PMVPH (Part 1)

Captive Bolt Stunning Features? What species can you NOT use this with? Signs of Effective Captive Bolt Stun?

- Can be penetrating or non-penetrating - Used mainly in cattle. Sometimes used in sheep, calves and horses. Not used in pigs as causes severe convulsions - Instantaneous unconsciousness and usually irreversible when applied correctly - Aim for the brainstem, and shoot from the forehead, just above the middle of the eyes in cows, pigs and horses. Aim for their chin, and shoot between their ears / horns in sheep - Source of Energy = Cartridges. Compressed air. Spring. Propane Signs of Effective Captive Bolt Stun: - Immediate collapse with hindlegs flexed - Tonic body spasm - Immediate loss of normal rhythmic breathing - Immediate loss of corneal and palpebral reflex - No eyeball rotation - Relaxed jaw - No righting reflex - Convulsive kicking (clonic phase)

What is surveillance? Why is surveillance used at the abattoir?

- Epidemiological practice by which the spread of disease is monitored in order to establish patterns of progression - Aims to predict, observe, and minimize the harm caused by outbreak, epidemic, and pandemic situations, as well as increase knowledge about which factors contribute to such circumstances - Aims to monitor freedom of disease status for a particular disease in a given country (International trade implications!) Surveillance Use at the Abattoir: - To detect exotic, notifiable disease outbreaks - To monitor endemic disease in animal populations - To assess efficacy of interventions at farm level - To ascertain freedom of disease - For some diseases, the abattoir is the only point of surveillance e.g. BSE and Scrapie)

Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) What is it? Give an example?

- GMPs are quality procedures in place to ensure the integrity of a production process - They are described by standard operating procedures (SOPs). GMPs necessary to ensure the safety and suitability of food are referred to as Good Hygiene Practices (GHPs). They are the basic hygiene measures that should be in place. They are described by sanitation standard operating procedures (SSOPs) - While significant food safety hazards are controlled by the application of HACCP, other hazards not considered to be significant may be controlled as part of the GMP programme Example: A two knife technique should be used for all tasks which involve opening the hide or fleece, followed by cutting the hide or fleece away from the carcase meat: one knife for the external or 'dirty' cut through the skin, and the other for the internal or 'clean' cut under the skin These knives should be colour coded for easy recognition e.g. black handled knives for the 'dirty' cut and yellow (or other light colour) handled knives for the 'clean' cut. (A red handled knife should be used for SRM) As far as possible, all hide or fleece cuts should be 'in-out' or 'spear-cut', which means that the cut is made with the blade of the knife cutting away from the carcase

What factors affect piglet temperature? When can hypoglycaemia occur? What is their idea temperature?

- No subcutaneous fat and no brown fat - No hair - Limited capacity for gluconeogenesis Hypoglycaemia: - Occurs within 15-20 hours - Limited ability to regulate body temperature - 39˚C → 37˚C → Eating → Elevation within 1-2 hours Critical Temperature: - 35 ˚C • 25˚C after 1 week

Killing Out Weight (KO%) in pigs What is it? What is the equation for it?

- Producers paid on the weight of the carcase and an assessment of its leanness, rather than the weight of the live animal - The time of measuring liveweight greatly affects the KO% - If the pigs are weighed after feeding or before despatch from the farm, the liveweight will be around 5 kg greater than if the pigs are weighed after 24 hours without food or just before slaughter - So, if you are comparing feeds or genotypes, weigh at a consistent time Killing Out (KO%) = (Carcase Weight (Before Cooling)) ÷ (Liveweight (Before Slaughter)) x 100

Pre-Slaughter Welfare Issues Metabolic Exhaustion Pathophysiology? Situations Causing it? How to Avoid it?

- The pH of meat declines after death (as glycogen is converted into lactic acid), causing nice pink meat - Stressed animals have less of a pH decline (as glycogen is used up before death, due to stress), causing Dark Cutting Beef (DCB) or Dark Firm Dry Pork (DFD) - Stressed animals at slaughter have a massive decline in pH (as glycogen is used up jest before death, and is not replaced), causing Pale Soft Exudative Pork (PSE) Situations Causing High pH Dark Meat: - Over-exertion - Long distance transport - Long periods without feed - Long periods in lairage - Cold exposure - Fighting - Over-stocking - Injury - Dehydration Avoiding High pH Meat: - Reducing pre-slaughter activity and stress - Allowing recovery of muscle glycogen after the stress - Enhancing muscle glycogen storage

What are the features of a weak piglet? How can we help them?

- These often have a 'dolphin face' (Dished nose - Like an Arab horse) - Often born last in litter, so get less colostrum - Often have low birth weight, so have difficulty competing for teat and receive less colostrum - Deprived of oxygen How to Help: - Help them get started suckling Stomach feed with colostrum or milk replacer (or cow colostrum) - 15-20 ml per feeding - Warm to 35˚C Inject intraperitoneal glucose - 15 - 20 ml per injection - Warm to 35˚C

Erysipelas in pigs Transmission? Clinical Signs?

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Transmission: - Carried in tonsils Sows Clinical Signs: - Often the only sign is death (due to an acute septicaemia or heart failure) - Petechia on the skin (Due to restricted blood supply, which causes small raised areas called diamonds in the skin. These are clearly defined become red and finally black, due to dead tissue but no abscesses. Most heal in 7-10 days) - Stiffness or reluctance to rise (due to joint infection / arthritis) - Pyrexia - Inappetence - Infertility

What is food security? What are the requirements?

Exists when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life Food Availability: Sufficient quantities of food available on a consistent basis Production. Distribution. Exchange Food Access: Having sufficient resources to obtain appropriate foods for a nutritious diet Affordability. Allocation. Preference Food Use: Appropriate use based on knowledge of basic nutrition and care, as well as adequate water and sanitation Nutritional value. Social value. Food safety

How can milk contamination occur?

Exterior surfaces of the animal: faecal contamination from teats, udders, tails etc. Milking equipment / hands / bacterial contamination from soiled or inadequately cleaned and disinfected equipment Interior of the udder: failure to detect abnormal milk with mastitis pathogens Veterinary product residues, cleaning chemicals Perished components in milking machines and bulk tanks, dust, bedding materials, insects

Killing Out Weight (KO%) in pigs What factors affect it? What are the consequences of it?

Factors Affecting the KO%: - Housing system - Transport stress - Dietary regime - Gender - Bodyweight - Breed Consequences of the KO%: - Butchering costs - Boar taint - Contracts

Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS) Transmission? Clinical Signs? Control Measures?

Family Arteriviridae (Virus) Transmission: - Infection of respiratory tract via aerosol - Infection of genital tract via virus-infected semen - PRRS rapidly mutates leading to circulation of many genetic and antigenic variants Clinical Signs: - Respiratory disease (dyspnoea) - Inappetence - Pyrexia - Causes abortion storms on pig farms - Late abortions / mummification / premature piglets (arteritis of umbilical vessels and of vessels in foetus) - Immunosuppression (so secondary infections are common) - "Blue ear disease" - Rare clinical sign - Can be subclinical Control Measures: - All in - all out system - Quarantine of new stock - Separate pregnant sows from rest of herd - Avoid transfer by fomites - Screening of semen for AI by PCR - Vaccination

What is the economic optimum?

- This is the optimal level of production of an enterprise - In order to identify an optimum level of production there is a need to have a technical relationship between an input and output - A production function - Livestock production is no different, as it depends on various inputs: Feed. Forage. Animal health - This technical relationship is very important in terms of defining a rational level of production - Inputs to a livestock enterprise, even the farmer's time has value. These inputs can have prices assigned - The outputs are being produced for a market where they are valued with monetary prices - Therefore, the technical relationship needs to be modified to include the prices of inputs and outputs

Controlled Atmospheric Stunning (CAS) Features? Advantages? Disadvantages?

- Used for stunning pigs and poultry Types: - CO2 at high concentrations - CO2 two phase - CO2 with Inert Gas (N and Ar) Advantages: - No handling, inversion or shackling - Less sensitive to variations in animal size - Improved product quality - Increased line speed Disadvantages: - High capital costs - Noxiousness of the gas (CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3-) - Respiratory distress - Delayed time to loss of consciousness

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) What are the steps? Give an example?

1. Hazard Analysis: Identification of all likely public health hazards associated with the operation. Assessment of the risk of their occurring. Identification of related control measures 2. Identification of Critical Control Points (CCP): Identification of the process steps where hazards pose a high-level risk and so must be controlled 3. Establishing of Critical Limits at Each CCP: Defining the line between acceptable and unacceptable hazard-related values, from the safety aspect, at individual CCPs 4. Monitoring of Each CCP: Establishing the system for monitoring whether hazards are effectively control at all the CCPs 5. Corrective Actions at Each CCP: Development of actions / procedures to prevent transfer of hazards posing unacceptable risk to consumers if CCPs get out of control 6. HACCP Verification / Validation: Proving that all the measures are working and that all hazards are controlled 7. HACCP Documentation: Practical, record-based proof that the checking / action activities are carried out and are effective Example (Pork slaughter): - Hazard = Salmonella - CCP = Scalding process - It reduces bacterial count on the carcass surface and if the temperature of the water is sufficiently high, Salmonella and other enteric bacteria will be destroyed. A critical limit can be set at the minimum temperature of the water that would allow survival of Salmonella

What are the advantages and disadvantages of surveillance at the abattoir?

Advantages: - Most animals will end up in the abattoir, so you have access to many "farms" in one point - Monitoring of endemic (bovine TB) and wildlife-associated diseases (Trichinella) - Active and passive surveillance - Assessment of health status animal populations and disease control interventions - Can be part of disease eradication programs (TB) - Monitoring of foodborne pathogens (Salmonella) and antimicrobial resistance (Monitoring is "risk based". Level of monitoring decreases, as risk of positive animals decreases!) - Ascertainment of freedom of disease (Aujeszky's disease, Brucellosis) Disadvantages: - For very rare or exotic conditions, there is low awareness by meat inspectors, and hence no suspicion of disease - Some animal populations escape abattoir surveillance (e.g. 'dead on farm' animals, or young animals before slaughter age) - Diseases with no, or not specific enough, clinical signs and lesions. Antemortem / Postmortem inspection not suitable. Other methods required - Lack of sufficient information on farm health status (deficient Food Chain Information) - Lack of feedback of findings to farmers to improve animal health and welfare

Which diseases are notitfiable in horses?

African Horse Sickness Contagious Equine Metritis (CEM) Dourine Epizootic Lymphangitis Equine Viral Arteritis (EVA) Equine Viral Encephalomyelitis Equine Infectious Anaemia (EIA) Glanders and Farcy Rabies Vesicular Stomatitis West Nile Virus

Underperformance in Dairy Herds Rearing Replacement Heifers: What age do we want to calve? What age do we want to service? What weight should they be at first service? What height should they be at first service?

Aim for calving at 24 months old Service at 15 months Weight 375kg Height 132cm

What is the 'Health Mark'? When is it withheld?

All meat fit for human consumption is health-marked This is an oval stamp on the packet of meat This shows the: - Country (e.g. UK) - Number of the approval slaughterhouse (e.g. 1111) Allows for: Meat traceability. Assurance of food controls. Food safety Withholding the Health Mark: - Failure of ante-mortem and/or post-mortem inspection - Presence of specified risk material (SRM - Except the vertebral column of bovines > 30 months) - Carcases with visible contamination or gross pathology - Where residues or contaminants are suspected - Carcases produced in abattoir with a contaminated water supply, if risk to public health exists - Inadequate inspection facilities / inadequate inspection - Meat declared by the OV to be unfit for human consumption

Enzootic Bovine Leukosis (EBL) Which tumours are, and are not notifiable? What are the instructions if disease is suspected?

All tumours are notifiable Except: - Papilloma - Haemangioma / Haemangiosarcoma Instructions if Disease Suspected: Animal < 2 Years-Old (i.e. < 3 Permanent Incisors): - Likely to be juvenile lymphosarcoma - No sampling of tumours usually required (APHA decision) - Normal slaughter and post-mortem inspection If Animal ≥ 2 Years-Old (i.e. 2nd Pair of Incisors Erupted): - APHA investigation - Animal detained in lairage - Normal slaughter post-mortem inspection - Sampling of tumour and enlarged lymph nodes (retropharyngeal, supramammary (female) or superficial inguinal (male), internal iliac) - Carcass and offal to be detained pending testing results

Underperformance in Dairy Herds Managing Calving: How can we analyse calving records? How can we train the calving team?

Analysis of Records: - Consider Heifers and Cows separately - Analyse by Bull / Sire (e.g. are they throwing big calves?) - Analyse by Sex of Calf - Analyse by Operator Calving Team Training: The key to welfare and success at calving is how farm staff handle "routine" calvings - Practice on dead calf different presentations - How long to leave cow or heifer before interfering? When to call vet? When to Pull? Cow wait 1 hour? Heifer wait 1.5 hours? - Correct / safe use of calving jacks etc. How to Pull - Hygiene - Storage of ropes, chains etc. - Agree to a basic plan of how to approach calvings

What are the responsibilities of the Food Business Owner (FBO) prior to slaughter?

Animal identification (ID) checks (Allows traceability of the meat) Food chain information (FCI) availability (i.e. where the animal is going next) Animal not coming from a holding or area subject to restrictions - TB and Brucellosis testing (special abattoir license required) - BSE testing requirements (e.g. emergency slaughter > 48 months) - Avian Influenza Cleanliness of animals (risk of cross-contamination carcasses) Animal health (as far as FBO can judge)

Pre-Slaughter Welfare Issues Emotional Stress How to Avoid it?

Animals should be transported and slaughtered in the same group they were with on the farm, to prevent stress and fighting Transport should be spacious, well-ventilated, and a good temperature Move animals with minimal stress (e.g. gradually funnel them into single file)

What is the process of poultry slaughter?

Ante-mortem inspection → Shackling → Stunning → Bleeding → Water bath → Plucking (1st Post-mortem inspection) → Evisceration (2nd Post-mortem inspection)

Anthrax Clinical Signs: Cattle and Sheep? Pigs and Horses?

Anthrax is notifiable in cattle Clinical Signs (Cattle and Sheep): - Sudden death - Carcass shows no obvious signs of the disease - Shivering and twitching, fits - Blood presence in nostrils and dung (poor blood clotting) - Harsh dry cough - Bright staring eyes - Colicky pains - Decrease or complete loss of milk - High temperature - Loss of appetite Clinical Signs (Pigs and Horses): - Sudden death - Hot painful swellings in the throat area - Sudden colic pain in horses - Loss of appetite in pigs

Brucellosis Transmission? Clinical Signs? Control Measures?

Bacteria Brucella abortus is notifiable in cattle Brucella melitensis is notifiable in sheep and goats Zoonotic Transmission: Spread among animals through: - Drinking water or eating feed that has been contaminated with the bacteria - Contact with discharge from genitals of infected animals - Drinking milk of an infected animal Spread among humans through: - Contact with abortive material - Contact with discharge from genitals of infected animals - Drinking raw (unpasteurised) milk or eating dairy products made from raw milk of infected animals Clinical Signs: Cattle: - Abortions - Premature calving Sheep and Goats: - Abortion - Swollen udders due to infection of the mammary glands - Swollen testicles - Nervousness - Pyrexia Control Measures: - Strict biosecurity - Quarterly bulk milk testing (B. abortus) - Post-import testing - Annual sampling survey of sheep and goats (B. melitensis)

What are some common equipment faults during poultry slaughter?

Broken transport crates are not replaced or repaired Inadequate facilities for cooling birds on the truck Pre-stun shocks on the entry ramp Waterbath electrode does not span the length of the bath Voltmeter and ammeter displays are inaccurate Neck cutter severs the spinal cord, masking the recovery of consciousness Neck cutter fails to sever the major blood vessels

Underperformance in Dairy Herds Fertility Definition of: Calving Interval? Voluntary Waiting Period (VWP)? Calving-First Service Interval? Calving-Conception Interval?

Calving Interval: The time between one calving and the next Aim for 365 days Voluntary Waiting Period (VWP): The earliest service date after calving The time immediately after calving where the farmer purposely does not try and serve the cow, in order for the uterus to involute (return to normal size), the endometrium to regenerate, and the ovaries to begin cycling Aim for 50 days Calving-First Service Interval: The average value across the whole herd Affected by voluntary waitng period, postpartum problems, return of ovarian cyclicity, oestrus detection (e.g. lighting affects ability to read ear tags, bulling often occurs at night when farmer isn't around, the cow bulling is often the cow standing with all four feet on the ground rather than the one that is coming into oestrus and is mouting things) Aim for 65 days Calving-Conception Interval: The average value across the whole herd Only know if they have concieved if they do not come bulling again Aim for 85 days or less

How is carcass quality graded? What are the aims?

Carcass grading done by looking at conformation and fat Conformation: Graded using EUROP system E = Excellent → P = Poor Aim for E, U or R Fat: Graded from 1 to 5 and L or H 1L = Low fat → 5H = High fat) Aim for 3 or 4L

What is the process of the poultry ante-mortem inspection?

Check for conditions relevant animal and public health - Salmonella - National Control Programmes (NCPs) - Farms might be under movement restrictions if positive to this - If salmonella is found in a batch of birds, then slaughter them last to prevent contamination of equipment and other carcasses Random sample for each batch: - Posture - Respiratory conditions - Cleanliness (dirty feathers) - Wattle colour At the Line (Meat Inspectors): - Whole carcase inspection - Offal inspection - Checking for and rejecting: Pathology. Contamination. Animal welfare issues. Gross abnormalities Away from the Line (OV): - Daily inspection of a representative sample of birds (viscera and body cavities) - Thorough inspection of a random sample of birds rejected of every batch - Investigation of potential causes of carcasses unfit for human consumption (e.g. residues, contaminants) - Health certificate checks of birds for "foie gras" production or delayed evisceration poultry

Aujeszky's Disease (Pseudorabies) Clinical Signs in: Sows? Weaners and Growers? Piglets?

Clinical Signs (Sows): - Coughing - Fever - Nervous signs - Reproductive failure - Abortions. Mummified piglets. Stillbirths, birth weak litters Clinical Signs (Weaners and Growers): - Fever - Sneezing, coughing - Pneumonia - Nervous signs including incoordination and fits - Some strains of the virus - Severe respiratory disease. Severe rhinitis - Usually low mortality Clinical Signs (Piglets): - Nervous signs - Incoordination - Sneezing - Coughing - High mortality - Low / poor viable piglets

Sow Lameness Clinical Signs? Scoring?

Clinical Signs: - Inappetence - Fever (depending on cause) - Reluctance to stand - Swollen joints / Fractures - Loss of balance - Arthritis - Dog sitting position - Will not accept boar at mating - Pig shows pain / discomfort Pig Locomotion Scoring: - 0 = Sow moves easily with little inducement. She is comfortable on all her feet - 1 = She moves relatively easily, but visible signs of lameness are apparent in at least one leg. She is reluctant to bear weight on that leg but still moves easily from sire to site in the barn - 2 = Lameness is involved in one or more limbs. The sow exhibits compensatory behaviours such as dipping her head or arching her back - 3 = There is real reluctance to walk and bear weight on one or more legs. It is difficult to move her from place to place on the farm

Ante-Mortem Inspection at the Abattoir What are the features of a 'suspect' animal?

Clinical signs of zoonotic infection Clinical signs of disease or disorder that will make meat unfit for consumption Signs of fatigue or stress Suspicion of illegal or unauthorised substance use Poor body condition or emaciation

Pre-Slaughter Welfare Issues Torn Skin Causes?

Contact with Barbed Wire, Nails, Metal Stanchions: - Cattle - Sheep - Pigs Dog Bites: - Sheep Horn Raking: - Cattle - Horned sheep Teeth Marks: - Pigs Claw Damage: - Ducks - Turkeys - Geese Cages: - Salmon Feather Pecking: - Hens - Turkey

Underperformance in Dairy Herds Features of: Culling? Milk Yield?

Culling: - Longevity is measured by average number of lactations the cow lives before leaving the herd - It can indicate a significant welfare problem and is a key parameter to look at for any herd - A herd needs to cull cows on a planned basis. This allows older cows and less productive cows to be removed from the herd to allow other cows in. When cows are culled due to illness or death, this prevents planned culling from taking place - The biggest loss is the heifer which leaves the herd before the end of its first lactation - Reasons for Culling = Often more than 1 reason for culling cow. Rate each factor involved out of 10 - e.g. High Cell Count 5. Kicks in Parlour 5. Lameness 7. Infertile 3 - Analysis of Culling = Analyse culls by reason, age / lactation, days in milk Milk Yield: - Always consider with Fat% and Protein% - Fat levels affected by acidosis or SARA - Protein levels affected by long term energy deficiency

Mycotoxins in Pig Feed Effects of mouldy grain? Effects of mycotoxins?

Effects of Mouldy Grain: - Decrease milling quality - Decrease seed germination - Decrease dry matter - Decrease feeding value (sometimes) Effects of Mycotoxins: - Death - Poor performance from low fibre intake (low Average Daily Gain (ADG)) - Respiratory problems - Reproductive problems - Liver, kidney or other organ damage

Name some pre-slaughter welfare issues

Dead on Arrival (DOA) Bruising Broken Bones Torn Skin Metabolic Exhaustion Dehydration Emotional Stress

Factors Affecting Welfare During Transport Husbandry / Stockmanship?

Deprived of food and water (starvation and dehydration) Dependent on: - Environment (temperature, humidity) - Class of livestock - Stage of lifecycle - Pregnancy - Lactation - Rest stations are an EU requirement. This is so animals are unloaded, watered, and may be fed Stocking density Unfamiliar environment Breed effects Sick or young animals Unable to perform normal behaviours

Ante-Mortem Inspection at the Abattoir Objectives?

Detect signs of any condition which might adversely affect human or animal health Enable the OV to make the decisions as to whether the animal can be slaughtered for human consumption Determine whether welfare has been compromised Determine whether any test should be carried out in relation to disease diagnosis, for residues of veterinary medical products or contaminants Identify animals not fit for slaughter for human consumption (public health risk) and dispose of them Identify animal welfare cases (emergency slaughter) Identify animal health risks (quarantine) State of cleanliness (public health risk through faecal contamination) Identification of cases that may need sampling (BSE / TSE, residues etc.) Animal identification controls (Allows traceability of the meat) Identify zoonotic risks for workers (ringworm, Orf)

Underperformance in Dairy Herds Care of the Young Calf: What is the first thing we do at birth? How much colostrum should a calf get? How do we monitor colostrum intake?

Dip the Naval: - Done immediately after birth - Use 7% Iodine and totally immerse - Repeat after 24 hours Colostrum: - 6 litres in the first 12 hours after birth. 6 pints in first 6 hours - Absorption is better when suckled from dam or consumed in dam's presence Colostrum Monitoring: - Blood sample healthy calves 2-7 days old - Take clotted red top tube for serum. Send to Lab for Zinc Sulphate Turbidity Test (VLA) or Total Protein (TP) testing (aim for 55g/l / 5.5 g/dl or above) - Or use Refractometer

What are the main strategies implemented by food business owners to ensure safety of food?

Food Businesses (e.g. Livestock Farms): - Food Business Operator (FBO) = Persons responsible for ensuring that the requirements of the food law are met - Food businesses are responsible for ensuring that the food they produce is safe to eat - This requires that they implement food safety management procedures and adequate working practices The main strategies implemented by food business owners to ensure safety of food: - Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) - Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) - Good Health Practices (GHP) - Traceability - Microbiological criteria Competent Authority: - Enforcement of legislation, verification, auditing of FBOs Consumer: - Safe handling and storage of food at home

Definition of: Food Chain? Pre-Harvest? Harvest? Post-Harvest?

Food Chain: Total supply process ('from farm to fork') Producing food → Processing food → Packaging and distributing food → Retailing and consuming food Pre-Harvest: Feed, housing, hygiene, treatments etc. Harvest: Collecting, milking, slaughter etc. Post-Harvest: Processing, transport, storage etc.

Definition of: Food Safety Criterion? Traceability? Zero Risk Approach? Risk Management?

Food Safety Criterion: Defines the acceptability of a product to be put on the market This is established based on risk assessment Traceability: The possibility to identify and follow a food item along the food chain Objectives: - Tracing forward (Re-call of products) - Tracing backward (Identification of the source of a problem) Zero-Risk Approach: If in doubt, keep it out. Zero-risk is the ideal that we should try to achieve. It is appealing, but it is often not possible or not desirable (unjustifiable amounts of resources needed). Alternative is trying to determine a level of practical achievable control of risk (Risk Analysis) Risk Management: The process, distinct from risk assessment, of weighing policy alternatives, in consultation with all interested parties, considering risk assessment and other factors relevant for the health protection of consumers and for the promotion of fair-trade practices, and, if needed, selecting appropriate prevention and control options

What is the role of the: Food Standards Agency (FSA)? Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)? Trading Standards?

Food Standards Agency (FSA): - Provide Meat Inspectors (MIs) and Official Veterinarians (OV) - Foodborne diseases Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA): - Animal health - Public health - Notifiable diseases - Animal welfare at the farm Trading Standards: - Animal welfare at the farm

Free Bullet Euthanasia / Slaughter Features?

Generally a single step killing procedure Shot close range Gun / ammunition needs to be appropriate for the species Causes more extensive damage than captive bolt Health and Safety: Make sure you aim so that the bullet embeds itself in the animal, and does not exit the animal and ricochet! Aim for the brainstem, and shoot from the forehead

Name some farmed fish slaughter methods

Percussive blow Electrical stunning Suffocation in air or ice Food grade anaesthetics Carbon dioxide Cutting of gills whilst conscious

Post-Mortem Inspection at the Abattoir Features? Objectives?

Inspection must take place without delay after slaughter OV and inspectors must follow a very prescriptive inspection protocol as per Regs EC 854/2004 All rejections as unfit for human consumption must be justified by this legislation Objectives: To supplement ante-mortem inspection and to detect: - Diseases of public health significance - Diseases of animal health significance - Residues or contaminants - Risk of non-visible contamination (microbiological hazards) - Other factors which might make the meat unfit for human consumption or restrictions to be placed on its use - Visible lesions that are relevant to animal welfare (e.g., beating or long-standing untreated injuries)

Anthrax What are the instructions if disease is suspected? What are the actions if disease is suspected?

Instructions if Disease Suspected: - Live Animals = Suspect animals, and animals in direct contact to be detained, isolated and reported to APHA immediately - Carcase = Should not be opened, as risk of formation of highly resistant Anthrax spores Actions if Disease Suspected: - Anthrax investigation by the Local Veterinary Inspector (LVI) - Cleaning and disinfection of infected site - Carcass and organs detained, pending LVI investigation (Sample lymph nodes, lungs, pleura, liver and udder) - Disposal carcass and organs (Cat 1 or 2 ABP, depending on species) - Movement restrictions - Attending vet (who suspected the Anthrax) must not leave the farm until allowed to do so by the LVI / APHA

What are the impacts of diagnosing a notifiable disease?

International Trade: - Once a notifiable disease is identified and declared, many countries will refuse to accept animals or animal products until the situation is resolved - Many export health certificates require confirmation of freedom from notifiable diseases - Transparency and openness when reporting notifiable diseases ensure mutual trust between trading partners Public Health: - It is essential to control any disease with significant public health risk - Close working with the relevant public health authority is crucial - Education and provision of information is very important when dealing with zoonotic notifiable disease Animal Welfare: - Some notifiable diseases cause welfare problems e.g. Foot and mouth disease can cause severe pain. Rabies probably causes extreme confusion and discomfort - Don't forget that having notifiable disease confirmed in a group of animals can cause human welfare problems too Human Welfare: - Notifiable diseases can cause distress and disruption - Some diseases and also harmful to human health, or are zoonotic Wider Society: - Restrictions on farms will limit other businesses, such as tourism, feed merchants, contractors and vet practices - In some cases, disease outbreaks can generate overreactions to animal products - e.g. reduced purchase of meat due to fears about vaccine residues or contamination of meat - The national reputation can also suffer

Sow Lameness Causes (Infectious)? Causes (Non-Infectious)?

Lameness is second most common reason for culling sows (no. 1 is reproductive issues) Causes (Infectious): - Brucellosis - Clostridial diseases - Erysipelas - Foot-and-mouth disease - Foot rot, Bush foot - Glässers disease (Haemophilus parasuis) - Mycoplasma arthritis - Salmonellosis - Swine vesicular disease - Streptococcal infections Causes (Non-Infectious): - Fractures - Laminitis - Leg weakness (OCD) - Muscle tearing - Nutritional deficiencies - Porcine stress syndrome - Toxic conditions - Trauma

Underperformance in Dairy Herds Managing Calving: What is 'Live Birth Rate'? How can we score a calving?

Live Birth Rate: % of calves born which are alive and survive for 24 hours Calving Score: - 0 = No hand touches calf - 1 = Hand touches but no Rope - 2 = Rope is used gentle pull - 3 = Rope is used and hard pull - 4 = Caesarean Section

How can meat contamination at slaughter occur?

Many opportunities along the slaughter process for contamination with pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms Bleeding. Dehiding /Defleecing. Evisceration. Dressing, chilling The muscles of a healthy animal are sterile, but during the slaughtering process there will be many opportunities for contamination mainly from the hide and the gastrointestinal tract Mitigate as much as possible all pathways for contamination of the carcass from the surface of the animal, or from the gut. Equipment, hands and bio-aerosols are also routes of contamination

How can you measure reproduction in pigs?

Measured as Pigs/Sow/Year Litter Size: - Ovulation rate - Fertilization Rate - Disease - Nutrition Number of Litters: Service Management: - Timing - BCS - Light - Boar Contact - Semen Storage Lactation Nutrition: - High weight loss during lactation prolongs weaning to oestrus intervals - Try to manage sow / gilt, to minimise weight loss during lactation Pre-Weaning Mortality: Reduce Stillbirths: - Maternal Stress - Control Litter Size - Herd Health and Culling - Oxytocin

Methods for Reducing Disease on Pig Farms Features of: Medicated Early Weaning (MEW)? Hysterectomy?

Medicated Early Weaning (MEW): - Not common in the UK - Farrow pigs in isolation, then move and wean piglets to a clean site at 5-7 days (maximum 10 days) - Requires donor and recipient herd - Extensive sow health screening - Intensive medication program - Transfer at 24 -48 hours (when fostering) - Specialised feeding program - Exceptional skill, discipline and TLC Hysterectomy: - Not common in the UK - Is a means of preserving genetics, and the introduction / transfer new genetics - Accurate gestation dates needed - Recipient farm focus on colostrum management and farrowing induction - Not for large scale use

What are the methods for reducing disease on pig farms?

Medication Vaccination Partial De-Population Complete De-Population Medicated Early Weaning (MEW) Hysterectomy

Methods for Reducing Disease on Pig Farms Features of: Medication? Vaccination?

Medication: - Medication is often put in the food or water - Not useful if the pig is not eating - Antibiotic stewardship issue - As you will be treating all pigs, not just the sick ones - Aim to just medicate the ill ones Vaccination: - Optimum time to vaccinate is before weaning - But most vaccinate at weaning, as they have to round the animals up anyway to move them - But the stress of moving them might reduce the efficacy of the vaccine - But not all diseases have a vaccine available

Underperformance in Dairy Herds Care of the Young Calf: How much milk should we feed them? When should we start feeding concentrates?

Milk: Use milk powder or Calf Milk Replacer (CMR) - 12.5% (125 g/litre). 125 g / litre. 2 litres twice a day. 125 x 2 x 2 = 0.5kg / day - 15% (150 g/litre). 150 g / litre. 2.5 litres twice per day. 150 x 2.5 x 2 = 0.75 kg / day Feeding: - Objective is to maximise calf concentrate intake by the time of weaning - When weaning takes place they must be already eating sufficient concentrate - Weaning must not be a time where calves are starved into eating concentrate - Keep concentrate fresh, at least twice a day - Clean out bucket and do not let feed accumulate in bucket - Guideline of 1kg per day intake at weaning

Post-Mortem Inspection at the Abattoir Decisions?

Must take into account ante-mortem inspection results and food chain information (FCI) OV is not concerned with diagnosis but only if Fit or Unfit for human consumption and, if unfit, if whole carcase or part of it (EXCEPTION: Notifiable Diseases) Fit for Human Consumption: - Free for sale Unfit for Human Consumption: - Part or whole carcass rejection - If notifiable disease is suspected, then detain carcass and inform APHA

Ante-Mortem Inspection at the Abattoir What to look for?

Must take place within 24 hours of arrival and less than 24 hours from slaughter General appearance: - Emaciation (in contrast to poor BCS as cow is post-milking) - Cleanliness Behaviour abnormalities: - CNS problems - Exhaustion Trauma Deformation: - Hernia - Neoplasia (EBL?) Abnormal discharges Abnormal faeces Clinical signs indicating notifiable diseases or public health risk

Ante-Mortem Inspection at the Abattoir Features? Exceptions? Requirements? Challenges?

Must take place within 24 hours of arrival and less than 24 hours from slaughter To be conducted only by the OV Exceptions: - If animals have been inspected at farm and included in the food chain information (FCI) - Emergency slaughter at farm - Clinical examination before slaughter by farm vet or OV. Issue examination certificate Requirements: - Good light - Enough space - Access Challenges: Practical Issues: - Time constraints - Visual inspection only Clinical Issues: - Unspecific signs - Subclinical infection

Enzootic Pneumonia (EP) in pigs Clinical Signs? Control Measures?

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae Clinical Signs: - Mild cough in uncomplicated cases (due to consolidation of cranial lung lobes) - Variance in growth (due to reduced feed conversion) - Secondary infections can lead to increased mortality Control Measures: - Production system - All-in all-out. Batch. Continuous flow - Vaccine available

Trichinella What is the surveillance procedure at the abattoir?

Nematode that affects pigs Not notifiable Surveillance: - Mandatory testing of sows and boars, outdoor pigs, wild boar and crosses (farmed or wild), solipeds of any age - Testing is not needed for meat from domestic swine that have received freezing treatment (not applicable to wild boar or solipeds) - Test all breeding animals - Test 10% of growers and fattening pigs sent in a year for slaughter and raised under "controlled housing"

Can you transport an animal which is lame in all 4 feet to the abbatoir? How must they be classified?

No It should have been subjected to emergency slaughter and disposed by knacker-yard By-product category 2 High risk material If infective (joint-ill), then should not go for human consumption

Ante-Mortem Inspection at the Abattoir Decisions?

No Abnormalities Detected: - Slaughter and post-mortem inspection Abnormalities Detected: - Rejected = Slaughtered and disposed as by-product - Detained = Detailed ante-mortem inspection - Slaughtered with special precautions - If suspicion of notifiable disease, then contact the APHA Suspect Animal: - Clinical signs of zoonotic infection - Clinical signs of disease or disorder that will make meat unfit for consumption - Signs of fatigue or stress - Suspicion of illegal or unauthorised substance use - Poor body condition or emaciation

What is a Notifiable Disease? What is a Reportable disease? Name 2 reportable diseases

Notifiable Disease: - Any disease that is required by law to be reported to government authorities - Notifiable diseases are named in Section 88 of the Animal Health Act, or an order made under the Animal Health Act - It is your legal obligation to notify any suspicion of notifiable disease to APHA as soon as possible - Most notifiable diseases are exotic. They are not present in this country - e.g. Foot and Mouth Disease, Rabies, Avian influenza - Some notifiable diseases are endemic. They are present in this country - Bovine TB, Scrapie, EBL(2) bat rabies Reportable Diseases: - Include those where there is a statutory requirement to report laboratory confirmed isolation of organisms of the genera Salmonella and Brucella, under the Zoonoses Order 1989 (as amended) - In addition, further diseases are included in the schedule of the Specified Animal Pathogens Order (SAPO) 2008 - The report is to be made by the laboratory which isolated the organism from an animal-derived sample

Aujeszky's Disease (Pseudorabies) What is the surveillance procedure at the abattoir?

Notifiable in pigs Surveillance: - National serological surveillance of boars at slaughter - Regular testing at semen collection centres (international trade) - Pre- and post-import testing

What are the objectives of The General Food Law?

Objectives: - Guarantee a high level of protection of human life and health and the protection of consumers' interests. Also guarantee fair practices in food trade, taking into account animal health and welfare, plant health and the environment - Ensure free movement of food and feed manufactured and marketed in the Union, in accordance with the General Food Law Regulation - Facilitate global trade of safe feed and safe, wholesome food by taking into account international standards and agreements when developing Union legislation, except where this might undermine the high level of consumer protection pursued by the Union Transparency: Food safety and protection of consumer interests are of great concern to the general public, nongovernmental organisations, professional associations, international trading partners and trade organisations. Therefore, transparency of decision-making is of paramount importance. The General Food Law Regulation provides for the mechanisms necessary to increase consumer confidence in food law: - Effective public consultations during the preparation, evaluation and revision of food and feed law - Obligation on public authorities to inform the general public, where there are reasonable grounds to suspect that a food or feed may present a risk for human or animal health Risk Analysis Principle: The General Food Law Regulation establishes the principle of risk analysis in relation to food and feed and establishes the structures and mechanisms for the scientific and technical evaluations, which are undertaken by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Depending on the nature of the measure to be used, food law, and in particular measures relating to food safety must be underpinned by strong science. The Union has been at the forefront of the development of risk analysis principles and their subsequent international acceptance. Food law is based on the three inter-related components of risk analysis: - Risk assessment - Risk management - Risk communication

Underperformance in Dairy Herds Fertility: What are the events and timings between calving and service?

Of the 365 days calving interval, the gestation period is 280 days So, you have 85 days to get the cow in calf After she calves, she needs time for the uterus involute (return to normal size), the endometrium to regenerate, and the ovaries to begin cycling again, which takes around 42 days (could increase due to peri-parturient diseases such as metritis, milk fever, cystic ovaries, mastitis etc.) After this, you've now only got 40 days to get her in calf Oestrus cycle is 21 days, so you have 2 maybe 3 services in order to get her pregnant

Cervical Neck Dislocation in poultry Features? With what size of bird can you use manual or mechanical dislocation?

Only birds under 5 kg can be dispatched by mechanical neck dislocation Manual dislocation will only be permitted on birds less than 3 kg Up to maximum of 70 birds per day Requires a certain level of skill Welfare issues, as does not always produce immediate insensibility

Warble Fly (Hypoderma bovis) What are the instructions if disease is suspected: Ante-Mortem? Post-Mortem?

Only notifiable in Scotland (for cattle) Vet to notify Veterinary Officer (VO) of the APHA immediately VO Ante-Mortem Suspicion: - If slaughtered prior to VO arrival, then carcass, hide and ear tag to be detained - 7 ml clotted blood sample to be collected - Warble fly larvae to be collected for ID (entomological investigation) Post-Mortem Suspicion: - Blood collected from body cavity - Warble fly larvae to be collected for ID (entomological investigation)

Definition of: Outbreak? Epidemic?

Outbreak: Cases clustered in time and space, occurring at higher level than expected Epidemic: Occurrence of more cases of disease than expected in a given area or among a specific group of people over a particular period of time (CDC)

Methods for Reducing Disease on Pig Farms Features of: Partial De-Population? Complete De-Population?

Partial De-Population: - Removal of some pigs on the farm (Removal of rearing / finishing herd) - Easier to implement on weaner producing units - Dependant on overall of disease burden - Lower short-term cost solution - Long term success questionable - Commitment to improve health status Complete De-Population: - Removal of all pigs on the farm - Proven method of upgrading health - Only do it if specific pathogen free (SPF) stock can be sourced - Commitment to meticulous cleansing disinfection and vermin control program - Large capital investment and cash flow implications - Set up strict biosecurity protocols

What are the types of surveillance at the abbatoir? Give examples of diseases that fit with each one

Passive Surveillance: - Only suspect animals are sampled (i.e. somebody must suspect disease and initiate surveillance action) - Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) = Outside of an outbreak (e.g. now) - Sample the brainstem of all cattle with CNS signs Active Surveillance: - All animals of an agreed risk population are sampled - Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) = During an outbreak - Sample the brainstem of all OTM cattle (i.e. over 30 months age) - Bovine Tuberculosis = Surveillance (cattle). Find, incise and inspect specified pairs of lymph nodes in all carcases - Scrapie = Surveillance (sheep). Sample x% of all slaughtered ewes Trichinella spp. = Surveillance in pigs. Sample all outdoor pigs, all old pigs, all wild boars, and all solipeds

Pre-Slaughter Welfare Issues Dead on Arrival (DOA) Causes in: Pigs? Sheep? Broilers?

Pigs: - Hyperthermia - Metabolic acidosis Sheep: - Smothering - Ill health Broilers: - Congestive heart failure - Trauma (Dislocated / broken hip. Ruptured liver. Head trauma. Intraperitoneal haemorrhaging)

Pre-Slaughter Welfare Issues Dehydration Consequences?

Poor welfare (Thirst. Headache) Difficult skin removal Sticky meat Darker, tougher meat Smaller loin muscle area Injury after death will not cause haemorrhage (brusing)

What are the factors which affect growth rates in pigs?

Poorer: - FCR deteriorates with same food intake - Genetics (Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR)) - Over-stocking - Too cold / Too hot (Affects Voluntary Feed Intake (VFI)) - Illness Improved: - Adequate water available - Increased food intake (so long as FCR does not deteriorate) - Low stress - Ad Lib feed (VFI) - Pelleted food (FCR) - Increased amino acid intakes

Head-Only Electrical Stunning Procedure? Features?

Procedure: - Head only electrical stunning produces a brain dysfunction and unconsciousness - In most animals it lasts for between 60 and 70 seconds - The animals must be bled promptly to prevent the fastest recovering animal from regaining consciousness - Stunning is less effective with the presence of wool and dry skin or when stunning caudally behind the ears - Electrical stun causes rapid depolarization of the membrane potentials of the nerves of the brain, resulting in a synchronized activity - EEG waveform similar to the grand mal waveform seen in epilepsy in humans (abnormal brain state, which is incompatible with continued consciousness) - Seizures or convulsions accompany epileptic states but are not reliable indicators Head-to-Body electrical stunning can also be used for slaughter, as causes unconsciousness AND cardiac arrest

Post-Mortem Inspection at the Abattoir Process? What key questions should you ask?

Process: - Inspection must take place without delay after slaughter - View all external surfaces. Mostly visual inspection (combined with palpation and incision of organs) - Detect any zoonotic or notifiable diseases Key Questions: Is a condition septic or not? - If a condition is identified as septic, check carefully rest of carcase and organs for sign of spread (especially the LNs) - If there are signs compatible with the same condition anywhere else on the carcase, the condition is considered generalised, requiring whole carcase rejection Is a condition localised or generalised? - Non-septic generalised conditions can also lead to whole carcase rejection (see Regs 854/2004) Non generalised conditions require rejection of the affected organs and parts Always consider the possibility of a Notifiable Disease

What is the equation for Productivity? What are the features of Production vs Productivity?

Productivity = (Total value of outputs per unit of time) ÷ (Total value of inputs per unit of time) - Profitability takes into account the costs of a livestock enterprise - This measure has enough information to be able to assess the productivity of the enterprise - The efficiency of conversion of inputs to outputs is the productivity of an activity - In a livestock system there are different inputs and different products. - Therefore, to estimate the livestock productivity it is common to convert the inputs and output to monetary values - There are other more common methods of assessing livestock productiv ity such as: Production per animal. Production per hectare - What is important when thinking of performance is to identify which resources used in the production system are scarce, and estimate the output per unit of this scarce resource

What is the equation for Profit? What is the relationship between the economic optimum and profit?

Profit = (Total Outputs x Output Price) - (Total Inputs x Input Price) - An economic optimum is reached where the profit is maximised - Profit is the difference between the total revenue and the total costs - Where the total revenue is equal to the total costs there is a breakeven point - Profit is maximised where the slope of the total revenue line is equal to the slope of the total cost line - This is equal to the point where there is greatest distance between the two lines

What factors influence the performance of dairy herds?

Rearing Replacement Heifers Managing Calving Care of the Young Calf Fertility Culling Milk Yield

How can you monitor performance of pigs?

Recording Systems: - Feed / weight - Output - Weight and days to slaughter - Abattoir payments - Herd monitoring / recording programme (BPHS) - Growth - Mortality - Meat quality - Longevity / culling rates - Milk yield - Reproduction

Low Atmospheric Pressure Stunning (LAPS) in poultry Features?

Reduction of oxygen tension by decompression Designed to gradually induce cerebral hypoxia Pressure induced hypoxia in humans not seen to be distressing Approved by USDA and EFSA Research lacking

Factors Affecting Welfare During Transport Health?

Social disruption Stress (physiological and psychological) Isolation Immunosuppression Disease? Lameness Sleep deprivation Tissue breakdown Dehydration - Poor welfare (thirst, headache) - Difficult skin removal - Sticky meat - Darker, tougher meat - Smaller loin muscle area

Name some: Stunning Methods? Slaughter Methods? Euthanasia Methods?

Stunning Methods: - Head only electrical stunning - Electrical water bath stunning - Penetrative / non-penetrative captive bolt - Gas stunning (Controlled atmosphere stunning (CAS)) - Percussive stunning (captive bolt) - Low atmospheric pressure stunning (LAPS) Slaughter Methods: - Sticking or neck cutting - Cardiac arrest - Decapitation - Neck dislocation - Free bullet - Maceration - Gas stunning (poultry) Euthanasia Methods: - Lethal injection - Free bullet - Penetrative captive bolt and pithing - Anaesthetic inhalation - Carbon dioxide - Carbon monoxide - Neck dislocation

Brucellosis What is the surveillance procedure at the abattoir? What are the instructions if disease is suspected?

Surveillance Procedure: - Post-import testing of imported cattle - Compulsory notification of all bovine abortions and premature calvings and investigation - Quarterly testing of bulk milk samples from all dairy herds, including those of producer retailers Instructions if Disease Suspected: - Slaughter separately from other animals - Sampling of paired lymph nodes (retropharyngeal, supra-mammary, inguinal etc.) - Avoid risk of contamination

Bovine Tuberculosis (bTB) What is the surveillance procedure at the abattoir? What are the instructions if disease is suspected?

Surveillance of Disease: Passive: - Compulsory slaughter of tuberculin test reactors, inconclusive reactors (IRs), and direct contacts (DCs) Active: - Sample suspicious animals at ante-mortem inspection - Sample suspect lesions in carcass or organs at post-mortem inspection Instructions if Disease Suspected: - Animals to be slaughtered in separate slaughter hall, or slaughtered last of the day - Carcases diagnosed at slaughterhouse are detained at slaughterhouse for detailed post-mortem inspection and sampling - Cleaning and disinfection of premises mandatory after slaughter of TB cases Avoid risk of contamination of other carcases, slaughterhouse staff, equipment and facilities

What is the definition of: Technical Optimum? Economic Optimum?

Technical Optimum: The maximum amount of production Economic Optimum: The maximum profit The lower the unit price of an input relative to an output the closer the technical and economic optimums are

How can you maximise feed intake in pigs?

Temperature Control: Not too hot and not too cold Adequate Supply of Water Adequate Feeder Access Avoid Over-Crowding Pigs Manage Health: This is the biggest factor, as illness decreases voluntary feed intake Manage Diet Quality and Feed Budgets: Amino acid Lysine is a limiting factor in pigs Reduce Wasted Food: e.g. Trough spillage. Going down slats. Trodden uneaten into muck. Rats, birds, mice etc. Phase Feeding: Matching requirements to stage of growth That the diet should support lean growth potential at least cost If potential lean growth is to be fully supported, then the amount of protein relative to energy in the diet should be reduced with increasing live weight

Factors Affecting Welfare During Transport Environmental Conditions?

Temperature extremes - Increased temperature causes increased water loss via panting / sweating. Creation of hot, humid microenvironment around the animal - Increased live weight increases total heat production - Cold Stress = Shivering. Raising of hair coat (piloerection). Huddling - Heat Stress = Panting. Sweating. Salivation. Restlessness Ventilation - Remove heat and moisture - Active and passive. Controlled ventilation vs controlled environment - Ventilation can be temperature controlled Humidity Noise

What is the current legislation for travelling animals in the UK?

The Welfare of Animals (Transport) (England) Order 2006 Council Regulation (EC) No 1/2005 on the protection of animals during transport and related operations Derogations for UK: - Pigs do not require continuous access to water - Roof does not have to be insulated - Temperature monitoring, data recording and warning systems not required - Navigation tracking system not required

What are the issues with foodborne disease?

The unknown extent of total disease burden makes it difficult to set-up risk-based management Outbreaks of foodborne disease are often unrecognized, unreported, in particular in developing countries Even when reported, for a large % of them, the aetiology is unknown Not all foodborne illness is zoonotic, but food does represent an important vehicle for zoonotic pathogens of substantial public health significance

What are the objectives in controlling an outbreak?

To reduce to the minimum the number of primary cases of illness. This involves the prompt recognition of the outbreak and identification and control of the source of the infection or contamination (tracing back) To reduce to the minimum the number of secondary cases of infection, by identifying cases and taking appropriate action to prevent any subsequent spread (tracing forward) To prevent further episodes of illness by identifying continuing hazards and eliminating or minimising the risk they pose (what went wrong?)

Factors Affecting Welfare During Transport Driving Style and Transport?

Travel time: - >10 hours = Long journey - <4 hours = Short journey Vehicle design requirements: - Be clean and disinfected - Smooth sides - Prevent escape - Prevent damage to limbs - Bedding (ruminants) - Anti-slip flooring - Ventilation (passive or active) - Movable partitions (dependent on stock type) - Roof - Provide access for inspection - Ramp design and angle to reduce slips and falls Driver behaviour - Acceleration and braking forces (domino-effect) - Driver rotation (cost impact) - Right to refuse to transport unfit animals - Rest stations are an EU requirement. This is so animals are unloaded, watered, and may be fed Stocking density - Low Stocking Densities = Lack of mutual support. Bruising, injuries and stress - High Stocking Densities = Thermoregulation. Psychological stress. Unable to regain posture Vibration Physical fatigue Injuries Motion (acceleration / regular motion)

What are the types of inspection at the abattoir? What are the aims of inspection at the abattoir?

Types of Inspection: - Ante-Mortem = Conditions with obvious clinical signs / lesions - Post-Mortem = Conditions with visible (macroscopic) and lesions Aims: 1. To provide safe meat to the final consumer (public health protection) 2. To prevent spread of animal diseases from the abattoir through disease detection and by-product control (animal health protection) 3. To protect animal welfare (animal welfare protection)

What is an epidemic curve? What are the types and their shapes?

Used to show the time course of an outbreak An epidemic curve is a graphical representation of the numbers of new cases in an outbreak or epidemic, plotted over time. The shape of the distribution of cases can indicate the nature of the disease and its mode of transmission. When we know the incubation time of the disease, we can use epidemic curves to determine the probable time of exposure in common source epidemics Types: - Point Source = 1 incubation period - Line goes up, and then down again quite quickly - Intermittent Common Source = Line goes up, and then down again gradually, but then rises again and drops again (shallow zig-zag) - Continuous Common Source = >1 incubation period - Line stays at a steady level - Propagated = Infectious diseases (Person-to-person) - Line goes up and down quickly and continuously (steep zig-zag)

African Swine Fever (ASF) Transmission? Clinical Signs? Control Measures?

Virus Europe and Asia, in wild boar / feral pigs and commercial and backyard pigs There are several different strains of African swine fever virus Transmission: - Pigs eating infectious meat or meat products - Contact with infected pigs or their faeces or body fluids - Contact with anything contaminated with the virus including people and their clothing, vehicles and other equipment Clinical Signs: - Pyrexia - Anorexia - Lack of energy - Sudden death with few signs beforehand - Pigs infected with mild strains may not become ill or show typical clinical signs - Possibility of asymptomatic carriers - Other Signs Can Include = Vomiting. Diarrhoea. Red or dark skin, particularly on the ears and snout. Discharges from the eyes and nose. Laboured breathing and coughing. Abortions. Weakness. Unsteady gait Control Measures: - Slaughter of affected animals. Compensation for the farmer - Movement restrictions of farm and surrounding area - Surveillance zone - Trace in contacts, and slaughter if risk - Close footpaths - Exports stopped - Disposal of carcases - Cleaning and disinfection, down time 30 days

Slaughter Without Stunning (Religious Slaughter) Welfare Issues? How does the blood supply to the brain impact on welfare?

Welfare Issues: - Stress and pain associated with restraint - Pain from the cut - Distress associated with delays in the time to loss of consciousness - Distress from aspiration of blood into the respiratory tract Vertebral blood supply to the brain is not severed during slaughter (this would only be severed if you decapitate the animal), so for a few minutes the animal may be conscious of what is happening after their common carotid arteries have been severed

Why are some diseases made notifiable? Who makes a disease notifiable?

Why are Some Diseases Notifiable? - Serious public health risk (e.g. Anthrax, Rabies) - Exotic disease (not present in a country) with potential to spread quickly in a population and cause significant economic losses (e.g. FMD, AFD, Bluetongue) - Endemic diseases in eradication programs (e.g. BSE, TB, Brucella) - Potential for rapid spread - Difficult to detect and/or control - Serious trade implications and potential for economic loss (e.g. FMD, ASF, HPAI, Bluetongue) Who Makes A Disease Notifiable? - World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) set lists - National animal health offices (Defra / APHA)

What is a casualty animal? How is it dealt with at slaughter?

e.g. an animal which cannot walk - Determine whether the animal requires emergency slaughter - If so, take slaughter equipment to the animal. Do not move the animal! - Ensure prompt stunning, bleeding and evisceration - Trace back the history of the case with the aim of preventing repetition