through memory loss

-postmodern societies have experienced a collective loss of religious memory as children are no longer taught stories and knowledge from different agents. instead parents often let children decide for themselves.

what are strengths of religious belief

-presence of order and beauty in the world are explained -answered prayers -scripture appeals to our innate sense of morality -provides comfort and hope -documentation of religious experiences -common morals and teachings across world religions -beliefs have led people to do amazing things in the name of God and address injustices -Religious teachings encourage goodness in people

how does Daniele hervieu-leger think that postmodernism impacts religion through individual construction

-religion is more individualised meaning that people can construct their own unique programmes of religious belief and practice rather than having it imposed on them by membership of an organised religion -the do-it-yourself approach to religion allows people to explore spirituality in their own time and in their own way

what are criticisms of Durkheim's perceptions of religion

-religious believers can distinguish between membership of their religious community and belief in God - their primary loyalty is to God - not the community -the theory doesn't explain why some religious believers go against and reject societal norms eg. Martin Luther king or monks -Durkheim's thesis was modelled on primitive aboriginal tribes - it is not a true reflection of modern religion -whilst society constantly changes, beliefs about God are timeless. In many cases religion resists the changing of societies belief (no sex before marriage) -functionalism is a macro theory that looks at big ideas, generalisation without looking at small, micro case studies -in multicultural studies, multiple religions are practiced in one cohesive society -religions are not purely focused on their society but are often concerned with the whole of humanity and with encouraging universal adherence and moral codes

what are some people's reasons for a belief in the afterlife

-religious text -religious revelations -witnessed a ghost -awareness that you are more than flesh -feeling that their dead friends are watching over them

what are four stages of personal development that peck notices

-self obsessed -conformist - identity, norms and values are taken uncritically from their identification with a group -individualist - cynical toward and doubting accepted norms -intergrated - aware of traditional ways and dependence on others

what are weaknesses with language game theory

-some thinkers suggest that the theory resembles Fideism -doesn't allow for believers claims to be empirically tested -religious language alienates those outside the game and the rules can't be changes to allow outsiders in

what are weaknesses of language game theory

-some thinkers suggest that the theory resembles fideism -can lead to irrationalism and blind faith -can justify extremism and superstition -doesn't allow for believers' claims to be empirically tested -religious language alienates those outside of the game

what are the three aspects of mysticism

-soul mysticism -nature mysticism -god mysticism

how is religious, non cognitive language often meant to be interpreted

-symbolic language -metaphors -ethical commands these are not literal but are very meaningful as they provide moral framework and attempt to describe god

what are criticisms of Marist explanations of religion

-the biblical picture of God is of a deity who transforms situations and lifts up the opressed -religion is no longer necessary in a capitalist society and yet it still exists as the ruling classes have less to do with religion -capitalism is the result of religious ethical view of hard work not the other way around -another mark theory which makes large, whole society statements without small scale examples

what are similarities between plato and the soul's ideas of Christianity

-the contrast between a permanent spiritual realm and a temporary flawed physical realm -flawed bodies and good souls

how can language games be critiqued for representing circular arguments

-the meaning of a word comes from it's language game however, language games come from the words that make up the game -for a language game to make sense there needs to be an external link to give it meaning so we need to question the autonomy. if the game is real this should be obvious.

what are the two types of mysticism

-the mysticism of love and union -the mysticism of knowledge and understanding

what are plato's two arguments for the immortality of the soul

-the soul forgets it's heavenly knowledge in it's descent into each of us. education is needed to help us remember it, -"like gives rise to life" the body and mind are so different so it is impossible that they could be made from one another. the body is made up of the material world but soul existed beyond this and is made of invisible, intellectual and immaterial reality.

what is William lane Craig's argument

-the universe is finite so must have a beginning -what exists has a cause -the universe is either caused or uncaused and be brought about 'naturally' or through 'personal choice' -before the world there were no natural laws so it most be due to a personal agent -they must be transcendent as they existed outside of space and time and a 'personal being' who freely chose to create the world

what is Robin Le poidevin's argument for agnosticism

-there is no firm basis upon which to judge that theism or atheism are intrinsically more probable than the other -there is no firm basis upon which to judge that the Toal evidence favours theism or atheism over the other -agnosticism is true

what are disadvantages of Tillich's idea of symbolism

-there is no way of determining whether symbolic use of language is appropriate. it is solely based on your personal ideas of God -symbols can be used to represent the past, future or myths. There is no way of assuming it is truthful or accurate.

how can we evaluate the idea that we are our consciousness

-this only allows for our memories -this degraded babies or those suffering from dementia or in a coma

What are implications of Jesus' resurrection

-understanding of OT scriptures in a new light -understanding of Jesus as the new temple and exodus -sin and death are dealt with -Jesus becomes king of all as death is no longer a barrier

what are strengths of swinburne's arguments from religious experience

-uses measurable change in behaviour to suggest reason for a genuine experience -he does not solely pin god's existence on individuals experiences

how can we evaluate the idea that we are our body

-we are counted this way -if your body is increased or reduced are you more or less yourself -we are encouraged to look at people deeper than this

what is the mysticism of love and union

-we long to escape lonliness and seperation -we are driven by a desire to be individual and a desire to be part of something bigger which are in conflict -we are always searching to return to god

what are reasons for agnosticism

-without knowledge; neither believer or disbeliver -no good reason to prove or disprove God -psychological reasons; you cannot comprehend or have relationship without God -more concerned with overall spirituality -causes less conflict -doesn't like organised religion -aware of arguments for an against God and equally persuaded by both

what are some people's reasons against belief in the afterlife

-you are solely confined to physical matter -it is a coping mechanism -atheist -there is no place beyond earth and the universe -belief in re-birth

What voice did Augustine hear

A child's voice saying "take it and read" . It could be god's voice or a child's voice attributes to god which he perceived to be a command to read scripture

What is the catholic view of conversion

A process which happens to all people within the context of the church. It begins at infant baptism and they grow up growing in faith and it is sealed with an act of confirmation

How are mystical religious experiences "unitive" experiences

A sense of separation is overcome

How does Hick alternatively explain the instances of possible reincarnation that Stevenson and Almeder observe

After bodily death a mental 'husk' of the deceased person is left behind and is telepathically accessible under certain conditions to alive people. It may contain fragments of memory, emotion or habit which fade over time explaining why they are often experienced by children and refer to memories in a similar time frame. Hick notes that mediums use trances to construct a personal environment that will allow them to pick up these 'husks.' This explains why those who believe in the doctrine of reincarnation pick up the 'husks' as their culture is tuned in to receiving them .

What are theories of what evil is

Absence of good Contrary to the will of god The devil

What is the via negativa?

An attempt to prove God's existence by stating what He is not

What is Via Positiva?

An attempt to prove God's existence by stating who he is

What are ides of altnearives for St. Paul's experience

An epileptic fit or post homicidal guilt

How are Buddhists' ideas of rebirth are different?

Anatta = teaching that we have no essential self or soul, true selfhood is an illusion anicca = everything including conscious life is forever changing and permanence does not exists rebirth is a fixed principle of reality rather than something created by God where your karma but not consciousness and character it applied to a new life after death.

What does the problem of evil require to be defeated

As a deductive argument you need to ether undermine the existence of evil or prove that an all knowing, all loving and all powerful god has a good reason not to stop evil

How does Richard Dawkins see religion

As a way people attempt to understand the work and reality with 'blind faith' based on no empirical evidence

What are numinous religious expreineces

Awe, dread, energy, power and attraction in the face of transcendent 'other'

what is deism

Belief in God based on reason rather than revelation

Who follows the catholic view of conversion

Catholics,anglicans and orthodox

What did Caroline Davies do

Classification of religious experience

What are quasi-sensory religious experiences

Commonly personal, pictorial or symbolic visionary experiences (light) sent by a divine being but requiring some interpretation. It can include audition, taste, touch, smell or complex bodily sensations

What are non describable religious experiences

Direct, ineffable experiences of god in which the divine is revealed to people

What is moral evil

Events caused by human action like rape,theft, murder, war and terrorism

What is natural evil

Events that are not the direct result of human action (animal suffering, natural disasters, disease and mental illness)

What is part two of Descartes argument

Existence is a predicate or god As a supremely perfect being god must possess existence otherwise that being is not perfect God must be exist in reality.. it's absurd to think otherwise as it goes against the definition of god (same as a triangle without three sides)

What is part one of Descartes argument

God exist as an idea in the mind God= a supremely pefect being by the definition God necessarily exists because that is where our idea of god comes from...as imperfect beings we can't develop that idea

what is Tillich's idea of religious symbols being both 'affirmed and negated' by the reality of God

God fits the symbol but the human term is inadequate in relation to God

What is swinburnes soul making theodicy

God has created evil to provide opportunities for teaching and responsibility. When we fully understand the outcomes we have free choose to decide to fulfil good/evil. Only by exposing us to great horrors can humans be given the full gift of freedom

how does Carl Jung apply his idea of archetypes to religion?

God is an archetype and manifestation of the deepest levels of the collective consciousness. all of humanity shares an innate sense of God. when people have religious experiences and feel that something outside of themselves is happening it is because the collective consciousness is beyond our control. therefore, religious beliefs are beneficial because they pull people together in the shared archetype of God and gives them a better understanding of themselves

What is swinburne's cumulative case of god's existence

He believes that even if the cosmological argument doesn't prove god's existence individually, it can be proven by combining a posteriori proofs

What is swinburnes soul making theodicy

He believes that natural evil is a precondition of moral evil. This opposes that augustian view that natural view that natural evil is a consequence for moral evil. He believes that evil is logically necessary for people to know how to create/prevent evil and have a genuine choice between evil/giod

What does hick believe about universal salvation

He believes we cannot explain he'll if evil exists to produce good as it only causes pain and punishment. He rejects ireneuas with his purgatorial view that there is further opportunity for soul making after death. God wouldn't destroy his creation and give up in our development so he offers hope of a great future for salvation for all

what is Ian Stevenson's opinion on reincarnation

He considered that the concept of reincarnation might supplement those of heredity and environment in helping modern medicine to understand aspects of human behaviour and development. He saw reincarnation as the survival of a personality after death which may not be caused by physical processes

What is swinburnes counter argument of the toy world

He counters arguments of why god provided so much pain and suffering If would be a fake world if god acted in an overprotective manner and intervened so our choices made small differences and big differences sill remained in god's hands

What are criticisms of copleston

He does not give a sufficient reason of why 'god did it' Fallacy of composition- assumes that a contingent being means the universe is contingent

What did copleston believe about Russel's claim that the universe 'is just there'

He questions whether he cannot find an answer or isn't prepared to find an answer

how does Hick recognise limitations in his replica theory

He recognises how his argument can be undermined due to being less plausible if you add to it the idea that resurrected state is suddenly miraculously cured of all diseases or in the case of infant or elderly mortality, suddenly grows younger or older to an ideal age

how do Hume and Kant destroy 'classic' arguments for the existence of God

Hume rejected teleological, cosmological and ontological arguments and Kant overrides morality and reason. This is based on verifiable ideas

what is epicures ancient inconsistent triad

If God is willing to prevent evil but not able to he is not omnipotent. If god is able to prevent evil but not willing to he is not omni benevolent. If God is able to prevent evil and willing to then why is there evil? If God is any of these things why worship him or call him God?

What's mackie's problem of evil

If god was omnipotent he could stop evil If god was omniscient he would know about evil and how to prevent it If god was Omni benevolent he would want to stop evil There is either no god or whatever god is is not the god of classical theism

Wha is a critique of hicks's view of universal salvation

If the whole purpose of soul making is to have freedom to choose/reject god why do we have free will when we will all eventually choose him and spend eternity with him

What is annihilationism?

If you reject god you are not awarded with eternal life- you will not suffer just stop being

What is the passivity element

Individuals don't convert due to observing others but they speak of a sense that someone or something acting upon them

What are non specific religious experiences

Looking at the world from a religious perspective allowing you to see god's work in last experiences

What are the implications of accepting Stevenson and Almeder's ideas on reincarnation

It means that a human's personality is not reducible to statements about biochemical and brain states. It also means that psychology is incapable of explaining this phenomena.

how does John Hick respond to plato's idea of immortality of the soul

It opposes it for being 'un-christian' because the soul is not immortal. he agrees with aquinas that 'the soul is not me' and suggest that humans must have both physical and spiritual dimensions. the mental depends on the body and just because we are material beings does not mean that we are just material beings.

what bible passages suggest dualism

Jesus in the wilderness Job

What does Augustine believe that good is

Like Plato he believes that good is fulfilling its purpose

What are examples of visions in the bible

Moses and the burning bush Paul on the road to emmaus Amos' warning visions The transfiguration

What does Swinburne believe about religious experiences

Most are mystical as they feel a sense of 'union' with the divine Many are 'prayer' experiences which are brought about by meditation and reflection Conversion experiences have permanent and life changing experiences

What is an example of a vision in islam

On Laylat-al-qadr prophet Muhammad has a vision of angel jibril giving him a message to recite Andrew proclaim the words of the Quran

how does Peter Vardy critique Hick's replica theory

On the basis of value because a copy of something is not as valuable as the original (eg. starry night)

What are swinburne's public experiences

Ordinary experiences Extraordinary experiences

What is kant's critique of the cosmological argument

Our knowledge if the world is linked to space and time it is not logical to speculate on what exists beyond space and time meaning that we cannot conclude that something is neccessary

What is the argument for religious experience

P1- id an entity is experienced then it must exist P2- people claim they experience god P3- therefore, god probably exists

What does John thick about the validity of religious experiences

People see things in different ways doesn't on how they internet and understand it based on the world: shaped by beliefs culture and upbringing Therefore ones perception is not simply registering what is out there

how does DZ Phillips cognitive analysis build on Wittgenstein's ideas of 'forms of life'

Phillips believes that the philosophers task is not to comment on the truth of religious statements but to question/ clarify their meaning in the discussion of faith -questioning the existence of god is a question which should take place within the religious rather than scientific language game -god is so broad meaning that he cannot be measured using the same rules of language or a form of words.

What are ideas of alternatives to st augustines religious experience

Pre emptied through prayer and expectation Guilt of previous sexual immorality

What are interpretive religious experiences

Remarkable or beneficial event with no obvious religious characteristics that is attributed to a divine source (often by people who already believes)

What are regenerative religious experiences

Renewing the persons faith and psychological or spiritual wellbeing (conversion, inner healing, inner peace, joy, love ect.) a transformed state of being

What are three aspects of hearing voices

Revelatory Authoritative Disembodied

What are the advantages of the process theodicy

Solves the problem of why a loving god lets evil occur A just and loving god is still worthy of worship A co suffering god is more personal as we identify directly with him God can be trusted because he wouldn't have started the process of creation and evolution unless he knew it would be best in the end God is an inspiration for us as he continues struggling to make things better

What are revelatory religious experiences

Sudden convictions, insights or institutions which communicate knowledge of a different or deeper form to ordinary knowledge. They are often brief and inexpressible in words as they cause a transformed way of seeing

Why are religious experiences not inductive arguments

The conclusion does not necessarily follow the premise. It can be persuasive but never a proof as people do not necessarily believe god's existence after hearing religious experiences

What is kant's critique of pure reason

The cosmological argument depends on the ontological argument and since this can be shown to fail so can the Cosmological argument

Can a conversion experience prove as existence for god

The inner experienced is not empirically detectable, but the resulting changes in behaviour are something that can be empirically observed

What are mystical religious experiences

The sense of having encountered an ultimate reality in a sense of oneness or union,with freedom from any sense of self and it's limitations in a State of bliss

What does theodicy mean in greek

Theos = god Dikaios = justification

How do religious experiences work as cumulative arguments

They are not individual lorries but when taken together become more convinceing

what did Aquinas believe about words about God

They aren't univocal or equivocal - God's love is similar to that of a human but not that same. He saw analogy as the best instrument to describe attributes of God as they act as points of comparison between humans and the divine.

What is the evangelical view of conversion

They emphasise a decisive moment,personal decision and commitment when man is 'born again' Missionary work emphasises preaching which confronts sin and disbelief attempting to bring them to repentance and commitment

Why are numinous religious experiences "dualist" experiences

They emphasise our separateness from god

What are intellectual visions

Things seen in the minds eye rather than seeing an external object with the eyes. Believers would argue that they are far too profound to be confused with the imagination

What does convert mean

To change in form,character or function

how does flew's falsification principle compare to Ayer's verification principle

Unlike Ayer, Flew does to state that religious beliefs are meaning less because not all believers treat their beliefs as unfalsifiable. Flew is simply asking for an example of a falsifying instance whereas Ayer would still say that the question is meaningless

what is the debate between Wittgenstein's theory of language games being cognitive or non-cognitive

Vardy and Cupitt take it non cognitively whereas DZ Phillips interprets it cognitively

What are extraordinary public experiences

Violate the normal understanding of the workings of nature (Jesus turning water into wine)

What are ordinary religious experiences

Where a person interprets a natural event as having religious significance (the beauty of the natural world)

what is the aim of the ontological argument

a 'faith seeking understanding' rather than an attempt to convert others from athieism

who was anselm

a benedictine monk and later archbishop of Canterbury who created the ontological argument from a theistic stance

what is an infinite regress

a chain of reasoning where the evidence for each point along the chain relies on the existence of something before it, and so on with no strutting point

who is curly Smith

a character created by Platinga who has a corrupt nature meaning that he would do at least one evil thing in any possible world created by God. An infinitely powerful God could not create a world where Curly is free and always does the right thing. To create creatures capable of moral good, therefore, he must create creatures capable of moral evils

who is William lane Craig

a christian, American philosopher

what is an analogy

a comparison between two things, when a similarity between them is suggested

what is the philosophical theodicy

a good god offers a solution to the injustice of evil and suffering so evils are so overwhelming that a transcendent solution is needed as a hope fore god's existence only a divine solution can overcome the human injustice of irrational evil and suffering

what did John lofland and rodney stark (1965) notice when studying conversions

a pattern of 'passivity' as believers speak of something acting upon them. you cannot reduce the experience fully to a psychological phenomena as it fails to full address the questions of the cause of the experience.

what were Scott peck's findings

a psychotherapist who noted that the majority of those who came to him for therapy without a religious faith gained one but by using the same techniques on patients with a religious faith it led them to lose it

what is F R tenants aesthetic principles

a random occurrence would not have resulted in such beauty which shows the 'flourish' of the designer

What is a tautology?

a statement that is true by definition

what does blik mean

a term for a basic belief that is not altered despite empirical evidence

what is Hick's replica theory

a thought experiment not a religious belief about life after death

what does copleston believe a sufficient reason is

a total explanation to which nothing can be added

who wrote the Kalam argument

al Ghazali a muslim scholar

What type of argument is the ontological argument?

an a priori argument that relies on knowledge from reasoning

how does William James see mysticism

an ability to see truth in a special way

What is the cosmological argument?

an argument for the existence of god based at the evidence in the universe

what is the ontological argument

an argument that aims to find out whether something exists or not, and what it means to exist

what is an analogy to explain aquinas' argument

an arrow directed by an archer - an inanimate being directs all natural things to their end

what is an indirect religious experience

an event prompted by everyday life

what is a direct religious experience

an event where god reveals himself directly to the person involved like Moses and the burning bush (a revelation)

what was dr. Micheal per singer's 'god helmet' experiment

an experimental apparatus to study creativity, religious experience and the effects of subtle stimulation of the temporal lobes making people have a 'religious experience' participants report a 'e=sensed presence'

what does leibniz need for a sufficient reason

an explanation of how and why something exists

how does hick respond to DZ Phillips objection

argues that Phillips pays too little attention to his own admission of dysteleological evil (he would never justify the holocaust) he avoids addressing Phillips critique of instrumentalism and generally critiques his philosophical approach

What is natural theology?

attempts to demonstrate the existence of god by focusing on the beauty of the world as evidence of an intelligent designer

why is death often not discussed

because of sensitivity towards those who are grieving and a fear of the unknown

why does the God delusion particularly critique religion

because of the damage it has caused to society. -it can be an ex use for irrational actions -fails to be threatened by critical evaluation -religious scriptures are fiction and the only difference between them and trashy airport novels is that it is ancient -beliefs are passed down between generations like a genetic illness. he refers to them as 'memes' because of the lack of though.

what did platinga believe about duality

believed that natural evil is the result of the devil's fall when Stan made the decision to tempt humans and disrupt the natural world, god could've stopped him but it would involve removing all angels we have to accept that evil is a part of god's mystery and we won't understand it

why does rudolph otto belive that religious experiences are emotional

believers interpret the world through experiences and the beliefs attached to them you experience 'the emotion of a creatrue submerged and overhwlmed by it's own nothingness in contrast, to that which is supreme above all creatures

who is Russel?

bertrand russel (1872-1970) is a British philosopher and author of 'why I am not a christian'

what does ineffable mean

beyond human power and difficult to explain in words or communicate fully

what are explanations for out-of body experiences for NDE

can be used as evidence for dualism as people often notice details they would have needed a birds eye view to have seen could come from pre-empted ideas of hospitals

what are the four marks of religious experience

characteristics of all religious experiences ineffability transiency noetic quality passivity

what religion was St Thomas Aquinas a part of

christianity

what is metaphysics

concerns questions concerning being and ultimate reality

what are problems with dualism

did god create the devil? if the devil has always existed is he omnipotent too? is god not in complete control? how did the devil come to fall- is there a flaw in design?

what does FC happold do

distingusihes two types of mysticism

how can language games be critiqued for the question of truth

does it matter if something is true in a language game but not empirically. it language game theory is just a language game there is nothing outside of it which can confirm it's legitimacy

what does Russel believe about sufficient reasons

doesn't believe you can reach a sufficient reason and we shouldn't expect to get that

how does Hick follow soft materials

dying should be feared and prepared for because we stand before god can bestow eternal life or not. some people are annihilated,

what does Peter Fenwick highlight as the "full syndrome"

entering a tunnel, experiencing a barrier, reviewing your life, decisions/instructions to return, rapid return to physical body, feeling of peace and removal of the fear of death

how can you critique freud's objection to religious experience as a proof of the existence of god

even if people do seek a father figure it doesn't prove that god doesn't exist as it could be an inbuilt mechanism programmed by god to bring us closer to him

what is the uncaused causer theory

every effect has a cause nothing we experience is caused by itself there cannot be infinite regression of causes there must be a first cause =GOD

how did Russel support hume's fallacy of composition

every human has a mother but it doesn't mean that the universe needs a mother

what is the excellence theory

everything in the the world is more or less good with varying degrees of excellence there cannot be an infinite scale of good there must be something of perfection = GOD

what was plato's cosmological argument (self moving Principe)

everything is in motion and changing something must have originally put this into action

what is the Kalam argument (the beginning argument)

everything that begins to exist (universe) has ti have a cause for it's own existence the concept of infinity cannot exist the cause-effect sequence must have started somewhere there was a time where there was not a universe when there are two alternate, and equally possible states something has to will one or the other of the possibilities to come into being

what is the unmoved mover theory

everything that is moving is moved by something else the instigator of the motion is also in motion it cannot be an infinite regression so there must be a first mover the first independent mover = GOD

what is the theory of purpose (teleological)

everything works toward a purpose this cannot be luck as unconscious things have purpose they must be directed by an external, intelligent being = GOD

what is dysteleological evil

evil which does not potentially serve purpose

what are numinous religious experiences

experiences of awe and wonder in the presence of an almighty and transcendent God. It is the awarness of human nothingness when faced with a holy and powerful being.

What is the aim of philosophy of religion

explore concepts and beliefs and see where they stand with rational arguments

what does cognitive mean

factual statements proved true or false by empirical evidence

what is hume's second critique to the cosmological argument

fallacy of composition its wrong to move from individual parts to an explained and designed whole

who is copleston

father fredrick copleston (1907-1994) was a jesuit priest and philosopher

How does st.Paul's ideas of resurrection fit with Aquinas

fits with Aquinas' arguments against dualism because a body is needed for the soul to dwell in. Therefore there must be a bodily resurrection

what are criticisms of how John stuart mill opposition to the teleological argument

for nature to be guilt it needs to have the intention to commit it's crimes pale never stated the watch had to be perfectly functioning 'the fall' suggests that the perfect world was made bad by sin

how do sufi muslims seek god mysticism

forms of worship

what does Merold Westphal's 'the emergence of modern philosophy' do

gives a brief history of great thinkers since the enlightenment. it tracks the move of philosophy from focus on God and theology to more general religion. He thinks this is because two thinkers came along and destroyed 'classical' arguments for the existence of God

what is anthropomorphism

giving an object human characteristics

what is the 1st point of the soul making theodicy 'god allows evil'

god allows evil and suffering in the universe to continue as the world was deliberately made with a mixture of goodness and evil so we can develop and grow as humans into a mature and free relationship with god

what does Augustine believe about duality

god also gave angels freewill and satan used this to leave god and fall from his original position

what does whitehead believe about the problem of evil in the process theodicy

god is omniscient and started evolution knowing how it would turn out god is not powerless and has infinite persuasive power over creation which he uses to guide us and nature towards his will. But he cannot get rid of evil or prevent it from happening. All suffering in the world is also experienced by god Creation is a co-operation between god and humanity and god can influence but not force us to cooperate

what is anselms second argument

god is the greatest possible being so nothing greater can be conceived it is greater to be necessary being rather than a contingent being if god exists only as a contingent being, so can be imagined not to exist, then a greater being could be imagined that cannot be conceived to not exist this being would then be greater than god god is therefore a necessary being and just exist in reality

what is flew's analogy of ten leaky buckets

god makes a bucket but tthe flaws of arguemnts create holes in the bucket it is pointeless to try and fill up a bucket with holes in

what does Swinburne believe about death

god shows mercy by giving death when suffering becomes too great (doesn't consider mental suffering)

how does Swinburne respond to criticisms with the probability argument

god's existence cannot be proven by logical arguments however, our experience of the him in the suggests that he probably exists without religious experience the probability of the god's existence is 50/50 but if we add testimony of religious experience it becomes greater and god probability exits

what is positive atheism

goes further than negative atheism and requires a conscious rejection of God's existence which requires satisfactory reasons for this denial. this can not come from a lack of thought

What does 'ontos' mean?

greek word for 'being'

how its mysticism in Hinduism

groups aim for moksha to liberated from the cycles of karma, gain self realisation and experience ultimate reality

how did Nottingham establish Descartes established ideas about the soul

he added the spirit to descartes' mind and body because a lot of human experience like sensations and emotions didn't fit neatly into either.

what was Freud's opinion on religion

he argued that God is the creation of the human mind: a projective system, a universal neurosis or illusion and therefore has no reality. he believes that religion holds us back because God is simply an exalted father who is created from mankind's fears and need for help. therefore all experiences of God are illusions created by the mind.

what were Karl Marx's explanations of religion

he argued that God was the invention of the human mind in order to satisfy emotional needs. he famous stated "religion is the opium of the masses" which compares religion to a drug which sedates people and prevents from behaving in a way which others find unacceptable. this means religion was a way to control people by keeping them meek. it also encourages people to look for a reward in the afterlife - not in the present which encourages them to remain in subordinate positions and quashes any revolutionary thought for the sake of their 'immortal souls' He sees organised religion to be controlled by those in power and is fully determined by economics. Overall, only when religion is abolished by revolution can the oppressed masses be liberated

how does Hick object to Hare's response to the falsification principles

he argued that the idea of bliks contains and inconsistency. He points out that Hare does not provide criteria for explaining differences between right or wrongs/ sane or insane bliks

how does sherry critique language game theory for the question of truth

he argues from a faith perspective that 'god' does not only have meaning within the religious language game as thoughtful believers should consider that their faith may be wrong

what does Lyon argue about the impact of postmodernism on religion

he argues that in postmodern society traditional religion is being replaced by new religious forms that suggest religion is still important. this is based off three observations: -religion and the internet -religion and choice -still relevant

How does Paul Davies critique Hick's replica theory

he argues that it offers little comfort because the person has still died.

how does Wilkinson add to Hick's objection of Hare's response to the falsification principles

he argues that the very nature of refusing to admit you might be wrong is a sign of madness of fanaticism. When evil happens, many religious people speak of their faith being tested which suggests that people move between considering their faith sane on some days and insane on others -many of the main arguments for God's existence rely on empirical and logical evidence rather than a perspective of the theist

how does ninian smart otto's ideas

he believes "that religious experience has it's own kind of logic" there are no adequate words to descrbe religious experiences because the holy cannot be described in a language based on the experience of our earthly lives. instead religious language is used with it's own "perculiar structure"

what does John stuart mill believe about the problem of evil and suffering

he believes it highlights a creator who desires misery and therefore, creation is not the product of an intelligent and benevolent god

how does Gellner object to language games

he believes that Wittgenstein represents the abandonment of serious relevant issues for conjured spurious ones. he compares this to Marxist ideas that once everyone gains consciousness capitalism doesn't disappear to suggest that understanding our language games won't suddenly solve our philosophical problems

how does Brian Davies critique Hick's replica theory

he believes that a replica is still a copy because it is not the same as the original. He also thinks it ignores ideas of why we cannot take hundreds of replicas and does not consider continuity between the original and the afterlife.

how does russell object to language games

he believes that advocates of language games are like people who sharpen their tools but never use them. The obsession with words is akin to someone taking apart a clock and then complaining that it doesn't work.

what does Stephen fry believe about the problem of evil

he believes that bone cancer in children shows a god who desires misery which isn't out fault in creation and is therefore utterly evil. We shouldn't repeat this mean minded, stupid God who creates world of pain and injustice.

how does whitehead redefine god in the process theodicy

he believes that god is not fixed but developing. he is bi polar with a mental pole and a physical pole - material world which acts like god's body. he is partially distinct and partially immersed in the world. he is not omnipotent as his role was not to create the universe but to develop what was already there and persuade creation towards greater order and compexity

how does WR Inge reject via negativa

he believes that it poses a danger to theists and christians. by reducing down words that can't fully understand God to being useless you risk the los of connection between humanity and God. If the accurate language to describe God is reduced to nought it becomes difficulty to have any kind of meaningful discussion.

how does John stuart mill oppose the teleological argument

he believes that nature, like humans, should be punished and held accountable for bad behaviour during natural disasters, killing animals ect. if nature takes away life and indirectly, removes the means needed to survive the world is not ordered and won't have been designed

What did Paul Tillich believe about the use of symbols in religious language

he believes that religious statements do not give us literally true facts about God. they are symbolic, cognitive statements that provide us with some degree understanding about god.

how does Mitchell agree with flew

he believes that theological statements have to be understood as assertions and suggests that there is a point where it would be rationally impossible to support the view. (does not specify point) if religious believes ignore this they make 'vacuous remarks' which is a danger to their faith .

how does Charles Darwin oppose the teleological argument

he challenges the design argument in 'on the origin of the species' as it is provide an alternative explanation of the creation of the world without referring to god's creation

what is Brian Davies' rejection of via negativa

he claimed that stating something about what an entity is not gives you no information about what it is. this does not stand up to any scrutiny

what weakness of language game theory does DZ Phillips highlight

he claims that Wittgenstein's arguments support his view of religion but can lead to irrationalism and blind faith. Not needing a justification can come a justified action of extremism and superstition.

What does David Hume believe about the teleological argument

he critiques palsy's argument but has no solution

why does Hitchens support deism

he described religion as 'the main source of hatred in the world' and deism allows more tolerance and unity

what is Russell's response to copleston's argument

he doesn't agree that god is a sufficient reason and believes the universe is a 'brute fact'

how does Hick respond to Mitchell's falsification argument

he highlights how the parable could be falsified 1- the stranger knows his true position even thought the fighter cannot know it for sure 2-when the war is over the treatment of the stranger would reveal the truth 3- we do not need to assume that things need to be verified in our lifetimes rather than in the afterlife with eschatological verification

how does J.McQuairrie support Aquinas' analogies

he highlights that analogies have the most positive content despite, not being literal or direct ways of talking about God

How does Rowan Williams reflect on resurrection

he highlights the mixed ideas about resurrection in christianity and judaism because the Bible supports the idea of a bodily resurrection but it is more comforting to believe in the idea of a disembodied soul, immediately ascending to heaven. He suggests that it is useful to recognise that resurrection may not be describable, with a clear before and after that occupies a certain time frame. The gospel's do not describe the resurrection and do not provide details on when in the time frame it happened and how. It is still an important idea because

How does J.H. Randell Jr. see religion

he is a humanists and see religion like music; it has it's own world, arouses special feelings which nothing else can despite containing no truths about the world. 'god' is just another name for an aspect of our psyche; what we feel to be spiritual and divine.

what is Carl Jung's position towards religion

he is not clear on whether he believes God exists but argues that religion is beneficial to humanity

what is leibniz's theodicy for the problem of evil

he speculates that god is an all powerful and all good being whose task is to select which universe he will create out of all possibilities as an all knowing and all good being the world he selects to create will be the best therefore, pain and suffering are ingredients required to make this the best possible world. the evil that exists contributes to making it a better place than other possible outcomes

how did RM Hare respond to Flew's falsification principle

he started with an agreement that religious beliefs are unfalsifiable because they hold a different logical status than normal knowledge - attachment he coined the term Bliks which are held by all people for religious/non-religious reasons when people make religious statements it is not just an attempt to explain the world, it is life changing even if it can't be falsified

what is flew's critique of leibniz's theodicy

he suggest that freely chosen actions have causes in themselves, not externally if god is omnipotent he could've created a possible world where all humans had a good nature but were free humans would freely choose to do the right thing this world would be better than ours god didn't create this better world

what did CS Lewis believe about duality

he suggested in the screw tape letters that there are malevolent forces at play in the world

how did popper follow the falsification principle when rejecting marxist ideas

he suggested that there must be falsifiable evidence for the idea. He believed that science was about testing your hypothesis to falsify it as this causes progress. If we conducted our experiments trying to prove our hypothesis' we would try to explain our anomalies. Therefore he believes that a genuine scientific statement is one where it is possible to state what would disprove it

how does Tillich counter critiques that symbols could be lies of inaccurate

he suggests that God is the 'Ground of being' and basis of all reality

why does Gilbert Ryle critique the idea of dualism

he suggests that it is a speculative spiritual hypothesis - a "ghost in the machine." he argues in favour of philosophical behaviourism which is that supposed mental events (e.g. the thinking self) refer to complex patterns of behaviour.

how does J.H. Randell Jr. critique Tillich's idea of symbolism

he suggests that religious symbols are both non-cognitive and non-representative. Therefore, it makes no senes to ask whether they are true or not.

why does Kant want deism>scholasticism

he thinks ti can bring religion 'within the limits of reason aline' and separate the rational basis from the irrational elements of prayer and worship

what is Robert Almeder's opinion on reincarnation and response to Stevenson

he took a philosophical approach and argued that Stevenson's research is not only valuable but it is so compelling that it would be 'irrational' not to accept the possibility of reincarnation as the best fit explanation. Others have agreed that Stevenson's research is so scientifically rigorous that it has to be taken seriously.

what about RM Hare's past influences his writing

he was a former POW in Japan whose writings focused on morality as he tried to make sense of the suffering he experienced

what is Moses Maimonides' via negative argument

he was an important jewish philosopher who singled out the issue with anthropomorphising God as it can lead to believing that God has a material body. By using the example of a ship and stating what it is not you can gain an understanding of what it is.

what were Wittgenstein's philosophical interests

he was heavily involved in the study of language, how it changes over time, it's usage and how we understand it He advocated that we should not talk about what we cannot understand, sense or conceptualize despite them still having truth or reality

what is voltaire's critique of leibniz's theodicy

his novel 'candide' includes dr pangloss who tells everyone that this is the best of all possible world. pangloss is hanged and candide tortured leading to the question "if this is the best of all possible worlds, what would others be like?" leibniz's ideas do not provide real answers for actual rather than theoretical suffering

What is religion

holding a range of beliefs about ultimate questions as part of a community who shares the same beliefs

how can marx's view of religious experiences be critiqued

how is religion bad for society if those who have had religious experiences are motivated to help others and be kind ect.

what was the toronto blessing

in 1994 large numbers of believers reported being affected by the holy spirit. phenomena in meetings included uncontrollable weeping, laughing, rolling on the floor and making animal noises. it was seen by supporters as a blessing of a new move of god

how does mysticism encompass in all religions

individuality melts away into a supreme unity or is unified with god

what is negative atheism

involves a lack or absence of belief in God. this arises because the may not have though about the concept of God

what is Freud's Oedipus complex

it comes from a greek myth where Oedipus (a young man) kills his father and marries his mother. when he realises what he has done he pokes out both his eyes and becomes blind. Freud suggests that this conflict arises from the idea that the boy develops sexual desires for his mother. he wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so. He believed that if his father were to find out about this he would take away what he loves most.

what is atheism

it describes a position of being without a belief in God

what is Basil Mitchell's parable of the partisan

it describes a resistance fighter who meets a stranger who he thinks is amazing. when talking the stranger revels that he is the head of the whole resistance. the fighter believes him but the stranger warns him that this belief will be tested as the evidence may look like he is on the other side. Mitchell highlights how it is possible that the fighter continues to believe this even when seeng the stranger in the enemy uniform.

what does the cloud of unknowing describe in via negativa thought

it describes the unknown that separates you and God. It is good to be nearer God despite not ver fully understanding.

how does liberation theology critique marxist explanations of religion

it emerged in areas of poverty which blends marxism and christianity in an attempt to change the nature of society for the oppressed without rejecting the belief in God - Oscar Romero

what is the 9th point of the soul making theodicy 'suffering is a part of god's plan'

it is a necessary part of god's plan for humanity despite us not seeing the reason as it brings us closer to god and enables god to complete his purpose

how does freud see corporate relgious experiences as a pychological effect

it is a neurosis caused by childhood insecurities and a desire for a father figure. they are hallucinations which are the products of our subconscious caused by our desire for security and meaning

what does 'mysterium tremendum' mean

it is both awe inspiring to the point of producing fear and also strangely fascinating, drawn into the experince

how does Wittgenstein determine the meaning of a word

it is determined by the language game of which the words are apart of. The meanings come from the circumstances which they are said and the meanings of other words used with them. words perform a function in language rather than purely signifying an object.

why does anselm believe that not believing in a god makes you a fool

it is foolish to not be able to deduce god's existence from observing logic

what is the basis for Hick's replica theory

it is hard for us to consider a person without a body. even images of ghosts are essentially see-through versions. it looks to show how resurrection could work with a spiritual body in a spiritual world

what is gaunilo's criticism of anslem's ontological argument

it is impossible for humans to think of a fully perfect being

how does the move from theology focusing on God to religion reflect an enlightenment agenda

it is more concerned about -individual autonomy -religious tolerance -church holding less influence

what does William lane Craig see the role of philosophy as?

it is not a method of conversion or basis of faith but instead to 'defeat the defeaters' which are attacking the faithful by showing that belief is possibly rational

how does Richard Swinburne see religious experience

it is reasonable to assume that god would seek to engage and interact with his creation fitting with common beliefs of his characteristics of omnipotence and omnibenevolance. therefore, if god exists were should expect religious experiences to take place

what is the idea of materialism as an argument for atheism

it is the belief that only physical matter exists so humans are made up purely from material substances. Because it denies the existence of non-material things religious beliefs are seen as a result of neurological and psychological factors

How do plato see the soul

it is the essence of a person including logos (mind), thymus (emotion) and eros (desire) and therefore decides how we decide. it is eternal, and can exist without the body as it did before the body in the permanent spiritual world. it can not be broken and so humans remember things from before the body and can recognise goodness and beauty from the spiritual world.

why do some critics see religious language as meaningless

it makes cognitive statements that cannot be verified

what is a criticism of the teleological argument

it only argues that there is a designer and you cannot assume omni-characteristics of the designer is god still alive, is there only one god

what did Aquinas mean by the term 'via eminentiae'

it referred to God always being perfect and higher than us

what is problem with Augustine's argument

it relies on a literal interpretation of the bible and there being an actual event to start off sin

how is Wittgenstein's language game theory similar to Aquinas' analogies

it sees language as limited in describing God

how does William James see religious experience in relation to religion

it stands at the very heart of religion with the teachings, practices and attitudes as 'second hand' religion many people claim that first hand experience cannot be evidence god because they cannot be scientifically tested but James sees them as central to understanding religions

what is the postmodernism theory

it suggests that individuals construct their own realities. every society is in a state of constant change: there are no absolute values, only relative ones: nor are there any absolute truths

what is the weak verification process

it suggests that instead of checking every bit of knowledge with our logic/senses we can know things by setting standards for evidence (eye witness accounts, multiple sources etc.)

what is the idea of naturalism as an argument for atheism

it suggests that true knowledge can only be gained from examination of the world around us. religion is a social construct which only exists in the natural world rather than pointing to a higher realm

how does teasdall see as features of mysticism

it was a direct, immediate experience of the ultimate reality

what are the 'fruits' of religious experience important

it would be doubtful if the person simply carried on without changing their life, or if the voice inside their head urged them to do wicked (anti religious) deeds

what Is an inductive leap

jumping from a designer to the characteristics of the Christian god

what is gaunilo's island

just because you can think up a perfect island it doesn't mean it exists

what is Kant's critique of the ontological argument

knowledge is based on experience and what can be deduced from it knowledge of god's necessary existence is beyond our experience meaning we cannot define and analyse God the limitations of human subjective knowledge mean we can only postulate this being and we cannot prove god's existence through language as that is based on experience

where does the word resurrection come from

latin 'resurrects' meaning 'raised up again'

what is a posteriori?

latin term = what comes after The inductive argument = the answer is based off evidence and experience

what is a priori?

latin term = what comes before The deductive argument = the answer is not based off experience but is deduced from reason

what did Augustine believe that good and evil were

like plato he believed that good is something fulfilling it's purpose and evil is the 'privation of good' which is not fulfilling it's purpose

what is used to explore ideas in philosophy of religion

logic and reasoned criticism are used to examine, understand and consider implications of faith

what is Emmet's response to the verification principle

logical positivists fail to understand the nature of metaphysical thinking. she believed that it was an error of enlightenment to treat natural theology and it's claims univocally as they should be understood as analogies , not scientific accounts. it is a natural human inclination to see our attempts to make sense of the mystery of experience like we know everything however faith is not about complete explanations and it is healthy to use analogies and non verifiable statements like we do in normal life which people understand not to take literally.

how has religion changed due to postmodern changes

major economic and cultural changes in the last 20 years have impacted religious organisations and the way that religion is practiced as people have become disillusioned with the old narratives of science, politics and religion -more aware of other world faiths due to more information and ethnic diversity -secularisation has meant religion as a private, individual choice -'spiritual materialism'; yoga -'pick and choose' religion without full commitment -spirituality and mindfulness are expected as being good for general mental health -more people embracing atheism or agnosticism -contrast between more tolerance but also anti-muslim particularly bigotry

how do christians react to natural selection and evolution

many argue that god put evolution into motion or managed the changes to species Darwin believed god wouldn't set about the dark aspects of nature

what is an objection to Flew's falsification principle based on science

many legitimate and scientific statements that we might commonly affirm seem to be unfalsifiable like black holes and statements of prbaflilty

how does st teresa of avila justify her religious experience with the emotions she felt

many people accused her that her experiences arose from a place of sexual frustration. she suggested that if it was sexual frustration she wouldve been left with a feeling of disgust but instead she felt "a harvest of ineffable spiritual riches and an admirable renewal of bodily strength."

how does Kare Lawenthal critique Freud's psychological explanation of religion

many religions are not all about help but also about reflection

what does whitehead believe about reality and what does it mean for religion in the process theodicy

matter is not the basis for reality process is a better way at looking at the universe - events are the basis of reality and every entity is at the centre of it's own creative reality therefore, god is also growing and changing along with you therefore, religion provides permanence in the change we experience

what does hume's fork contain

matter of reason and matter of fact

what are the conversion experiences of those who become christians in the self obsessed or individualist stage like

more likely to be dramatic conversion experiences because it challenges their self centeredness and makes them achieve a realistic awareness of their dependence on others

what is transiency as a mark of religious experience

mystical experiences that last for a short time but 'modify the inner life of the subject between the times of their occurance'

What is ineffability as a mark of religious experience

mysticism, needs to be directly experienced in order to be fully understood (love)

what is noetic quality as a mark of religious experience

mystics speak of revelations and illuminations which are held to provide knowledge and transcend rational categories

What is natural selection?

nature weeded the less adapted individuals out over many generations leading to a gradual shift in an animal

who was Augustine

net-platonic, early church father

how does natural selection challenge god's creation

no driving force behind evolutionary change attacks design qua purpose as it suggests it is the result of natural selection

what is actual infinite?

no start and no end (not possible in the real world) therefore, the universe must have a beginning

what is soul mysticism

not about union with god bu union with the soul which was before lost - self fulfilment

what is a fallacy of affirmation

not being aware of the full reality to speculate "custom is the great guide of life"

what is Descartes response to a possible objection

objection=just because we have a concept doesn't mean it exits response=same is not true when referring to God as that is a predicate of God because he is the only supremely perfect being we can infer our existence from

what common aspects of near death experiences does prof Kenneth ring identity

out of body experiences feelings of peace entering darkness seeing light those closer to death have more profound experiences it is as likely for atheists for the devout religious they are clear not hallucinations life is transformed

how does Freud apply the Oedipus complex to religion

people know that the basic desire to kill their father is socially unacceptable. the desire is repressed and translated on the conscious level to create a symbol who you love and respect and compensates for negative feelings towards your father. religious rituals function to protect the ego from fantasies, desire and sexual impulses.

what is design qua regularity

regular designs that follow patterns (tides and seasons)

what is hume's fourth critique to the cosmological argument

rejection of the Christian god as the necessary being

how is plato's idea of the soul different to Christianity

plato does not follow christianity. for christians god creates each soul anew rather than there being an eternal soul. They also see immortality as a gift from god rather than part of the soul's nature. in addition having a soul that cannot be destroyed denies God's omnipotence

what did plato's cosmological argument inside aquinas to do

propose five ways to argue for god's existence in summa theologica

what is flew's vicious circle argument

religious beliefs enforce religious experiences which in turn reinforce religious beliefs

what psalms was anselm inspired by

psalms 14 and 53; 'the fool says to himself, there is no god'

what is the key problem with religious language

religious believers often make factual assertions about god like 'god exists' or 'god loves us' which assume that others also understand them to be true. god cannot be measured like empirical statements and there is no universal experienced that people can refer to that is not subjective

how is Don Cupitt's non cognitive analysis of langauge games critiqued

religious thinkers believe that it does not capture 'God' as an overwhelming victory and by Wittgenstenian scholars who see Cupitt misunderstanding his work

what is the 7th point of the soul making theodicy 'analogy of a mother feeding a new born child'

response to why did god not make us in his likeness from the start; we were created in a state of immaturity and we need to learn and grow into the likeness of god

how does phillips critique choosing between language games

science and faith are different types of discourses meaning that they can say nothing yo one another. this means that religious and atheist thinkers cant debate, implying that language games aren't that autonomous

how does Albert Schweitzer see mysticism

sees any profound view of the world as mysticism. it deals with life and the world and both are non rational entities

how does Susan Blackmore see NDE

she believes that there are scientific reasons for near death experiences and they need: -coherent and specific explanations -testable predictions to be verified which aren't found.

What does Daniele Hervieu-Leger argue about the impact of postmodernism on religion

she thought it has weakened religion through: -memory loss -religious consumerism -individual construction

how does the example of Jesus support the process theodicy

shows that god can be a 'victim' of evil that inspires humans to cope with suffering themselves

what are explanations for the life review for NDE

similar experiences have happened to pilots who have approached the speed of sound and undergone anoxia when the temporary lobe is oxygen deficient and undergoes random firing and excitation. This does not explain the clarity and order of memories which some believe points to a foretaste of judgement

what does hume state about necessary statements

some christians believe that the opposite is a logical contradiction but hume believes its not a contradiction to say god does/does not exist

what does DZ Phillips argue

some things are just wrong and cannot be used as instruments to bring about good

what is potentiality

something has the potential to do something in theory

what is a symbol

something that 'participates' in that to which it points

what is actuality

something that has been realised is confirmed and will definilty happen

what is a sign

something that points us towards something else

What is scholasticism?

specific and sees reason as harmonious with faith and revelation. it looks at styling the world and drawing rational conclusions from it about God

what features link complex and designed objects

specific materials, several parts, works for a purpose, a regular motion and indispensable parts

what are Ayer's indirectly verifiable statements

statements are ones which are not directly verifiable, can't be observed but are likely to be right

what are Ayer's directly verifiable statements

statements that are verifiable by observation

what does non-cognitive mean

statements that cannot be proved true or false

what does it mean to be monistic

the belief that the body and mind are linked to form one entity. there is not a distinct soul from the body which survives death

what is god mysticism

the belief that the human soul desires to return to god and become one with him

what is reincarnation

the belief that the soul, upon the death of the body, come back in another body or form

what is the medical dictionary definition of death

the cessation of all vital functions, demonstrated by an absence of spontaneous respiratory and cardiac functions

what is Carl Jung's idea of archetypes

the collective unconsciousness contains archetypes which are primordial images common to all humans. they are inherited and passed down. myths, legends and fairy tails from around the world contain common patterns of a hero archetype.

what is religious language

the communication of ideas about god, faith or belief

what is hume's final critique of the cosmological argument

the difference between reality and speculation

how do nelson and jones critique Freud's psychological explanation of religion

the found that the concept of God correlated more highly with a persons relationship with their mother rather than their father because they rely on them for care and support

what did the vienna circle introduce

the idea of logical positivism suggesting that it was meaningless to discuss things that aren't verifiable

what is fideism

the idea that faith is independent of reason

what is RM Hare's example of a lunatic in response to Flew's falsification principle

the lunatics belief is that everyone is out to kill them and that will not change no matter what evidence is put in front of them

what reading of wittgenstein's language games in Don Cupitt's non congitive analysis based off of

the non cotnitive reading suggests that statements are only real within the game. this contrasts with wittgenstein's claim that we need to study the relationships between games because words matter outside the game.

what does William James conclude that religious experiences are

the object of a person's perception with supernatural elements

what is Hare's objection of engagement to Flew

the parable implies that people are disinterested observers upon the world rather than active participants in it like religious believers are

what is falsification

the philosophical theory that a statement is meaningless if there is no way that it can be disproved

what is the idea of immortality of the soul

the physical body cannot live without the real self - which is the soul and is non-physical, mental and spiritual. the body is contingent and will decay and die but the soul is non-contingent and cannot die. when the body dies, the soul continues to live on.

what is the key critique of the hindu idea of rebirth

the population problem - where do new souls come from?

what are the conversion experiences of those who become christians in the integrated stage like

they are drawn to religion by a sense of mystery

what is hick's eschatological verification

the purpose of suffering and evil will become apparent in the afterlife. the world is a 'vale of soul making' and heaven is the justification of all suffering that we can reach when we are developed enough

what is mysticism

the pursuit of communion with, identity with or conscious awareness of an ultimate reality, divinity, spiritual truth, or god through direct experience, intuition, instinct or insight

how is mysticism involved in christianity

the quakers seek spiritual vision

how does carl jung see corporate experiences as pychological effects

the reality of numinous experiences argues that the development of the spiritual aspect in us is essential to pyschological wholeness. we all have an idea of god within a shared collective unconsciousness

what are explanations for feelings of peace for NDE

the release of endorphins in the brain to help the individual cope with the fear of death or induced by drugs from medicine like morphine. Therefore, it does not explain life after death.

how is mysticism in zen Buddhism

the satori group aim for sudden enlightenment

what is psychology

the science of the mind that attempts to explain it's complexity. it studies the impacts of our thought on our behaviour.

What is Ockham's Razor?

the simple solution that coveres all the facts is usually the best for religious experience the simplest solution is that they are true

what did plato believe was responsible for the way the world is today

the soul

how does Plato analogise how we should relate to our body and soul

the soul and body are two horses pulling a chariot. they need to be controlled and moving in the same direction and at the same speed for success. if someone's emotions and desires aren't kept under control it will bring someone to ruin.

what does plato believe about the cyclical structure of life

the soul follows a sleep/wake cycle of reincarnation. philosophers can reach enlightenment and allow there souls to remain in the realm of forms by striving to separate the mind and prevent bodily distractions from controlling them

What is cosmology?

the study of nature and the order of the universe

what are two a posteriori augments for the existence of god

the teleological argument the cosmological argument

what are explanations for the tunnel and the light for NDE

they can be used to prove many ideas: -random firings of the cells in the visual cortex giving the illusion of a rapid journey down a tunnel towards a brilliant light -light is frequently used as a metaphor for divine realities and holiness -represents the birth process -they see or feel peaceful and comforting people like family members or religious figures who they expected to see

what does Swinburne believe about the sufferer

they encounter evil and allow others to learn. they can be consoled that they have been of use to others

how is Westpahl critiquing Dawkins

they miss the good and beautiful core of religion and focus too much on the humanistic elements of what religion is run the world

how do Evans and Hume support Aquinas' analogies

they praise them for accepting God's mystery but helping us to understand and worship him

why did philosophers begin focusing on language issues in the 20th century

they realised that language is the only way that we can really communicate concepts that no one physically sees and hears and make ourselves understood

what do dualist christians believe

they recognise two distinct forces at play; evil (satan) and good (God) who are in constant battle

what are the conversion experiences of those who become christians in the conformist stage like

they switch comfortably to attaching themselves with religious norms and values

what is Kant's critique 'existence is not a perfection'

this is based off the human understanding of perfection and therefore, cannot suggest existence is perfect. God may no longer be existing?

what is the 3rd point of the soul making theodicy 'suffering leads to growth'

through tackling problems, making mistakes, persevering and being patient we grow as individuals and are all part of god's original intention for the world so we can grow and develop

what is Platinga's free will defence

to be free is to be able to do or refrain from some action, not to be casually determined to act in one way or another a morally significant action is one that is either right or wrong to perform a creature is morally significant if it is free to do or refrain from morally significant actions moral evil results from the acts of significantly free creatures (natural evil is the work of the free will of Satan and the demons) free will is essential for there to be moral goodness

what does Mitchell suggest about the meaning of the parable of the partisan for believers

to remain sane and innocent of self-delusion the fighter must not deny evidence that suggests that stranger is not who he says he is. they must use Fatih and logic to prevent blind Fatih. having faith is accepting that it might be proven wrong and that the reasons for believing it may be irrational.

how does patrick sherry critique choosing between language games

while it is tricky to question the truth of something it is seen easy to justify why you should pursue it. he also highlights that some people would be more willing to disprove a certain language game suggesting that it is more significant

What is Pseudo-Dionysius' via negativa argument

via positiva posits understanding of God when using theological terminology however the via negativa positions this as a basic understanding because the nature of God goes beyond these words. Overall, the terms we use to describe God are useful as they give us an idea but can never fully describe him.

what do Leibniz and Swinburne believe about our world

we are in the best possible world as we are leaning and growing more perfect

how does kant reject religious experiences as evidence for god's existence

we can only experience things in the empirical realm becuase religious experiences are undermined by empirical evidencce it cannot act as satifactory evidence for god's existence

what is the aptness of analogy

we cannot compare the universe to small man made machines

what is hume's first critique to the cosmological argument

we cannot know anything about the cause of we haven't experienced it or do not have the ability to comprehend it

how does Karl Barth critique Aquinas' analogies

we cannot speak about God in our own language. The things we say about God aren't from our own knowledge but from his revelation

what is potential infinite?

we could count and potentially go on forever

what is the 4th point of the soul making theodicy 'not puppets'

when god made us in his image and likeness but this included free will which can lead to good or bad choices if god had not given humans free will we would not have been in his imaged but instead pre programmed to follow him

when did whitehead write his process theodicy

when new ideas about space and time were being revealed causing him to consider if there were ant truths in the world or only half truths

What was st Teresa of Avila's testimony

when she was praying Jesus revealed to her his hands making her fearful. A few days later she saw a divine face leaving her absorbed and then Jesus continues to reveal his body to her

what is a near death experience

when someone dies and is resuscitated before the state becomes irreversible and often experiences key elements like travelling down a tunnel to a place of light, floating above the body and meeting dead relatives or religious figures

what is hick's instrumental good

when somethings good depends on it's purpose and it's use

Why does G E M Anscombe reject substance dualism

when you point, the action of the body is more than just the gesture, there is meaning and significant behind it. you cannot just look at the bodily act and deduce why you were doing it, you can explain what but not why. a disembodied soul could not point, pointing is the act of a human as a whole.

what is Aquinas' analogy of proportion

where the words relate to things in different proportions when using human analogies the term is proportional to God's 'eminence'

what is Aquinas' analogy of attribution

where there is a casual link between the things being described eg. describing God as the creator due to observed creation

how id Anthony Kelly oppose the cosmological argument

with newton's first law of motion it is possible for an object to be stationary or moving at a constant are without an external force acting upon it

what is hick's counterfactual hypothesis

without the freedom to make choices humans cannot develop qualities like generosity, grace, love, honour, courage and faith and we would lose the opportunity to develop into god's likeness

What does cosmos mean?

world in greek

what is anselms response to gaunilos island

you cannot compare god to an island because they are contingent and god has external existence as if unique and necessary

what is Brummers response to the verification principle

you should treat sentences of faith as if they were scientific sentences. if we treat religious sentences like enlightenment thinkers we make mistakes as the methods of scientific analysis are inappropriate to poetry and experiences of faith. He critique how in modern times we assume that If something is not measurable it is not significant because having that outlook is based on an assumption that we cannot justify.