Police in Society - Chapter 4
1829, Sir Robert Peel, England's home secretary
"Act for Improving the Police in and near the Metropolis."
1725, Jack Wild, the most notorious thief taker,
"had two fractures in his skull and his bald head was covered with silver plates. He had seventeen wounds in various parts of his body from swords, daggers, and gunshots, [and] ... his throat had been cut in the course of his duties."
Technological advances were made in transportation.
-Detroit Police Department outfitted some of its patrol officers with bicycles in 1897. -1913, the motorcycle was being used by departments in the eastern part of the nation. -The first police car was used in Akron, Ohio, in 1910, and -the police wagon became popular in Cincinnati in 1912.
Metropolitan Law Enforcement Agencies
-Local police form the majority of the nation's authorized law enforcement personnel. -600,000 full time employees; 477,000 of which are sworn personnel -The policing task is as diverse as the community it serves. -Increasing role in the war on terror
1960s rapid crime growth
-The number of violent and property crimes increased dramatically. -Drug addiction and abuse grew to be national concerns, common among all social classes.
19th Century
-big-city police were still not respected by the public, -were largely unsuccessful in their role as crime stoppers, and -were involved in no progressive activities.
high-definition surveying (HDS)
-creates a virtual crime scene that allows investigators to maneuver every piece of evidence. -HDS technology allow the crime scene to be preserved exactly, but the perspective can be manipulated to provide additional clues. -HDS technology can also limit crime scene contamination. Investigators may inadvertently touch an object at a crime scene, leaving their fingerprints, or they may move or take evidence from the scene, perhaps by picking up fibers on their shoes. -HDS technology is a "stand-off " device, allowing investigators to approach the scene in stages by scanning from the outer perimeter and moving inward, reducing the chances of contamination.
County Law Enforcement Agencies
-enforce county ordinances and state laws within the county. Traditionally, they also handle unincorporated areas, the county jail, and civil processing.
1970s
-many structural changes in police agencies themselves. The end of the Vietnam War significantly reduced tensions between students and police. -relationship between police and minorities was still rocky
STATE LAW ENFORCEMENT & THE WAR ON TERROR The state's strategic plan for homeland security prioritizes the following:
1. PREVENT: Prevent terrorist attacks in Texas, and prevent criminal enterprises from operating successfully in Texas. 2. PROTECT. Reduce vulnerability to natural disasters, criminal and terrorist attacks, and catastrophic events. 3. MITIGATE. Minimize the impact of terrorist and criminal attacks. 4. RESPOND. Improve the state's ability to respond to attacks and minimize damage. 5. RECOVER. Promote rapid, effective, and comprehensive recovery programs.
body cameras
Advantages: ● increase transparency, thereby improving perceptions of police legitimacy. ● Body cameras create a "civilizing effect." That is, they alter both officer and suspect behavior. ● The cameras have evidentiary value. They are useful for expeditious resolution of citizen complaints. They can also yield evidence that is useful for criminal prosecution. ● Police training can benefit from footage of actual police-citizen encounter Disadvantages: ● Cameras create privacy concerns. Recordings of child victims and offenders, medical emergencies, confidential informants, and the like may create legal complications. ● Officer privacy is also an issue with cameras. A number of police unions were resistant to in-car cameras, and the same concerns have been expressed with the advent of body cameras. When, for example, can the camera be off? ● Any new technology requires policy changes and training modifications. ● Body cameras are expensive. And more than just the cost of the cameras, a number of logistical problems arise. For example, an enormous amount of video footage must be secured and stored.
1960s - Police and the Public
African Americans, who were battling for recognition and enforcement of their rights and freedoms in the civil rights movement, found themselves confronting police lines. When riots broke out in New York, Detroit, Los Angeles, and other cities between 1964 and 1968, the spark that ignited conflict often involved the police. When students across the nation began marching in demonstrations against the Vietnam War, local police departments were called on to keep order. Police forces were ill equipped and poorly trained to deal with these social problems
Police Unions
An organization legally authorized to represent police officers in collective bargaining with the employer. Police unions spread rapidly in the 1960s after officers were angry and alienated over Supreme Court rulings, criticisms by civil rights groups, poor salaries, and benefits.
Law enforcement duties are distributed across local, county, state, and federal jurisdictions.
Approximately 477,000 sworn law enforcement officers are employed in the United States in more than 12,000 local, county, and state agencies. The federal government employs another 120,000 full time law enforcement officials.
Biometrics
Automated methods of recognizing a person based on a physiological or behavioral characteristic. (fingerprints and facial recognition)
Key excerpts from the task force's report:
BUILDING TRUST AND LEGITIMACY: Law enforcement culture should embrace a guardian—rather than a warrior— mindset to build trust and legitimacy both within agencies and with the public. Toward that end, law enforcement agencies should adopt procedural justice as the guiding principle for internal and external policies and practices to guide their interactions with rank and file officers and with the citizens they serve. Law enforcement agencies should also establish a culture of transparency and accountability to build public trust and legitimacy. This is critical to ensuring decision making is understood and in accord with stated policy. POLICY AND OVERSIGHT: law enforcement agencies should have clear and comprehensive policies on the use of force (including training on the importance of de-escalation), mass demonstrations (including the appropriate use of equipment, particularly rifles and armored personnel carriers), consent before searches, gender identification, racial profiling, and performance measures—among others such as external and independent investigations and prosecutions of officer-involved shootings and other use of force situations and in-custody deaths. These policies should also include provisions for the collection of demographic data on all parties involved. All policies and aggregate data should be made publicly available to ensure transparency. TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL MEDIA: Implementing new technologies can give police departments an opportunity to fully engage and educate communities in a dialogue about their expectations for transparency, accountability, and privacy COMMUNITY POLICING AND CRIME REDUCTION: law enforcement agencies should develop and adopt policies and strategies that reinforce the importance of community engagement in managing public safety. Law enforcement agencies should also engage in multidisciplinary, community team approaches for planning, implementing, and responding to crisis situations with complex causal factors. TRAINING AND EDUCATION: To ensure the high quality and effectiveness of training and education, law enforcement agencies should engage community members, particularly those with special expertise, in the training process and provide leadership training to all personnel throughout their careers. OFFICER WELLNESS AND SAFETY: Law enforcement agencies should also promote wellness and safety at every level of the organization. For instance, every law enforcement officer should be provided with individual tactical first aid kits and training as well as anti-ballistic vests. In addition, law enforcement agencies should adopt policies that require officers to wear seat belts and bullet-proof vests and provide training to raise awareness of the consequences of failure to do so.
Bobbies
British police force whose primary goal was the prevention of crime. Named after Sir Robert Peel, who introduced the legislation that created the force. They wore a distinctive uniform and were led by two magistrates, who were later given the title of commissioner
Metropolitan Police Act established the first organized police force in London.
Composed of more than 1,000 men, the London police force was structured along military lines; its members were known from then on as "bobbies," after its creator.
Technology and Law Enforcement
Crime Mapping License Plate Recognition Technology Digitizing Criminal Identification Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems Digital Dental Records DNA Testing
private policing
Crime prevention, detection, and the apprehension of criminals carried out by private organizations or individuals for commercial purposes.
President's Task Force on 21st Century Policing
December 18, 2014, President Barack Obama signed an executive order establishing this -Task force members, who included law enforcement representatives, prominent academics, and community leaders, solicited input from a variety of stakeholders and members of the public in an effort to identity the most important priorities for modern policing. -It offered a number of recommendations in six specific areas: building trust and legitimacy, policy and oversight, technology and social media, community policing and crime reduction, training and education, and officer safety and wellness.
watch system
During the Middle Ages in England, men were organized in church parishes to guard at night against disturbances and breaches of the peace under the direction of the local constable.
Pledge System
Early English system in which neighbors protected each other from thieves and warring groups.
license plate recognition (LPR) technology
Employs cameras and computer software to discern the letters and numbers of vehicle license plates and then compares them with records contained in state and federal databases, including department of motor vehicles and NCIC records
The origin of U.S. police agencies can be traced to early ______________ society.
English
justice of the peace
Established in 1326 England, the office was created to help the shire reeve in controlling the county; it later took on judicial functions.
Process of recording biometric data occurs in four steps
FIRST, the raw biometric data are captured or recorded by a video camera or a fingerprint reading device. SECOND, the distinguishing characteristics of the raw data are used to create a biometric template. THIRD, the template is changed into a mathematical representation of the biometric sample and is stored in a database. FOURTH, a verification process will occur when an individual attempts to gain access to a restricted site.
Secret Service
Federal agency responsible for executive protection and for investigation of counterfeiting and various forms of financial fraud.
Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
Federal agency responsible for preventing terrorist attacks within the United States, reducing America's vulnerability to terrorism, and minimizing the damage and assisting in recovery from attacks that do occur.
Customs and Border Protection (CBP)
Federal agency responsible for the control and protection of America's borders and ports of entry. Its first priority is keeping terrorists and their weapons out of the United States.
US Marshals Service
Federal agency whose jurisdiction includes protecting federal officials, transporting criminal defendants, and tracking down fugitives.
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF)
Federal agency with jurisdiction over the illegal sale, importation, and criminal misuse of firearms and explosives and the distribution of untaxed liquor and cigarettes.
At first, the urban police departments inherited the functions of the institutions they replaced.
For example, Boston police were charged with maintaining public health until 1853, and, in New York, the police were responsible for street sweeping until 1881.
COUNTY LAW ENFORCEMENT AND THE WAR ON TERROR A number of counties are now engaging in anti-terror and homeland security activities.
For example, the Harris County, Texas, Office of Homeland Security and Emergency Management (OHSEM) is responsible for an emergency management plan that prepares for public recovery in the event of natural or man-made disasters, catastrophes, or attacks. It works in conjunction with the state, federal, and local authorities, including the city of Houston and other municipalities in the surrounding Harris County area, when required. Similarly, in Montgomery County, Maryland, the Homeland Security Department prevents, prepares for, and protects against major threats that may harm, disrupt, or destroy the community, its commerce, and institutions. Its mission is to effectively man- age and coordinate the county's unified response, mitigation, and recovery from the consequences of such disasters or events should they occur.
Vigilantes are...
Groups of citizens who tracked down wanted criminals in the Old West.
Who sought to clean up the thief-taking system
Henry Fielding (famed author of Tom Jones), along with Saunders Welch and his brother John Fielding
Hue and cry system
In medieval England, a call for assistance. The policy of self-help that prevailed in villages demanded that everyone respond if a citizen raised a hue and cry to get their aid. -cry out and everyone should come and help
tithings
In medieval England, a group of 10 families who collectively dealt with minor disturbances and breaches of the peace.
hundred
In medieval England, a group of 100 families responsible for maintaining order and trying minor offenses.
constable
In medieval England, an appointed official who administered and supervised the legal affairs of a small community.
Shire Reeve
In medieval England, the senior law enforcement figure in a county; the forerunner of today's sheriff.
Law enforcement in colonial America paralleled the British model
In the colonies, the county sheriff became the most important law enforcement agent. In addition to keeping the peace and fighting crime, sheriffs collected taxes, supervised elections, and handled a great deal of other legal business.
FBI
Its jurisdiction is limited, however, to federal laws, including all federal statutes not specifically assigned to other agencies. The FBI has approximately 35,000 employees, including almost 14,000 special agents and 21,000 support personnel who perform professional, administrative, technical, clerical, craft, trade, or maintenance operations.
METROPOLITAN LAW ENFORCEMENT AND THE WAR ON TERROR
Large metropolitan cities, such as New York City have a real threat of terrorism. Example: 9/11 attack on the Twin Towers. formation of its Counterterrorism Bureau.41 Teams within the bureau have been trained to examine potential targets in the city and insulate those targets from possible attack. The city's bridges, the Empire State Building, Rockefeller Center, and the United Nations are viewed as prime targets.
CORE FUNCTIONS OF MUNICIPAL POLICE
Law Enforcement Functions ● Identifying criminal suspects ● Investigating crimes ● Apprehending offenders and participating in their trials ● Deterring crime through patrol ● Enhancing public safety by maintaining a visible police presence Order Maintenance Functions ● Resolving conflict and keeping the peace ● Maintaining a sense of community security and public order (i.e., peacekeeping) within the patrol area ● Keeping vehicular and pedestrian movement efficient ● Promoting civil order Service Functions ● Aiding individuals in danger or in need of assistance ● Providing emergency medical services ● Providing public education and outreach ● Maintaining and administering police services ● Recruiting and training new police officers
Federal law enforcement agencies are housed solely within cabinet-level departments (such as the State Department).
MYTH. Law enforcement agencies exist throughout the federal government.
During the nineteenth century, the police were regarded as competent and professional.
MYTH. Policing in the 1800s was anything but professional. Competence often was lacking as well. It would not be until the 1900s that police departments began making major strides toward professionalism.
The core mission of the FBI is to enforce the criminal laws of the United States.
MYTH. Since 9/11, the FBI's priorities have changed. Now protection of the United States from terrorist attacks ranks near the top of its priority list. To what extent does the FBI's decision to give priority to protection from terrorism affect its ability to fight other types of crime? Has America's law enforcement apparatus overreacted to the threat of terrorism?
Rodney King Riots
March 3, 1991 - African-American motorist driver (Rodney King) stopped and then beaten by Los Angeles Police Department officers. -(4 white men, then acquitted) after the acquittal riots erupted. Multicultural Riots
Boston created the first formal US police department in 1838.
New York formed its police department in 1844, and Philadelphia followed in 1854.
PRIVATE AND PUBLIC POLICE COMPARED
Private policing is different from public policing. Private policing is largely "client-driven," meaning that it serves the needs of those who pay the bills. And while the public police are driven by a public mandate, their primary focus is enforcement of the criminal law. Private police, in contrast, may do almost anything on behalf of their clients, some of which may have little to do with the criminal law itself. Private police are directly employed by a client. In contrast, public police are indirectly employed by taxpayers.
The first modern police force was established in London.
REALITY. Although there were some signs of organized policing as early as the 1600s, the London Metropolitan Police, formed in 1829, is widely regarded as the first modern organized police force.
There are more private police than public police.
REALITY. Private police outnumber public police by almost three to one.
Most metropolitan law enforcement agencies employ fewer than 50 officers.
REALITY. The overwhelming majority of metropolitan law enforcement agencies employ fewer than 50 officers.
Local Police Departments
Recent data reveal that nearly three-quarters of all local police departments serve populations of fewer than 10,000 people. Around 650 such agencies employ just one sworn officer.
Police-community relations continued to be a major problem.
Riots and incidents of urban conflict occurred in some of the nation's largest cities.
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
The arm of the US Justice Department that investigates violations of federal law, seeks to protect America from terrorist attacks, gathers crime statistics, runs a comprehensive crime laboratory, and helps train local law enforcement officers.
sheriff
The chief law enforcement officer in a county.
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)
The federal agency that enforces federal drug control laws. DEA agents work with foreign governments in cooperative efforts aimed at destroying opium and marijuana crops at their source—hard-to-find fields tucked away in the interiors of Latin America, Asia, Europe, and Africa. Undercover DEA agents infiltrate drug rings and simulate buying narcotics to arrest drug dealers.
DNA profiling
The identification of criminal suspects by matching DNA samples taken from their person with specimens found at the crime scene.
First technological breakthroughs in police operations came in the area of communications.
The linking of precincts to central headquarters by telegraph began in the 1850s. In 1867, the first telegraph police boxes were installed; an officer could turn a key in a box, and his location and number would automatically register at headquarters.
Court bailiffs who also acted as thief takers were the most passionately detested legal profiteers.
They seized debtors and held them in small lockups, where they forced their victims to pay exorbitant prices for food and lodging.
1960s
Turmoil and crisis (police) Throughout this decade, the Supreme Court handed down a number of decisions designed to control police operations and procedures. Police officers were now required to follow strict legal guidelines when questioning suspects, conducting searches, and wiretapping, among other duties. As the civil rights of suspects were significantly expanded, police complained that they were being "handcuffed by the courts."
Today all law enforcement rely on computer technology
Two broad categories: hard technology and soft technology. HARD TECHNOLOGY includes new materials and equipment that police use to catch criminals and prevent crime. Body-worn cameras, featured in the accompanying Criminal Justice and Technology box fit this mold. SOFT TECHNOLOGY primarily consists of software and information systems. Innovations in this area include new crime classification techniques, system integration, and data sharing.
data mining
Using computer software to conduct analysis of behavior patterns in an effort to identify crime patterns and link them to suspects.
Rodney King case prompted _________
an era of reform
Counterterrorism Bureau
assigned more than 100 city police detectives to work with FBI agents as part of a Joint Terrorist Task Force. In addition, the Intelligence Division's 700 investigators devote 35 to 40 percent of their resources to counter-terrorism—up from about 2 percent before January 2002.
1990s
began on a sour note and ended with an air of optimism
The Modern Police Department
born out of urban mob violence that wracked the nation's cities in the nineteenth century.
Early police agencies were
corrupt, brutal, and inefficient.
Texas Rangers
created in 1835, was one of the first state police agencies formed. Essentially a military outfit that patrolled the Mexican border, it was followed by the Massachusetts State Constables in 1865 and the Arizona Rangers in 1901. The states of Connecticut (1903) and Pennsylvania (1905) formed the first truly modern state police agencies.
State Police
created to deal with the growing incidence of crime in non-urban areas, a consequence of the increase in population mobility and the advent of personalized mass transportation in the form of the automobile.
police administrative boards
created to reduce local officials' control over the police
Enclosed Space Detection System (ESDS)
developed for police to ascertain whether one or more persons are hidden in a vehicle.
Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA)
federal agency that provided technical assistance and hundreds of millions of dollars in aid to state and local justice agencies between 1969 and 1982 Perhaps most significant, the LEAA's Law Enforcement Education Program helped thousands of officers further their college education. -Hundreds of criminal justice programs were developed on college campuses around the country, providing a pool of highly educated police recruits. -LEAA funds were also used to transfer technology originally developed in other fields into law enforcement. -Technological innovations involving computers transformed the way police kept records, investigated crimes, and communicated with one another. -State training academies improved the way police learned to deal with such issues as job stress, community conflict, and interpersonal relations. -More women and minorities were recruited into police work as well. -Affirmative action programs helped to slowly alter the ethnic, racial, and gender composition of US policing.
International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP)
formed in 1893, a professional society called for creating a civil service police force and for removing political influence and control.
Boston Police Strike of 1919
heightened interest in police reform. the Police Force in Boston, MA went on a strike, and in fear of communism, President Coolidge (then governor at the time) fired them and called in the militia to be the police force
Crime mapping focuses on
hot spots where crime occurs
control of police departments by local politicians
impeded effective law enforcement and fostered an atmosphere of graft and corruption.
Western Territories
individual initiative was encouraged by the practice of offering rewards for the capture of felons.
Police are the gatekeepers of the criminal justice process.
initiate contact with violators of the law and decide whether to arrest them formally and start their journey through the criminal justice system, to settle the issue in an informal way (such as by issuing a warning), or to take no action at all.
Police uniform
introduced in 1853 in New York.
In the late nineteenth century, police work was highly desirable because
it paid more than most other blue-collar jobs. By 1880, the average factory worker earned $450 a year, whereas a metropolitan police officer made $900 annually.
Municipal police officers' responsibilities
often forced to make split-second decisions on life-and-death matters. At the same time, they must be sensitive to the needs of citizens who are of- ten of diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds.
During Vollmer's tenure, all of the following occurred
police professionalism was equated with an incorruptible, tough, highly trained, rule-oriented department organized along militaristic lines
1980s
police role seemed to be changing significantly. -police to develop a greater awareness of community issues, which resulted in the emergence of the community policing concept.
a multibillion-dollar industry with well in excess of 10,000 firms and more than 2 million employees.
private policing
August Vollmers' goal was to...
professionalize police
Eighteenth Century
rising crime rates encouraged a new form of private, paid police, who profited both legally and criminally from the lack of formal police departments.
New police departments replaced
the night watch system and relegated constables and sheriffs to serving court orders and running jails
private police agents, referred to as "thief takers,"
were universally corrupt, taking profits not only from catching and informing on criminals but also from receiving stolen property, theft, intimidation, perjury, and blackmail.
Ferguson, MO
what city recently exploded into protests, riots, and destruction after a grand jury chose not to indict police officer who shot an unarmed black teen
The average officer had little training, no education in the law, and a minimum of supervision,
yet the police became virtual judges of law and fact with the ability to exercise unlimited discretion.
REASONS FOR PRIVATE POLICING Private policing is so popular for the following 3 reasons:
● A preference for nongovernmental provision of important services, particularly crime control. Many people feel the private sector can do a more effective job than traditional government-led policing. ● The growth of mass private property, particularly large shopping malls and other properties, that attract large numbers of consumers and have little other police protection. ● A belief that government police are not capable of providing the level of service and presence that the public desires.
Four additional factors distinguish private police from public police:
● FOCUS ON LOSS INSTEAD OF CRIME: Much of private policing is concerned with loss prevention. Loss prevention includes most notably protection from theft. Major retailers employ loss prevention specialists (see accompanying Careers in Criminal Justice box) to protect their goods from being stolen. However, goods may also be "lost" through error, unethical practices, accidents, and so on. Such behaviors do not fall within the scope of the criminal law that the public police are tasked with enforcing. The focus on loss also removes private police from the moral dimension of the criminal law. Instead of focusing on what is right and wrong, private police are concerned solely with what their clients view as priorities. As Elizabeth Joh notes, "When sanctions are imposed, there may be little or no emphasis on condemning the individual wrongdoer and 'making an example' out of him or her. A bank may require an embezzler to sign a loan guarantee to pay back stolen funds, for example, rather than choose public prosecution." ● PREVENTIVE METHODS. Private police are concerned almost solely with prevention. Public police also work to prevent crime, but the usual public policing method of addressing crime is reactionary; of necessity, the police usually wait for calls for service before responding. Surveillance is paramount in the private policing context, whereas public policing relies more heavily on detection of criminal acts and apprehension of suspects. Surveillance includes the use of obvious technologies such as closed-circuit television and security cameras, but private police also employ other "embedded" techniques to guard against loss and ensure compliance with expected norms of behavior. Clifford Shearing and Philip Stenning cite the example of Disneyland. Every employee—and indeed, every feature, whether it be the costumed characters or the guardrails and ropes promoting a smooth flow of patrons—is there to entertain but also subtly enforce compliance with what Disney considers appropriate behavior. People who do not comply face expulsion. ● PRIVATE JUSTICE. Not surprisingly, private policing often employs private justice. For example, a "card counter" may be permanently banned from a casino. Another example is termination for an employee who steals from his or her employer. Private companies often have an incentive to keep matters involving loss shielded from the public eye. High-profile incidents can result in negative publicity, which can in turn affect the bottom line. Similarly, cooperation with the police in an investigation takes time away from business activity, possibly eroding profits further. Interestingly, one study found that the Macy's department store in New York City reported just over half of shoplifting incidents to the police, which again underscores the reality that private companies' priorities are often different than those of the public police. ● PRIVATE PROPERTY. The public police focus their efforts on both public and private property. Whether it be burglary from a residence, assault at a bar, or vandalism on a highway overpass, the public police make few distinctions between the types of property where the crimes occur. Private property is of course protected, such as by the US Constitution's Fourth Amendment, but the point is that public police are able to enforce and focus on crime regardless of where it occurs. In contrast, private police are concerned almost exclusively with private property.
The following are some of the most notable achievements of police departments in the 1990s:
● The intellectual caliber of the police rose dramatically. ● Police began to use advanced management techniques and applied empirical data to their decision making. ● Standards of police conduct climbed. Despite well-publicized incidents of brutality, police tended to treat the public more fairly, more equitably, and more civilly than they did in the 1960s. ● Police became more diverse in race and gender. ● The work of the police became intellectually more demanding, requiring an array of new specialized knowledge about technology, forensic analysis, and crime. ● Police gradually accepted civilian review of police discipline.
