physiology exam 1 study guide
cardiac muscles:
- is similar to skeletal muscle but only found in the HEART --INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE--
What are agranulocytes and what do they include?
-They lack cytoplasmic granules and have a SINGLE nucleus include: Monocytes/macrophages T lymphocytes B lymphocytes
ECF consists of ____________ and ____________
-plasma -interstitial fluid (ISF)
diffusion of ions through ionic channels:
-selectivity -gating
what are the 3 types of muscle cells in the human body?
-skeletal muscle -cardiac muscle -smooth muscle
source of activating calcium:
-skeletal muscle: sarcoplasmic reticulum -cardiac muscle: sarcoplasmic reticulum and extracellular calcium -smooth muscle: sarcoplasmic reticulum and extracellular calcium
site of calcium regulation:
-skeletal muscle: troponin -cardiac muscle: troponin -smooth muscle: myosin light chain kinase
sarcomeres- banding pattern:
-skeletal muscle: yes -cardiac muscle: yes -smooth muscle: no
t-tubules:
-skeletal muscle: yes -cardiac muscle: yes -smooth muscle: no
Thick and thin filaments (myosin and actin):
-skeletal muscle: yes -cardiac muscle: yes -smooth muscle: yes but small amounts
contractile proteins in the skeletal muscle include:
-thick filaments, myosin -thin filaments, actin
Although osmolarity refers to the concentration of solute particles, it also determines the water concentration in the solution because:
the higher the osmolarity, the lower the water concentration
sliding-filament mechanism:
- the portions of thick and thin filaments overlap in the sarcomere and the cross-bridges extend from the thick filaments (myosin) Basically, the cross bridges attach to the thin filaments, they pull the thin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere which causes shortening of the sarcomere! --CONTRACTION--
each sarcomere contains ________ sets of thin filaments
- two - they overlap the thick filaments and are anchored to Z LINES
Abrasion:
wound caused by friction ex: kid skins their knee
Each ATP hydrolysis (consume energy) moves _____________ OUT and _____________ INTO the cell - AGAINST THE ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT uphill movement requires _______________
- 3 Na+ ions - 2 K+ ions -work/energy
what are the roles of regulatory proteins in relaxation and contraction?
- In relaxation, Tropomyosin blocks cross bridge binding site for actin, so basically Low calcium = relaxation -In contraction, Ca2+ bind to troponin, the troponin pulls tropomyosin from the binding site allowing the actin-myosin to interact, so basically High calcium = activated muscle
Endocytosis:
- Pinocytosis (fluid endocytosis) - Phagocytosis - Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Exocytosis:
- Replaces the plasma membrane lost in endocytosis - Adds new membrane components - Secretion of membrane-impermeable molecules
what are the 2 regulatory proteins of thin filaments/actin?
- Troponin and Tropomyosin
skeletal muscles:
- anchored by tendons to bone - used for locomotion and in maintaining posture --VOLUNTARY MUSCLE--
Dysregulation at any phase of wound healing (ex: develop an infection) may result in ______________, ________________ and _______________. Improper wound healing may cause ________________________
- delayed wound healing, hypertrophic scar formation and contractures - irreversible cellular injury and cell death
thick and thin filaments are arranged in a ______________ pattern
repeating
skeletal muscle histology:
- flattened nuclei peripherally - MULI-NUCLEATED - Alternating light and dark bands perpendicular to the long axis - Striations: striped pattern
smooth muscles:
- found within the walls of organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bladder, etc --INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE--
where is myosin located and what is it anchored to?
- in the MIDDLE of each sarcomere - anchored to the M LINE - they overlap with thin filaments
Hormone-secreting glad cell:
--Long distance-- -Hormone -it targets cells in more or more distant places in the body
nerve cell:
--Short distance-- -Neurotransmitter -the neuron or effector cell is in close proximity to the site of the neurotransmitter release
Interstitial fluid volume makes up:
80% of ECF
somatic nervous system functions:
- innervates skeletal muscle cells - can only lead to muscle cell excitation - controls voluntary movement - neurons release acetylcholine (ACh)
the sarcoplasmic reticulum is an ______________________ and it functions as a __________________ for calcium (Ca2+)
- intracellular organelle - storage "sac"
cardiac muscle histology:
- round nuclei - centrally located - MOSTLY uni-nucleated - Striations - intercalated discs (this makes cardiac unique)
sources of Ca2+ are __________________ and ______________ via specialized volage-gated Ca2+ channels known as ________________________
- sarcoplasmic reticulum and extracellular calcium - L type calcium channels
smooth muscle histology:
- spindle nuclei centrally - Uni-nucleated - NO STRIATIONS - NO INTERCALATED DISKS
facilitated diffusion examples:
--mediated transport-- -requires a transporter (glucose) (it's the movement of solutes from higher to lower concentration but is NOT passive, it requires help from a transporter)
The osmolarity of normal human blood plasma is approximately __________mOsm/L, with a general range of __________ to __________mOsm/L
-300 285 to 310
What is active transport?
-it's when solutes move AGAINST the electrochemical gradient LOW to HIGH
cardiac muscle is arranged in ________________ and surround ________________
-layers -hollow cavities
SECONDARY active transport:
Energy on the ion gradient (usually Na+) is used to move the 2nd solute (nutrient absorption is in the gut, solute reabsorption is in the kidneys)
the cytosol surrounding actin and myosin has very little:
Ca2+
Oral mucosa does not contain:
Hair follicles
myofibrils have many:
sarcomeres
how many pairs of nerves does the PNS have?
43 pairs of nerves; 31 spinal; 12 cranial
Neutrophils make up how many % of WBC?
60% -70%
Total body water (TBW) makes up:
60% of body weight
________% of all cardiac muscle cells participate in the contraction of the heart
99
Dermis:
A connective tissue layer that separates the epidermis for the subcutaneous layer of fat (Skin)
Motor unit:
A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates
Which of the following contributes to the ability of wounds in the oral mucosa to heal faster than cutaneous wounds? A. Decreased extracellular matrix remodeling B. Presence of saliva C. Increased scarring D. Cooler temperatures
B. Presence of saliva
Which properties are characteristics of ion channels? A. They are lipids B. They exist on one side of the plasma membrane, usually the extracellular side C. They can open and close depending on the presence of any of the three types of "gates" D. They permit movement of ions against concentration gradients
C. They can open and close depending on the presence of any of the three types of "gates"
Based on the sliding filament model of skeletal muscle contraction, sarcomere length is: A. shortened during relaxation B. lengthened during contraction C. shortened during contraction D. held constant during relaxation
C. shortened during contraction
nervous system separates into 2 parts:
CNS and PNS
Two major structural proteins:
Collagen and Elastin
osmosis is facilitated by channel proteins called:
aquaporins
Can cell injury be reversed?
cell injury can be reversible or irreversible (apoptosis or necrosis)
action potential in cell membrane of muscle fibers causes:
cross-bridge activity
Next, muscle fiber action potentials travels the length of the muscle along:
T- tubules
In diffusion, Net flux is proportional to concentration gradient T/F
TRUE
in contraction:
The A band is unchanged, I-band and H-zone is reduced
Stratified squamous epithelium:
Top layer of oral mucosa
Epidermis:
Top layer of skin (Skin)
incision:
a cut with clean edges ex: surgery
Laceration:
a cut with jagged edges ex: anything that not a knife, so like being stabbed with a pencil
the somatic nervous system consists of:
a single neuron bw the CNS and effector organ
action potentials in muscle fibers trigger contraction by causing:
a sudden, brief increase in intracellular Ca2+ which comes from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Avulsion:
a wound characterized by a tear ex: when a layer is pulled off, like there's a flap and you can see the muscle underneath
puncture:
a wound where something passes through or becomes impaled in the skin
_____________________ is the main neurotransmitter released in the synapse bw pre- and post ganglionic neurons
acetylcholine
for parasympathetic system, ________________________ is the main neurotransmitter released in the synapse bw the postganglionic neuron and the effector tissue
acetylcholine
thin filaments are associated with
actin
smooth muscle contain:
actin and myosin but in smaller amounts than skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle fibers generate and propagate:
action potentials like nerve cells, it lasts about 1-2 milliseconds
sympathetic effector tissue mostly express:
adrenergic receptors
cell injury occurs when:
cells are exposed to a severe stress that no longer allows them to maintain homeostasis, which results in structural and functional changes
thoracic nerves innervate:
chest and upper abdomen
what kind of issues occur due to contracture scars?
chronic loss of joint motion due to structural changes in non-bony tissues
Ions move-
concentration and/ or electrical gradients
what is is called when tension exceeds the load and shortening occurs?
concentric contraction
contraction ends when:
cytosolic calcium concentration is restored to its original concentration
the axons of afferent neurons enter the spinal cord on the dorsal side via the:
dorsal roots
_____________ provides a very fine degree of control over the effector organ
dual innervation
scars are ____________ and will continue to grow and change for about 18 months post-injury
dynamic
when an unsupported load is greater than the tension and lengthening occurs, this is known as
eccentric contraction
skeletal and cardiac contraction __________ when calcium levels go back to normal
ends
both the skin and oral mucosa contain:
epithelial cells
scars develop due to:
excessive amounts of collagen production during the healing process
what kind of growth is a keloid scar?
excessive growth of granulation tissue or collagen
the extensive meshwork of the sarcoplasmic reticulum assures "easy" diffusion of Ca2+ to all troponin upon:
excitation
when cardiac muscle contracts, it acts like a squeezing fist and does what?
exerts pressure on the blood inside
All cells bathe in a solution called:
extracellular fluid (ECF) -OUTSIDE CELLS
compared to other cell types, muscle cells are
extremely large
trigeminal nerve
face, sinus, teeth, muscles of mastication
skeletal muscle is composed of many:
fibers/ cells
each fiber/ cell is composed of many:
fibrils
hypertrophic scars are a response of:
fibroblasts during the healing process
sympathetic is for
fight, flight or freeze
Intracellular fluid (ICF) is:
fluid inside cells
in cardiac muscles, cells have _______________ which are important for communication
gap junctions
sacral nerves innervate:
genitals and lower digestive tract
do keloid scars extend beyond or stay within the boundaries of the original wound?
grow beyond
vagus nerve
heart, lungs, digestion
are keloid scars likely to return if removed?
high incidence of return, if removed
Blood glucose levels increase after meals- levels return to set point via __________
homeostasis
what is the duration of the inflammatory phase?
hours to days
muscle cells may also undergo _______________ which can occur in response to injury and with heavy exercise. Muscle protein synthesis exceeds muscle protein breakdown
hypertrophy, which is an increase in size
in which individuals are keloids frequently seen?
in highly pigmented individuals
thick filaments are located ______________ of the Z-LINES
in the middle
arterioles contract=
increase blood pressure
-wound healing- inflammatory phase:
inflammation (hemostasis and inflammatory phase are stages that are often combined bc they kinda go hand in hand)
cell death may occur as a result of:
injury or in inflammatory response
______________________ join adjacent cells
intercalated discs
in cardiac muscle, adjacent cells are joined by ____________ with desmosomes
intercalated disks
When a muscle develops tension but does not shorten or lengthen, it is known as?
isometric contraction
What does positive feedback do?
it EXACERBATES or amplifies the change
integration center:
it compares "what is" with what's "supposed to be"; so a set point
effector:
it returns the 'regulated' variable back towards 'normal' when it understands that it's not in range
axon:
it's a long extension from a single neuron
what is osmosis?
it's the net diffusion of water across a membrane
What is negative feedback?
it's the response of the body in the OPPOSITE direction of change in that variable
what is neuromuscular junction?
it's the synapse between axons of motor neurons and muscle fibers
nerve:
its a bundle of neurons that carry info from the PNS to the CNS
burn:
its caused by overexposure to thermal, electrical radiation, laser or chemical agents
where does the spinal cord lie?
lies within the vertebral column
force exerted on the muscle by an object (usually a weight) is the:
load
lumbar nerves innervate:
lower abdomen, hips and legs
force exerted on an object by a contracting muscle is known as:
muscle tension
facial nerve
muscles of the face
surrounding white matter:
myelinated axons
each muscle fiber is formed during development by the fusion of a number of a number of undifferentiated, mono-nucleated cells known as _______________ into a single cylindrical, multi-nucleated cell
myoblasts
cross bridge cycling is controlled by a calcium regulated enzyme that phosphorylates:
myosin
thick filaments are associated with
myosin
to relax a contracted smooth muscle, myosin must be dephosphorylated, which is mediated by the enzyme:
myosin light chain phosphatase
cervical nerves innervate:
neck, shoulders, arms and hands
postganglionic neurons have predominantly:
nicotinic acetylcholine receptors aka nAChRs
one unit of repeating pattern is known as
sarcomere
sources of calcium in smooth muscle:
sarcoplasmic reticulum and extracellular calcium
# of neurons: somatic autonomic
somatic: 1 autonomic: 2
Neurotransmitters: somatic autonomic
somatic: ACh autonomic: ACh and NE
outcome: somatic autonomic
somatic: muscle cell excitation autonomic: excitation or inhibition
innervation: somatic autonomic
somatic: skeletal muscle autonomic: smooth and cardiac glands, GI neurons
control over: somatic autonomic
somatic: voluntary movement autonomic: involuntary movement
dorsal and ventral roots at the same vertebral level combine near the spinal cord to form a _____________ on each side of the cord
spinal nerve
do hypertrophic scars extend past or stay within the boundaries of the original wound?
stays within boundaries
the sympathetic system is activated under:
stress
___________________ and ________________________ systems usually exert opposing forces
sympathetic and parasympathetic
many effector organs receive dual innervation and are modulated by both ________________ and _________________ fibers
sympathetic and parasympathetic
preganglionic NT: sympathetic parasympathetic
sympathetic: Acetylcholine (ACh) parasympathetic: Acetylcholine (ACh)
target receptor: sympathetic parasympathetic
sympathetic: Adrenergic parasympathetic: Muscarinic ACh
postganglionic receptor: sympathetic parasympathetic
sympathetic: Nicotinic ACh parasympathetic: Nicotinic ACh
postganglionic NT: sympathetic parasympathetic
sympathetic: Norepinephrine (NE) parasympathetic: Acetylcholine (ACh)
over functions: sympathetic parasympathetic
sympathetic: flight or fight parasympathetic: rest and digest
length of postganglionic fibers: sympathetic parasympathetic
sympathetic: long parasympathetic: short
length of preganglionic fibers: sympathetic parasympathetic
sympathetic: short parasympathetic: long
origin fibers: sympathetic parasympathetic
sympathetic: thoracic and lumbar parasympathetic: cranial and sacral
Skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton by
tendons
when Ca2+ is taken up by the sarcoplasmic reticulum, muscle contraction is:
terminated
the spinal nerves are designated by the __________________ from which they exit
vertebral levels
what us the duration of the remodeling stage?
week to months
what is cell death?
when a biological cell ceases to carry out its function -APOPTOSIS -NECROSIS
What is gangrene?
when a large area of tissue undergoes necrotic
what is selectivity?
when ion channels allow ONLY CERTAIN SPECIES of ions to go through a pore ex: sodium channels allow ONLY sodium ions to pass
what is gating?
when ion channels may OPEN or CLOSE their pore (The membrane permeability to specific ions may change- 'open' or 'closed')
Dynamic constancy:
when levels change over short periods of time but remain relatively constant over long periods of time (like pH in the mouth, it fluctuates after eating something but goes back to normal after 30min to an hour)
Connective tissue cells form a:
Framework for the body
diffusion occurs from regions of ___________ to ________________________
HIGH to LOW CONCENTRATION
Tonicity: Hypertonic solution- Isotonic solution- Hypotonic solution-
Hypertonic solution- CELL SHRINKS Isotonic solution- NO CHANGE IN CELL VOLUME Hypotonic solution- CELL SWELLS
Is positive feedback common or rare in the body?
Rare! -bc it has the potential for destabilizing the body
what are the 3R's of hypertrophic scars?
Red: due to hypervascularization Raised: due to collagen produced Rigid: due to disorganized collagen, the skin is not pliable
Na+/K+ ATPase=
SODIUM PUMP
What is the most abundant tissue in the body?
Connective tissue
nAChRs- ionotropic receptors signaling via
ion channels
what are examples of epithelial cells?
-cutaneous wounds -oral mucosa wounds
when homeostasis is not maintained, these can occur:
-diabetes -hypertension -heart failure, arrhythmias The body attempts to return back to normal but can't, it requires help!
what are the different ways that molecules move across cell membranes?
-diffusion -ion channels -mediated-transport (facilitated diffusion and active transport) -osmosis -endocytosis and exocytosis
The endocrine system:
-endocrine glands secrete hormones into the CIRCULATORY system -it regulates the pancreas, thyroid gland, anterior pituitary, gonads, parathyroid gland
the adrenal medulla acts on effector cells that have receptors for __________________ and __________________
-epinephrine beta 2 -norepinephrine beta 1
characteristics of epithelial cells:
-epithelial cells cover and line body surfaces -replicate often to replace damaged or dead cells -innervated and provide sensory information -are avascular
what are some signs of non-healing wounds?
-foul odor -thick discharge -swelling or redness -fever -hot skin
what factors promote wound healing?
-good nutrition -good health -good blood supply -clean environment -healthy immune system
what factors inhibit wound healing?
-infection -impaired immunity -smoking -increased age -obesity -stress etc etc
autonomic nervous system functions:
-innervates smooth and cardiac muscle, glands and GI neurons, NOT skeletal muscle -can be excitatory or inhibitory -controls involuntary responses -neurons release Acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine (NE)
the central area of gray matter (butterfly- shaped area) of the spinal cord is composed of:
-interneurons and glial cells -dendrites and cell bodies of efferent neurons -axons of afferent neurons
does saliva slow down or accelerate wound re-epithelization?
-it accelerates ( while providing hydration and warm temperatures, it can also assist fibroblast proliferation and migration and increase keratinocyte turnover
Diffusion:
-it's the movement of solutes DOWN its concentration and/or electrical gradient (electrochemical gradient) -Due to random thermal motion, molecules collide randomly, causing dispersion EQUILIBRIUM: NO concentration gradient (net flux=0)
-wound healing- hemostasis:
vasoconstriction, clotting
What is homeostasis?
(a defining feature of physiology) maintaining the stability of an internal environment
Countertransporters:
(antiporters) move molecules in OPPOSITE directions
Cotransporters:
(symporters) move molecules in the SAME direction
function of cardiac muscle:
-heart contractility
how is the body organized? levels of cellular organization:
-Cells (division and growth, cell differentiation) -Tissues -Organs (functional unit) -Organ systems -Organism
secondary active transport includes:
-Cotransporters -Countertransporters
what is apoptosis induced by?
-EXTRINSIC (death receptor) or -INTRENSIC PATHWAYS (mitochondria)
-basement membrane -lamina propria -submucosa
-Exclusive to the oral environment -our saliva contains factors that play a role in oral homeostasis -an injured oral mucosa is susceptible to infections caused by bacteria
____________ secrete _________________, which is important for maintaining the structural framework of tissues and extracellular matrix
-Fibroblasts -Collagen
Leukocytes are divided into 2 parts, what are they ?
-Granulocytes -Agranulocytes
what are the 3 different types of scars?
-Hypertrophic scars -Keloid scars -Contracture scars
what two things are critical for wound healing?
-Leukocytes (WBC) -Fibroblasts
What does homeostasis do?
-Maintains the stability of an internal environment (fluid bathing cells) in face of changes to external and internal environment ex: BP, body temperature, water content, food intake
simple diffusion examples:
-Small (O2, CO2) -lipid soluble (steroids)
functions of homeostasis:
-Stability: balancing inputs and outputs which is a dynamic process -Keep regulated variable within NORMAL RANGE -Cell function maintained by constancy of internal environment (ECF): pH, volume, ionic composition, energy level
Keratinocytes:
-The predominant cell type of the epidermis -produces KERATIN -It's essential to the protective function of the skin and may be involved in immune system and wound healing (Skin)
neutrophils:
-They are 1st to appear; 90 min following an injury -have a short life span -they engulf bacteria/ cell debris
what are granulocytes and what do they include?
-They contain specific cytoplasmic granules and a MULTI-LOBED nucleus include: Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Mast cells
characteristics of dry gangrene?
-area is dry -skin wrinkles
Stages of wound healing:
-bleeding -inflammatory -proliferative -remodeling
examples of positive feedback:
-blood clotting -action potential of nerve and muscle -parturition
examples of negative feedback:
-blood pressure -blood glucose -body temperature
Connective tissue cells ____________, ____________ , and _____________ the structures of the body
-connect -anchor -support
during the healing process, is the oral mucosa more or less reactive to inflammation?
-less reactive (with lower infiltration from macrophages and neutrophils)
what are the different open and closing ion channels?
-ligand gated -voltage gated -mechanically gated
functions of skeletal muscle:
-locomotion -mastication
monocyte/macrophages:
-monocytes mature into macrophages -they produce cytokines (inflammatory chemicals that are released) -They engulf bacteria
PNS (peripheral nervous system) consists of:
-motor neurons and sensory neurons -somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system -sympathetic division and parasympathetic division
thick and thin filaments are not organized into ____________. No _______________ so no banding pattern
-myofibrils -sarcomeres
cellular communication in homeostasis happens in 3 ways:
-nervous system -endocrine system -paracrine and autocrine system (Local responses)
local cell:
-paracrine -autocrine
physiology is how living systems respond to ___________ and _______________
-physical activity -environmental conditions
what are some causes of oral lesions?
-physical trauma -chemical trauma -thermal trauma -recurrent aphthous ulcers/ canker sores -systemic conditions
smooth muscle cells shape:
-small -spindle shaped -lack striations
characteristics of wet gangrene?
-swelling -blistering -pus discharge
resetting of set points in the body:
-the 'set point' can be raise or lowered ex: fever -the body temperature set point is raised due to infection -homeostatic control maintains BT at specific elevated temp of 102 F
functions of smooth muscle:
-vasculature -airway -GI tract
phase 2: wound healing- inflammation 1. After hemostasis: 2. Experience localized swelling due to: 3. The initial population of WBC in the wound is composed of: 4. Within 2-3 days, monocytes become: 5. Macrophages remove dead cells and secrete growth factors to: 6. Migration of epithelial cells form:
1. After hemostasis, local vessels dilate, blood vessel permeability is increased, and neutrophils and monocytes are attracted to the wound 2. Experience localized swelling due to increased fluid in the region 3. The initial population of WBC in the wound is composed of neutrophils. Neutrophils kill bacteria and decontaminate the wound 4. Within 2-3 days, monocytes become the predominant inflammatory cell population in the wound. Within the wound, monocytes differentiate into macrophages 5. Macrophages remove dead cells and secrete growth factors to attract and activate local endothelial cells, fibroblasts and keratinocytes 6. Migration of epithelial cells form wound edges and begin fusion at the midline to close the wound
The process of muscular contraction occurs over key steps including:
1. Depolarization and calcium ion release 2. actin and myosin cross bridge formation 3. the sliding mechanism of actin and myosin filaments 4. sarcomere shortening (muscle contraction)
When injured, cells can:
1. Develop ADAPTIVE, COMPENSATORY changes in an attempt to maintain homeostasis 2. Develop MALADAPTIVE changes, which are derangements of structure or function OR 3. Irreversible injury which lead to cell death
phase 1: wound healing- hemostasis 1. Hemostasis is the term for: 2. Acute wounds cause: 3. The immediate priority is to: 4. Platelets in your blood are recruited to the area and form a: 5. The clot/plug is stabilized by: 6. Formation of a "scab":
1. Hemostasis is the term for how your body stops bleeding 2. Acute wounds cause vascular injury and bleeding from the wound 3. The immediate priority is to prevent blood loss, initiate vasoconstriction and blood clot formation to seal the damaged vessels 4. Platelets in your blood are recruited to the area to form a "plug" or clot, to stop the bleeding and to keep debris/ bacteria out 5. The clot/plug is stabilized by coagulation factors, fibrin is formed and develops a solid, stable clot' 6. Formation of a "scab". Skin is healing its wound under the protection of the scab
carrier (transporter): mediated transport
1. The Solute acts as a ligand that binds to transporter proteins 2. The protein changes shape and releases solute on the other side of the membrane
phase 3: wound healing- proliferation 1. This is the phase in which the wound is rebuilt and the new tissue made up of: 2. This begins 3 days post-injury, appearance and proliferation of: 3. The wound contracts as: 4. Angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels) is needed for granulation tissue to: 5. In healthy stages of wound healing: 6. Re-epithelialization occurs- the process of creating a new barrier bw:
1. This is the phase in which the wound is rebuilt and the new tissue made up of collagen and extracellular matrix (ECM) 2. This begins 3 days post-injury, appearance and proliferation of fibroblasts (predominate cell type) 3. The wound contracts as new tissues are built 4. Angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels) is needed for granulation tissue to be healthy and receive sufficient oxygen and nutrients 5. In healthy stages of wound healing, granulation tissue is pink or red and uneven in texture. Does not bleed easily. Dark granulation tissue can be a sign of infection, ischemia or poor perfusion 6. Re-epithelialization occurs- the process of creating a new barrier between the wound and environment through epithelial cell migration
phase 4: wound healing- remodeling 1. This occurs over a prolonged time and may last up to a year for: 2. Involves wound contraction: 3. Tensile strength (tear resistance): 4. Sutured wounds after surgery have: 5. Wounded skin reaches:
1. This occurs over a prolonged time and may last up to a year for cutaneous wounds. Weeks for oral mucosa wounds 2. Involves wound contraction, the wound fully closes 3. Tensile strength (tear resistance) increases rapidly over 1-8 weeks 4. Sutured wounds after surgery have 70% of pre-surgery strength 5. Wounded skin reaches approximately 80% strength of unwounded skin
sarcomere consists of:
1/2 I band A band 1/2 adjacent I band
the autonomic nervous system has:
2 neuron chain (connected by synapse) between the CNS and effector organ
Plasma volume makes up:
20% of ECF
monocyte/macrophages make up how many % of WBC?
3% -8%
PRIMARY active transport:
ATP is directly consumed (Na+/K+ ATPase, H+ ATPase)
Which of the following does not directly or indirectly require an energy source? A. Primary active transport B. Secondary active transport C. Operation of the Na+/K+ ATPase pump D. Facilitated transport of glucose across a plasma membrane
D. Facilitated transport of glucose across a plasma membrane
What is excitation-contraction coupling?
It's a sequence of events by which an action potential activates force-generating mechanisms
what is wound healing?
It's the tightly regulated process aiming to restore tissues upon damage
most variables in the body is under:
Negative feedback control
for sympathetic system, ________________________ is the main neurotransmitter released in the synapse bw the postganglionic neuron and the effector tissue
Norepinephrine (NE) aka noradrenaline
How do cells maintain homeostasis?
The integrity of the cell membrane MUST be maintained to SEPERATE intracellular and extracellular solutes -Nutrient and waste transport -Channels and transporters
what is necrosis?
The unregulated enzymatic digestion of cell components
what are hypertrophic scars?
They are red, raised and rigid due to increased collagen production, they tend to fade and flatten overtime
what are keloid scars?
They are very elevated, pink/red/dark and often grow larger than the site of original injury
what are contracture scars?
They often occur when increased collagen production causes disorganized fibers that attach and limit mobility
Leukocytes:
White blood cells (WBC) are the major cellular component of the inflammatory response
breaks in skin integrity can serve as a route for:
bacteria, fungi/yeast or viruses
what is cross-bridge formation?
basically occurs when the myosin head attaches to actin bw the thin and thick filaments - the thick filaments are composed of myosin molecules, each having a flexible cross bridge that binds ATP and actin
CNS (central nervous system) consists of:
brain and spinal cord
The nervous system includes:
brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves -it regulates the cardiovascular system, digestive tract, breathing, endocrine function
Physical, chemical and thermal trauma can lead to:
breaks in the integrity of the skin and oral cavity, which can increase the risk for infection
what kind of injuries are contracture scars often related to?
burn injuries
what's the body's way of fighting infection?
by inducing a fever
what is the duration of the proliferative phase?
days to weeks
arterioles dilate=
decrease blood pressure
complications during oral wound healing and underlying disease such as diabetes can cause:
delayed wound healing and scarring in the oral mucosa
In neuromuscular junction, Acetylcholine (ACh) is released from the motor neuron at the axon terminal, causing:
depolarization of the muscle fiber
_________________ hold the cells together and which myofibrils are attacked to
desmosomes
intercalated discs have what?
desmosomes and gap junctions
As many as 6.5 million people in the U.S suffer with wounds that are not healing (Chronic wounds). These are more common in the older individuals, people with:
diabetes, HBP, obesity or other vascular diseases
parasympathetic effector tissue mostly express:
muscarinic acetylcholine receptors
Ca2+ released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum triggers, what?
muscle contraction
due to the elongated and presence of multiple nuclei, a skeletal muscle is also referred to as a
muscle fiber
olfactory nerve
nose
a sarcomere is:
one unit of repeating pattern of THICK and THIN filaments bw 2 Z-LINES
tension and load are ___________ forces.
opposing
In osmosis, the total solute concentration of a solution is known as its:
osmolarity
Why do we care about wound healing?
our body's cells are able to adapt to changes in work demands or threats to survival
What is apoptosis?
programmed cell death
the oral mucosa supports _______________ with _______________
rapid healing minimal scarring
sympathetic and parasympathetic system are usually activated:
reciprocally
next, a wave of depolarization passes close to the sarcoplasmic reticulum and then:
release Ca2+ ions
parasympathetic is for
rest and digest
if damaged or destroyed, they undergo a repair process involving _______________, which will become active, and undergo mitotic proliferation and differentiate into myoblasts
satellite cells
______________ is the final outcome of wound repair
scar formation
what is the duration of hemostasis?
seconds to hours
efferent neurons:
send signals from the CNS to the PNS
afferent neurons
send signals from the PNS to the CNS
in cardiac muscle, contractile elements are similar to:
skeletal muscle
What is the largest organ?
skin
coccygeal nerves innervate:
skin over tailbone
contractions are done by the
sliding filament mechanism
one set of postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic system forms and endocrine gland (no axons) called:
the adrenal medulla
circadian rhythm:
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour intervals (the body is qued to work during certain times of the day and when interrupted, it becomes unbalanced)
In relation to negative feedback, when room temperature drops, what is the body's response?
the body responds by either: -constriction of skin blood vessels -curling up -shivering which then: -lowers the heat loss from the body or -increases heat production
how do the intergration center and effector work together?
the integration center compares "what is" with what's "supposed to be". So, when the integration center understands that something is not within that set range, it signals the effector to return those levels back to 'normal'
T-tubules propagate action potentials into:
the interior of the muscle fibers
-wound healing- remodeling/maturation phase:
the maturation and reorganization of the fibrous tissue
enteric nervous system:
the nervous system of the digestive tract
what is sarcolemma?
the outer membrane of a muscle
what is positive feedback?
the response of the body in the SAME direction of change in that variable
What are the contractile proteins?
they are proteins that mediate sliding of contractile fibers (contraction) of CARDIAC and SKELETAL muscle
what are Transverse tubules (T-tubules)?
they are tiny invaginations of muscle fiber membrane that travel through the interior of muscle fibers
each sarcomere has many:
thick and thin filaments
contracture scars can occur when the skin:
thickens and tightens up to close a wound
-wound healing- proliferative phase:
this is the emigration of fibroblasts and deposition of extracellular matrix
hypertrophic scars are a result of:
tissue tension and persistent inflammation/edema
the axons of efferent neurons leave the spinal cord on the ventral side via the:
ventral roots
Glossopharyngeal nerve
tongue, tonsil, pharynx
movement of molecules across cell membranes=
trans-membrane traffic
in smooth muscles, what regulatory proteins are absent?
troponin and tropomyosin
skeletal muscle organization:
whole muscle to muscle fiber to myofibril
