POLS Final

5. Which of the following hypothetical survey questions would most likely suffer from poor measurement as a result of a lack of conceptual clarity? (a) "What is your gender?" (b) "What is your income?" (c) "What is your age?" (d) "In what state do you currently reside?"

(b) "What is your income?"

6. If a mean age of a sample of 100 randomly chosen individuals is 48 and the standard deviation is 16, what is the standard error of the mean? (a) 3 (b) 1.6 (c) 4.8 (d) .16

(b) 1.6

5. What is the median? [MIDDLE] (a) 23. (b) 28. (c) 19. (d) None of the above.

(b) 28.

6. What is the mean?{AVERAGE] (a) 23. (b) 28. (c) 19. (d) None of the above.

(b) 28.

4. What is the mode?[MOST} (a) 23. (b) 28. (c) 19. (d) None of the above.

(a) 23.

1. Which of the following accurately describes a p-value? (a) A p-value cannot equal zero. (b) If p=.95 then there is a .05 probability that the tested relationship is causal. (c) Both (a) and (b) are correct. (d) Neither (a) nor (b) are correct.

(a) A p-value cannot equal zero.

In which of the following theoretical statements is it not at all likely that reverse causality would be problematic? (a) A person's gender causes them to hold particular attitudes about abortion. (b) A country's level of economic development causes it to be more or less democratic. (c) Variations in consumer confidence cause a president's approval rating to change. (d) Ethnic conflict causes civil wars.

(a) A person's gender causes them to hold particular attitudes about abortion.

5. Which of the following is not true about a sampling distribution? (a) A sampling distribution represents a hypothetical distribution, showing what the true population distribution would look like if our sample size were infinitely large. (b) A sampling distribution for a variable is normally distributed even if the underlying population is not distributed normally for that variable .(c) Sampling distributions are almost never observed in real life. (d) The mean of a sampling distribution is equal to the true population mean.

(a) A sampling distribution represents a hypothetical distribution, showing what the true population distribution would look like if our sample size were infinitely large.

6. In the text, why did the authors argue that it is difficult to study whether or not participation in Head Start (X) affect educational outcomes (Y )? (a) Because students in Head Start programs are likely to be systematically different from students who do not participate. (b) Because there is no credible causal mechanism present; empirical conclusions have to wait for further theoretical developments. (c) Because Head Start programs have not been in existence long enough to see their long-term costs and benefits. (d) Because Head Start programs have only been enacted in a relatively few locations, making their conclusions geographically and culturally limited

(a) Because students in Head Start programs are likely to be systematically different from students who do not participate.

22. Which of the following is not a correct interpretation of the results in Table 2 :(a) Because the sample size is only 72 cases, you can not achieve statistical significance. (b) The estimated intercept changes across each of these models because the model specification has changed. (c) Without knowing the measurement metrics of X, Y, and Z, we can not offer a substantive interpretation of the results in the table. (d) The increase in R2 from model B to model C is due to the inclusion of X.

(a) Because the sample size is only 72 cases, you can not achieve statistical significance.

8. Terry wants to test his hypothesis that age is related to the dollar value of campaign contributions. Which of the following would be an appropriate hypothesis test? (a) Correlation coefficient. (b) Tabular analysis. (c) Difference of means. (d) This is an impossible hypothesis to test since you can't randomly assign values of the independent variable to subjects.

(a) Correlation coefficient.

10. Which of the following statements are accurate? (a) E(ui) = 0. (b) =0. (c) Both (a) and (b) are correct. (d) Neither (a) nor (b) are correct.

(a) E(ui) = 0.

10. Which of the following best captures the difference between experimental and observational research designs? (a) Experimental designs control for confounding variables through randomly assigning participants to different treatment groups, while observational designs accomplish this through statistical controls. (b) Experimental designs are less prone than observational designs to bias caused bya researcher unintentionally influencing the behaviors of participants. (c) Reverse causality is more likely to be problematic in experimental designs. (d) Experimental designs are more likely to have problems with internal validity because of how they recruit participants, whereas observational designs do not sufferfrom this difficulty as often.

(a) Experimental designs control for confounding variables through randomly assigning participants to different treatment groups, while observational designs accomplish this through statistical controls.

Which of the following is not an accurate statement about hypotheses according to Chapter 1 of Kellstedt & Whitten? (a) For each causal theory there can be only one hypothesis. (b) A hypothesis must contain an independent variable and a dependent variable. (c) A hypothesis must contain the expected relationship between the involved variables. (d) Statements a, b, and c are all accurate.

(a) For each causal theory there can be only one hypothesis.

11. Taylor randomly draws 10 beans from a giant bag of beans. If 4 of those 10 beans are blue, which of the following tells us what Laron can infer about all of the beans in the bag? (a) Her best guess is that 40% of the beans are blue. (b) She is 95% certain that 40% of the beans are blue. (c) She would need to draw a much larger sample before making any guesses about the distribution of blue beans in the bag. (d) None of the above.

(a) Her best guess is that 40% of the beans are blue.

14. Which of the following statements are accurate?(a) It is highly unlikely that we would see the relationship that we are seeing between the independent variable and the dependent variable in this model due to random chance. (b) This model explains about 90% of the variation in "Blair Feelings." (c) Both (a) and (b) are correct .(d) Neither (a) nor (b) are correct.

(a) It is highly unlikely that we would see the relationship that we are seeing between the independent variable and the dependent variable in this model due to random chance.

1. Which of the following accurately describes a difference of means test? (a) This is a test that is used when we want to test whether the value of a continuous dependent variable is different across values of a categorical independent variable. (b) This is a test that is used when we want to test whether the value of a categorical dependent variable is different across values of a continuous independent variable. (c) This is a test that is used when we have two different continuous variables and we want to see if they have the same mean. (d) None of the above.

(a) This is a test that is used when we want to test whether the value of a continuous dependent variable is different across values of a categorical independent variable.

9. What is the most important purpose of a research design? (a) To most effectively control for as many confounding variables as possible, thus leaving the relationship between X and Y unpolluted by outside influences. (b) To be sure that the sample chosen faithfully represents the underlying population. (c) To review the existing literature on a topic in as thorough a manner as possible so that the researcher can be certain that his or her proposed work has not already been done by another scholar. (d) To prove with mathematical logic that X causes Y .

(a) To most effectively control for as many confounding variables as possible, thus leaving the relationship between X and Y unpolluted by outside influences.

4. True or False: A measure must be both valid and reliable to be useful in hypothesis testing. (a) True. (b) False, only reliability is essential for conducting hypothesis tests. (c) False, only validity is essential for conducting hypothesis tests. (d) False, a measure must be either valid or reliable, but it need not be both.

(a) True.

8. The process of statistical inference is defined as:(a) Trying to learn about a characteristic about a broader population based on observations of only a sample from that population. (b) Validating that the observed sample is indeed representative of the population asa whole. (c) Admitting that the researcher has not collected enough data to draw a conclusion. (d) Collecting data from the entire population of cases

(a) Trying to learn about a characteristic about a broader population based on observations of only a sample from that population.

9. Which of the following best fits the definition of independent outcomes? (a) Two outcomes are independent if the realization of one of the outcomes does not affect the realization of the other outcomes. (b) Two outcomes are independent if they are both causally related to the same dependent outcome.(c) Two outcomes are independent if their probabilities sum to one. (d) None of the above.

(a) Two outcomes are independent if the realization of one of the outcomes does not affect the realization of the other outcomes.

6. Even if the estimated relationship between independent variable X and dependent variable Y is very strong and statistically significant, we should not conclude that there is a causal relationship under which of the following circumstances? (a) We find out that the sample was picked from the population using the values of Y. (b) There is no other variable Z which might be causally related to Y. (c) Both (a) and (b) are correct. (d) Neither (a) nor (b) are correct.

(a) We find out that the sample was picked from the population using the values of Y.

According to Chapter 2 of Kellstedt and Whitten, in dissecting the research by other scholars, which of the following is not an important question to answer? (a) What (if any) other causes of the independent variable did the previous researchers miss? (b) How might this theory work at different levels of aggregation? (c) If we believe their findings, are there further implications? (d) Can their theory be applied elsewhere?

(a) What (if any) other causes of the independent variable did the previous researchers miss?

8. According to the text, among the following imperfect measures, which one is nevertheless potentially useful for purposes of hypothesis testing? (a) A reliable but invalid measure. (b) A biased but reliable measure. (c) An invalid but reliable measure. (d) None of the above.

(b) A biased but reliable measure.

2. Which of the following is not true about the problem of measurement? (a) Measurement in the social sciences is often complicated because human beings are often complicated. (b) All social sciences suffer equally from the problem of measurement. (c) Some important concepts in the social sciences are impossible to observe directly. (d) In the physical sciences, the problem of measurement is often reduced to a problem of instrumentation.

(b) All social sciences suffer equally from the problem of measurement.

3. Which of the following is not true about normal distributions? (a) It is the basis of statistical inference. (b) As the name implies, they are quite common in everyday experience .(c) Approximately 68% of the area under the curve lies within one standard deviation of its mean. (d) It is symmetrical about its mean.

(b) As the name implies, they are quite common in everyday experience.

1. Which of the following accurately describes a categorical variable? (a) A one-unit increase in the variable value always means the same thing. (b) Different values mean different things. (c) The categories are ordered from least to greatest. (d) Both b and c are accurate.

(b) Different values mean different things.

13. Which of the following statements are accurate?(a) For every one-unit increase in "Blair Feelings", we can expect to see a 0.31 increase in "Iraq War Success Scale." (b) For every one-unit increase in "Iraq War Success Scale", we can expect to see a 0.31 increase in "Blair Feelings." (c) If the variable "Blair Feelings" is zero, it is highly likely that the variable "IraqWar Success Scale" will also be equal to zero. (d) None of the above.

(b) For every one-unit increase in "Iraq War Success Scale", we can expect to see a 0.31 increase in "Blair Feelings."

1. Which of the following accurately describes the relationship between a covariance and a correlation coefficient for the same two variables? (a) If the covariance between two variables is positive, the correlation coefficient between the same two variables will always be negative. (b) If the covariance between two variables is positive, the correlation coefficient between the same two variables will also be positive. (c) Regardless of the covariance between two variables, the correlation coefficient will always be positive. (d) None of the above.

(b) If the covariance between two variables is positive, the correlation coefficient between the same two variables will also be positive.

How did the calculus of voting theory help us to understand whether or not an individual decides to vote? (a) It showed that every person's vote counts. (b) It helped focus our attention on the specific motivations for voting. (c) It showed that turning out to vote is not rational. (d) None of the above.

(b) It helped focus our attention on the specific motivations for voting.

4. Judging from this table, what is the relationship between Iraq War approval and votein the 2005 U.K. parliamentary elections? (a) There does not appear to be any relationship whatsoever between these two variables. (b) It would appear that people who approved of Britain's involvement in Iraq were more likely to vote for Labour than those who did not approve of Britain's involvement in Iraq. (c) It would appear that people who do not approve of Britain's involvement in Iraq were more likely to vote for Labour than those who did not approve of Britain's involvement in Iraq .(d) There may be a relationship between these two variables, but from the way that this table has been set up it is impossible to figure out what is going on.

(b) It would appear that people who approved of Britain's involvement in Iraq were more likely to vote for Labour than those who did not approve of Britain's involvement in Iraq.

1. In Ch.5, what do Kellstedt and Whitten recommend that beginning researchers do before attempting to collect their own data? (a) Learn how to use a spreadsheet program. (b) See what data are already available for use. (c) Figure out what the rules are for collecting data at your school. (d) All of the above.

(b) See what data are already available for use.

7. Suppose Rhianna wants to test the hypothesis that gender is related to vote choice in Germany. Which of the following would be an appropriate bivariate hypothesis test? (a) Correlation coefficient. (b) Tabular analysis. (c) Difference of means. (d) This is an impossible hypothesis to test since you can't randomly assign values of the independent variable to subjects.

(b) Tabular analysis.

3. Sana looks at a scatter plot of data and sees that higher values of her dependent variable tend to occur when her independent variable is smaller and that lower values of her dependent variable tend to occur when her independent variable is larger. Which ofthe following would be a reasonable conclusion for Sana to draw? (a) That her independent and dependent variable are positively correlated. (b) That her independent and dependent variable are negatively correlated. (c) That there is a causal relationship between her independent and dependent variable. (d) That Vera has mixed up her independent and dependent variables.

(b) That her independent and dependent variable are negatively correlated.

What does it mean when we say that a variable has been "operationalized?" (a) That the variable has been turned into an independent variable in a theory. (b) That the variable has been measured. (c) That the variable has been named. (d) None of the above.

(b) That the variable has been measured.

18. Thomas thinks that X is positively related to Y and runs a regression model. Which of the following is true? (a) Thomas should conduct a two-tailed hypothesis test. (b) Thomas has a directional hypothesis test. (c) Both (a) and (b) are correct. (d) Neither (a) nor (b) are correct.

(b) Thomas has a directional hypothesis test.

21. Which of the following is not a correct interpretation of the results in Table 2: (a) The regression models account for roughly one-quarter to one-third of the variance in Y . (b) We can conclude with at least 95% confidence, based on the results in column C, that X causes Y. (c) Whereas it appeared, based on the bivariate results, that Z was related to Y, controlling for X made the relationship statistically indistinguishable from zero. (d) The relationship between X and Y remains almost unchanged between the bivariate and multiple regressions.

(b) We can conclude with at least 95% confidence, based on the results in column C, that X causes Y.

2. If, for a sample in which the subjects are randomly chosen, the mean income is $45,000, the sample size is 1600, the standard deviation is $4,000, and the standard error of the mean is $10, what, approximately, is the 95% confidence interval for the population mean? (a) $41,000 to $49,000. (b) $37,000 to $53,000. (c) $44,800 to $45,200. (d) It is impossible to know, because we do not know if the incomes are normally distributed.

(c) $44,800 to $45,200.

12. In this example, if an individual has judged that Iraq war is a complete failure, meaning that they have a value of 0 for the independent variable, what would be their expected value for "Blair Feelings?" (a) 0 (b) 5 (c) 4.7 (d) 0.31

(c) 4.7

7. Which of the following are useful for describing the values of a categorical variable? (a) Rank statistics. (b) A kernel density plot. (c) A bar graph. (d) None of the above.

(c) A bar graph.

. What is a confounding variable? (a) A variable that defies explanation. (b) A variable that, as far as the researcher can tell, is randomly generated. (c) A variable that changes the relationship between two other variables. (d) A variable that is exceedingly difficult to measure.

(c) A variable that changes the relationship between two other variables.

4. Which of the following is true about the comparison between two randomly chosen samples, one with 1000 respondents, the other with 2000 respondents? (a) Other things being equal, the larger sample will have a standard error one-halfthe size of the smaller sample. (b) Other things being equal, the larger sample will have wider confidence intervals than the smaller sample. (c) Adding still another 1000 respondents, to make the sample size 3000, would further shrink the standard error of the mean, but by a smaller amount than the difference between 1000 and 2000 respondents. (d) So long as both samples are randomly chosen, there is no meaningful difference between them.

(c) Adding still another 1000 respondents, to make the sample size 3000, would further shrink the standard error of the mean, but by a smaller amount than the difference between 1000 and 2000 respondents.

15. Which of the following statements are accurate?(a) With these results, if we know the value of "Iraq War Success Scale" then we will be able to predict the value of "Blair Feelings." Our predictions will on averagebe off by 2.4. (b) Even if an individual feels very negatively about how the Iraq war is going, they are quite unlikely to have the worst possible judgment about Tony Blair's competence. (c) Both (a) and (b) are correct .(d) Neither (a) nor (b) are correct.

(c) Both (a) and (b) are correct

8. Which of the following statements are accurate about the population regression model? (a) ui is the stochastic component of Yi. (b) is the systematic component of Yi. (c) Both (a) and (b) are correct .(d) Neither (a) nor (b) are correct.

(c) Both (a) and (b) are correct

9. Which of the following statements are accurate? (a) is an estimate of ui. (b) Xi is assumed to be measured without error. (c) Both (a) and (b) are correct .(d) Neither (a) nor (b) are correct.

(c) Both (a) and (b) are correct

16. Which of the following is true about the root mean-squared error statistic? (a) This statistic is provides a measure of the average accuracy of the model in the metric of the dependent variable .(b) This statistic is sometimes referred to as the standard error of the regression model. (c) Both (a) and (b) are correct. (d) Neither (a) nor (b) are correct.

(c) Both (a) and (b) are correct.

2. Which of the following accurately describes a p-value? (a) A p=.01 means that there is a 1% chance that we would see the measured relationship due to random chance (b) For the same measured relationship, a larger sample size will lead to a smaller p-value. (c) Both (a) and (b) are correct. (d) Neither (a) nor (b) are correct.

(c) Both (a) and (b) are correct.

3. Which of the following accurately describes a continuous variable? (a) A one-unit increase in the variable value always means the same thing. (b) Different values mean different things. (c) Both a and b are accurate. (d) Neither a nor b is accurate.

(c) Both a and b are accurate.

Identify which one of the "Rules of the Road to Scientific Knowledge" has been violated. A researcher writing about the effects of military spending on public support for incumbent politicians writes "Since it is obvious that military spending hurts the economy and we have evidence that poor economic performance leads to lower incumbent support among voters, I conclude that military spending must hurt incumbent support." (a) Avoid normative statements. (b) Make your theories causal. (c) Consider only empirical evidence. (d) None of the above.

(c) Consider only empirical evidence.

6. If a measure of a concept is correlated with a measure of another concept in a way that a theory predicts, then the measure of the first concept is said to possess which of the following characteristics? (a) Face validity. (b) Content validity. (c) Construct validity. (d) Both (b)and (c).

(c) Construct validity.

17. Which of the following is not true about the R-squared statistic? (a) The R-squared statistic ranges between zero and one .(b) The R-squared statistic is a measure of the overall goodness of fit of the model. (c) The R-squared statistic tells us how likely it is that there is a causal relationship between X and Y. (d) The R-squared statistic indicates the proportion of the variation in the dependent variable that is accounted for by the model.

(c) The R-squared statistic tells us how likely it is that there is a causal relationship between X and Y.

9. Which of the following is a potential weakness of the Polity IV measure of democracy, as described in the text? (a) The data are not collected over an extensive period of time, making it impossible to tell if a country is becoming more or less democratic over time. (b) The researchers were not transparent in their definition of the components of democracy, making it impossible to tell what makes a country more or less democratic. (c) The concept includes both "contestation" and "participation," but the measure includes only indicators of "contestation," making it incomplete. (d) The measure appears to be biased against right-leaning governments because it only includes indicators of social liberties and no indicators of economic liberties.

(c) The concept includes both "contestation" and "participation," but the measure includes only indicators of "contestation," making it incomplete.

According to Chapter 2 of Kellstedt and Whitten, which of the following best characterizes the route to formulating a new project of the type "An existing Y and a New X"? (a) The development of a new independent variable. (b) The development of a theory about an independent variable its relationship to a new dependent variable. (c) The development of a theory about a new independent variable its relationship to a dependent variable. (d) None of the above.

(c) The development of a theory about a new independent variable its relationship to a dependent variable.

11. A competent researcher would be least likely to study which of the following using an experimental research design? (a) The influence of negative media coverage on Iraq War opinions. (b) The influence of emotional rhetoric on candidate evaluations. (c) The influence of personal ideology on candidate evaluations. (d) The influence of peer-group discussions on Iraq War opinions.

(c) The influence of personal ideology on candidate evaluations.

7. Which of the following is likely to be true if a researcher used a survey respondent's income (in dollars) in order to measure their political ideology? (a) The measure would likely be valid but unreliable. (b) The measure would likely be both invalid and unreliable. (c) The measure would likely be reliable but invalid. (d) None of the above is true; there would likely not be any serious problem with such a measure.

(c) The measure would likely be reliable but invalid.

If a researcher finds results in the direction expected by his or her hypothesis, which of the following describes what has happened? (a) Their theory has been proven to be true.(b) Their theory would stand up in a court of law. (c) Their theory has been supported. (d) None of the above.

(c) Their theory has been supported.

7. Suppose a reputable pollster reports that, on the basis of a random sample of American adults, the President's approval rating is 50%, and that the margin of error is plus or minus 4%. What is the correct interpretation of this reported result? (a) Roughly half of the people who were invited to participate in the survey agreed to do so. (b) The true level of approval in the population is equal to 50%, with only a 4% chance that it is equal to something other than 50%. (c) We can be approximately 95% confident that the true level of approval in the population as a whole is somewhere between 46% and 54%. (d) We have not been given enough information to draw any solid interpretation of these facts.

(c) We can be approximately 95% confident that the true level of approval in the population as a whole is somewhere between 46% and 54%.

10. According to K&W, why is probability theory relevant for scientific investigations? (a) The rules of probability tell us how we can generalize from our sample to the broader population. (b) The rules of probability are key to identifying which relationships are statistically significant. (c) The rules of probability theory decide whether the patterns of relationships we observe in a sample could have occurred simply by chance. (d) All of the above.

(d) All of the above.

10. In statistical hypothesis testing, which of the following accurately describes the role of the critical value? (a) If the calculated value is greater than the critical value, we can conclude thatthere is a relationship between the two variables. (b) The critical value for a particular hypothesis test depends on the number of degrees of freedom. (c) If the calculated value is less than the critical value, we can not reject the null hypothesis. (d) All of the above.

(d) All of the above.

4. In statistical hypothesis testing, which of the following accurately describes the role of the critical value? (a) If the calculated value is greater than the critical value, we can conclude thatthere is a relationship between the two variables. (b) The critical value for a particular hypothesis test depends on the number of degrees of freedom. (c) If the calculated value is less than the critical value, we can not reject the null hypothesis. (d) All of the above.

(d) All of the above.

Abigail volunteers to help Congressman Bob's campaign. Along the way she notices that Congressman Bob, a Republican, is much more popular in the wealthier parts of his district. Which strategy should she use to turn what she has observed into a theory about politics? (a) Try to move from the specific to the more general. (b) Try to drop the proper nouns. (c) Examine previous research. (d) All of the above.

(d) All of the above.

When we read research conducted by others, which of the following questions are helpful to ask in order to develop original theories? (a) Can their theory be applied elsewhere?(b) How might this theory work at different levels of aggregation? (c) If we believe their findings, are there further implications? (d) All of the above.

(d) All of the above.

Why is it so critical for researchers to try to control for confounding variables? (a) Because the failure to do so is a serious ethical violation.(b) Because the failure to do so will make the relationship between X and Y appear weaker than it truly is. (c) Because the failure to do so will prove the theory to be wrong. (d) Because the failure to do so might lead to the wrong conclusion about the real relationship between X and Y .

(d) Because the failure to do so might lead to the wrong conclusion about the real relationship between X and Y .

3. According to Ch.5 of the text, why is conceptual clarity an important first step in the measurement process? (a) Because it assures us that the statistical findings will apply to the broadest possible population instead of just the sample of data that we observe. (b) Because it is critical in helping us find representative sources of data that we can use to measure the concept. (c) Because it decreases the influence of random factors that can bias our measures. (d) Because, without clear definitions of the concepts we intend to measure, it is impossible to know whether the measures accurately capture what we intend to measure.

(d) Because, without clear definitions of the concepts we intend to measure, it is impossible to know whether the measures accurately capture what we intend to measure.

13. Suppose that a researcher finds that nations that have higher amounts of trade between them are less likely to go to war with one another. What should be your major concernwith this finding? (a) Because the researcher could not randomly assign levels of trade, this relationship cannot possibly be causal.(b) Did the researcher control for other possible causes of war? (c) Did the researcher control for other possible causes of trade? (d) Both (b) and (c).

(d) Both (b) and (c).

2. Which of the following accurately describes an ordinal variable? (a) A one unit increase in the variable value always means the same thing. (b) Different values mean different things. (c) The categories are ordered from least to greatest. (d) Both b and c are accurate.

(d) Both b and c are accurate.

5. Which of the following statements is most accurate regarding whether X and Y are correlated? (a) Correlation does not prove causality; but without evidence of a correlation between X and Y , it is impossible for there to be a causal connection. (b) Because most interesting phenomena have only one main cause, the study of bivariate correlations is extremely important. (c) Before studying whether X and Y are correlated, it is critical to understand whether X causes Y or whether Y causes X. (d) Correlation does not prove causality; but it is normally an important piece of evidence in establishing causal connections.

(d) Correlation does not prove causality; but it is normally an important piece of evidence in establishing causal connections.

12. What is the most significant benefit of randomly assigning participants to different treatment groups? (a) It ensures that the sample is an accurate representation of the population at large. (b) It ensures that you have a credible causal mechanism linking X to Y . (c) Both (a) and (b). (d) It controls for other possible causes of the dependent variable.

(d) It controls for other possible causes of the dependent variable.

3. Establishing that there is a credible causal mechanism that links X to Y involves which of the following? (a) It reduces the influence of any confounding variables. (b) It forces the researcher to carefully review the existing literature on the subject matter. (c) It eliminates the possibility that Y might cause X.(d) It forces the researcher to consider exactly how and why X might affect Y .

(d) It forces the researcher to consider exactly how and why X might affect Y .

3. A relationship between two variables is described as "statistically significant" under which of the following circumstances? (a) When there is a sufficiently high p-value. (b) When there is a credible causal claim about the relationship between the two variables. (c) Both (a) and (b) are correct. (d) Neither (a) nor (b) are correct.

(d) Neither (a) nor (b) are correct.

Which of the following statements accurately describes theories? (a) Theories are attempts to explain what causes what. (b) Theories are attempts to explain variation in a dependent variable. (c) Both a and b are accurate. (d) Neither a nor b is accurate

(d) Neither a nor b is accurate

5. The value of a chi-squared statistic calculated for this table is 37.89 with a corresponding p-value below .001. Based on this information, what can we say about therelationship between these two variables? (a) It is highly likely that this relationship would occur due to random chance. (b) It is highly likely that there is a causal relationship between these two variables. (c) It is highly unlikely that there is a causal relationship between these two variables. (d) None of the above.

(d) None of the above.

9. Andrew wants to test his hypothesis that presidential popularity is related to the rate of bill passage, controlling for the partisan control of the US Senate. Which of the followingwould be the appropriate hypothesis test? (a) Correlation coefficient. (b) Tabular analysis. (c) Difference of means. (d) None of the above.

(d) None of the above.

1. What is the key insight of the Central Limit Theorem? (a) Regardless of the shape of a frequency distribution, as the sample size gets largerand larger, that distribution will more closely resemble a normal distribution,and, when a sample hypothetically becomes infinitely large, it is guaranteed to be normally distributed. (b) For variables that are normally distributed, it is possible to use even a smallsample to make inferences about the population. (c) For random samples, but only for random samples, the process of statistical inference does not depend on sample size. (d) Regardless of the shape of a frequency distribution of a randomly chosen sample,a hypothetical distribution of an infinite number of sample means will be normally distributed, with a knowable variance.

(d) Regardless of the shape of a frequency distribution of a randomly chosen sample,a hypothetical distribution of an infinite number of sample means will be normally distributed, with a knowable variance.

19. What is the proper interpretation of 𝛽𝛽̂2 in the following regression equation: (a) The estimated effect of X on Y . (b) The estimated effect of X on Y while controlling for the effects of Z. (c) The estimated effect of Z on Y . (d) The estimated effect of Z on Y while controlling for the effects of X.

(d) The estimated effect of Z on Y while controlling for the effects of X.

10. What is operationalization? (a) The specific plans by which a research design is put into action and data are collected. (b) The specific causal mechanism that is derived from a theory. (c) The specific statistics that are used to measure the relationship between two variables. (d) The specific ways in which a theoretical concept is measured using real-world observations.

(d) The specific ways in which a theoretical concept is measured using real-world observations.

11. Which of the statements are accurate? (a) By specifying a bivariate regression model we are assuming that the impact of a one unit increase in Xi will always be . (b) By specifying a bivariate regression model we are assuming that there are no other variables that cause Yi .(c) Both (a) and (b) are correct.(d) Neither (a) nor (b) are correct.

.(c) Both (a) and (b) are correct.(d) Neither (a) nor

2. Which of the following accurately describe correlation coefficients? (a) For the same correlation coefficient value, a larger number of cases will lead to a lower p-value.(b) For the same correlation coefficient value, a larger number of cases will lead to a higher t-statistic. (c) For the same number of cases, the further the correlation coefficient value is from zero, the lower the p-value .(d) All of the above.

.(d) All of the above.

20. What is the relationship between statistical significance and substantive significance, as discussed in Chapter 10 of the text? (a) Statistical significance is more scientifically worthwhile than substantive significance. (b) Statistical significance and substantive significance are nearly synonymous; it is almost impossible to have a statistically significant relationship that is not also substantively significant. (c) Because of the effects of sample size on statistical significance, there is no logical connection between statistical significance and substantive significance (d) None of the above is true.

c) Because of the effects of sample size on statistical significance, there is no logical connection between statistical significance and substantive significance