Pompeii Final

Aulus Umbricius Scaurus

- Aulus Umbricius Scaurus - Six workshops - Active in the last few years of Pompeii - Made Garum from mackerel - LiquaFlos (flower of liquamen)

Pleasure Gardens

-Public buildings -Peristyles -tombs

4th Pompeian styles

1st Style (Structural)- Masonry style (encrusted style), 2nd Century BC, Imitation of stones, Hellenistic invention: Found in Delos, Sicily, Spain, Southern Italy and France.2nd Style (Architectural)- Also "illusionist" style, 1st century BC, Architectural features and trompe l'oeil compositions. Relative perspective. Love for exotic elements and designs.3rd Style (Ornate Style)- 30 BC- to 60 AD. More Mythological scenes, Large monochromatic parts, Candelabra and columns are still used as partitions but the effect is 2D. Egyptomania continues.4th Style (baroque)- 60-79 AD, Mix of 2nd and 3rd. Architectural illusionism comes back, Tripartite divisions of walls, Mythological themes, and splendid elements. If a room has a lot of white it is probably 4th style, black is characteristic of 3rd style and 2nd style is red.

Second Style (Architectural Style)

1st century BCE

Third Style (Ornate Style)

1st century CE

H. of the Golden Bracelet

3 floors Water feature Paintings of fake gardens

House of M. Lucretius Fronto

3rd style Garden Paradeisos - Megalographia Scenes of exotic wildlife

4th Pompeian style

4th Style (baroque)- 60-79 AD, Mix of 2nd and 3rd. Architectural illusionism comes back, Tripartite divisions of walls, Mythological themes, and splendid elements. If a room has a lot of white paint it is probably 4th style.

Macellum

= "Marketplace" (130-120 BCE). Macellum decorations 4th style

Peristyle

A bunch of columns surrounding the room/house Characteristic of a Greek house Central courtyard to light and air out the rooms

Erotic art

A lot of them in Lupanar Secret cabinet Where the erotic art was put in later times to hide it from the people In the museum of naples For scholars and men of good moral standing Group 1: Mythological scenes Group 2: Priapus Group 3: Apothropaism Group 4: Humour

Atrium house

A roman house with an Atrium.

1600

Accidental discovery of Pompeii

aediculae tombs

Aedicula tomb • Look like little temples (hence the name) • interments either in interior chambers or (more often) in surrounding precinct • Portrait statues framed by columns • Big (one more than 40 feet tall) • Sometime they can be round

H. of Octavius Quartio

Also known as the house of Loreius Tiburtinus, the house isknown by the name of its last owner Decimus Octavius Quartio.- It is characterized by a large garden area, and also contains anatrium with an impluvium. THE ROOM OF ISIS- Decorated with more 4th style paintings, these depicting a priest of Isis

August Mau

August Mau (1840 1909) was a German Professor who moved to Rome for health reasons•Interested in inscriptions and wall decorations•He comes up with a system of 4"styles" for the-MasonryArchitecturalOrnateBaroque

Mosaic of Alexander

Big battle scene between Alexander the great and Darius III of Persia 4 million tesserae

Marcus Nonius Balbus

Born in Nuceria , lived in Herculaneum.Roman Senator, Governor in Crete, Patron of Herculaneum •Builds the Basilica (and possibly the Baths) in Herculaneum with his money •Statues in various parts of the town. Also honoured after death.

Campania

Campanian "allies" of Rome. 194 BCE Rome founds a series of military colonies in Campania.

H. of M. Fabius Rufus

Changing of tastes: House of M. Fabius Rufus ( VII,16 , 17) Different walls in different styles

Roman family

Composed by Father mother children but also slaves •The head of the family was called the pater familias •The paterfamilias has literally right of life and death on everybody in his family including adult children Adoption- If you did not get a male heir, one of the most common practice was to adopt a child from one of the relatives or from another rich family. You take the name of your new family. Gaius Octavius Thurinus becomes Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Augustus)

cubiculum

Cubiculum- It generally means a bedroom. Has a mosaic in the centre with empty space for a single bed

Cave canem mosaics

Decoration in the house of the Tragic Poet (Beware of dog)

Wilhelmina Jashemski

Dr. Wilhelmina Jashemski •1910-2008 •Professor at The University of Maryland from 1946 to 1980 •The first non-Italian to direct an excavation at Pompeii •Invented study of ancient gardens •Pioneer for the use of science in classical archaeological excavations

Nolan Gate

East Gate of Nola (North-East = 5).

Building of Eumachia

Eumachia was a rich priestess and related to Livia the wife of Augustus. - Not sure what its for - Eumachia was a priest of Livia the wife of Augustus who dedicated the building for the textile workers or the other way around - Slightly offline with the forum

Eumachia

Eumachia was a rich priestess and related to Livia the wife of Augustus. Building of Eumachia-Slightly offline with the forum

1738

Excavations start

Garum

Fermented fish sauce that was produced in Pompeii. Evidence for Garum Production • Pliny talks about it • Inscriptions - Aulus Umbricius Scaurus - Six workshops - Active in the last few years of Pompeii - Made Garum from mackerel - LiquaFlos (flower of liquamen) Spanish Garum in the imperial era/ Augustan Era challenges Pompeii's Garum production and market.

Fullonica of Stephanus

Fullery of Stephanus. ANCIENT FULLERIES ● Equivalent to modern-day laundromat with additional services ● High demand○ Four large fulleries in Pompeii and many other small ones ARCHAEOLOGICAL FEATURES ● Fourth style wall paintings ● Basins and smaller stomping vats● Large masonry tanks for rinsingfabrics ● Remains of second floor○ Likely used for drying and removing nap from fabric ● Kitchen ● Pressing machine

Roman Name

Gaius Julius Caesar Prenomen- First name Nomen- Most important - family/clan name Cognomen

Nilotic Scenes

Gardens that Truly don't exist Scenes of the nile Elephants, hippos, and crocodiles

Giuseppe Fiorelli

Giuseppe Fiorelli (1823-1896) was the Director of Antiquity and Pompeii before and after the unification of Italy in 1860•1863 Director of Pompeii and Naples Museums•Established an Archaeological School -Excavating by layers•organized the site by dividing it into nine regions and providing a system of "addresses" for insulae (city blocks) and doorways• Precise models and maps• Opening the site to visitors and the first entrance fee• Against restoration of monuments and export of antiquities.

Predia of Iulia Felix

House of Julia Felix. large kitchen, a private bath complex, and a separate area for conducting business transactions.

House of the Vettii

It is named after its owners, two freedmen brothers named Aulus Vettius Restitutus and Aulus Vettius Conviva, who were successful merchants in Pompeii during the 1st century AD.

Iulia Felix

Iulia Felix was a wealthy woman who lived in Pompeii during the Roman era. Her house was next to the amphitheatre. 2 properties put together -happened after the construction of the amphitheatre Blocked off a street Has a painting of people buying bread The atrium is painted with scenes of the forum

Euergetism

Large scale munificence: euergetism.Euergetism refers to the practice of wealthy individuals in ancient Rome providing public works, services, and funding for civic projects as a form of patronage and social obligation. This practice was common in Pompeii, where wealthy citizens would fund the construction of public buildings, provide funds for public events, and sponsor public works projects.Examples of euergetism in Pompeii include the construction of public buildings such as the amphitheatre, the forum, and the temples, as well as the provision of funds for public events such as games and festivals. Wealthy citizens would also sponsor public works projects such as the construction of aqueducts and the improvement of roads.

First Style (Masonry Style)

Late 2nd century BCE

Otium and negotium

Men: Between otium (leisure) and Negotium (job) Balance between these 2 customs -Excess is considered a vice - Mos maiorum: how our ancestors behaved ← What we look back to -Not all types of activities are considered "good" negotium or "good" otium --Politics; agriculture (you should have a plantation) --Agriculture has to do with the importance of land owning -Against the "new men" - first man in family to achieve political office -People who make money not through the land Cincinatus; George Washington -Giving up power in order to go home and farm -Poetry attacked conventional idealization of negotium. Good Otium: good greek literature (not comedy), public baths, drinking party in the triclinium (yay)

Fourth Style (Intricate Style or Baroque Style):

Mid-1st century CE and continued until the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE.

enclosure tombs

Most common is enclosure tomb: - Precinct of four walls and the cremations inside in the ground - Some are more elaborate than others Closed tomb

Nucerian Gate

Necropolis outside Nucerian Gate. The gate is located to the South (South-East = 7), close to the Amphitheatre.

"Foro Boario"

Next to the amphitheatre. A commercial garden • 1755 excavations - Cattle Market • 1814 excavations: - burial place of gladiators killed - Space for gladiators were fed • 1954 excavations - At least two rooms used for winemaking • 1960s 1970 excavations - vinery Bones were found in this vineyard, representing domestic cows, horses, wild boars, domestic dogs, sheep, domestic cats and perhaps, goats. Dolia: large terracotta vase used to make and store wine There has been an attempt to reproduce the wines of Foro Boario. The bones were primarily found around the areas for eating. The way they were processed suggests they had their marrow scooped out for stew. Banquets and worker's meals. We don't know the owner. The only strange thing about this vineyard is that it is inside the city. (5 on MAP)

Via dell'abbondanza

One of the main streets in Pompeii. Ran from East to West. (Sarno gate to Sea gate)

exedrae tomb

Open tombs to sit semi-circular or rectangular recess, often with a curved or straight bench

House of the Ceii

Paradeiso scene in the garden

Whimsical Gardens

Paradeiso scene in the garden

Marcus Holconius Rufus

Patron of Pompeii. Builds a tetrapylon, next to it puts his statue and an inscription •Iconography is full of political and religious symbols •Statue was Originally painted!•Base of the statue had an inscription with his political career •Excavated 1853, 1855 and 1861.

62 CE

Pompeii Earthquake

79 CE

Pompeii Eruption

Gnaeus Alleius Nigidius Maius

Pompeii Patron that has a famous tomb with long inscription. • He hosted a great banquet to celebrate his assumption of the toga virilis ("toga of manhood") when he was 15 17 years old. • 456 triclinia (formal dining rooms) accommodated thousands of members of the public. •An incredible 416 gladiators took part in games, far greater than the normal 30 or less that fought in the regular games in Pompeii. • His wedding which hosted a large banquet. • Public banquets, • His generous gifts of silver coin to the people • Moneys given in support of magistrates and guilds • and above all great games with fights between gladiators and wild beasts. •The political and religious offices he held • He was one of the duoviri quinquennales (the two heads of the city administration elected every five years with additional powers to update the census) •He was acclaimed by the people as patronus of the city, which he humbly declines in the last line of the inscription because he is unworthy of so great an honour

59 CE

Pompeii Riots

80 BCE

Pompeii becomes Roman colony

Herculaneum

Pompeii neighbouring town; carbonized organic remains. preserving wood thus upper storeys , furniture, etc. turning people to ash

Talk about the economy of Pompeii. What type of crafts and/or industries existed in Pompeii?

Pompeii was a thriving city with a diverse economy before its tragic destruction by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. Its economy was based on a mix of agriculture, trade, and various crafts and industries. The city's location near the Bay of Naples and its proximity to important trade routes made it an important commercial hub. Some of the main crafts and industries in Pompeii included: Agriculture: Pompeii was located in a fertile region, and agriculture played a crucial role in its economy. The city and its surrounding countryside were known for the production of wine, olive oil, fruits, vegetables, and cereals. Many of the city's residents were involved in agricultural activities, either directly as farmers or as traders and merchants dealing in agricultural products. Textile production: Textile production was a significant industry in Pompeii, with evidence of weaving, spinning, and dyeing activities in the city. Wool and linen were the most common materials used for textiles, and several workshops have been identified where these materials were processed and turned into clothing and other textile goods. Pottery and ceramics: The production of pottery and ceramics was another important industry in Pompeii. The city was known for its production of fine, red-glazed pottery called "terra sigillata" and a wide variety of other ceramic wares. Many workshops and kilns have been discovered in Pompeii, where potters crafted everything from everyday tableware to high-quality decorative items. Metalworking: Evidence of metalworking activities, such as blacksmithing, bronze casting, and goldsmithing, has been found in Pompeii. Metalworkers produced a wide range of products, including tools, weapons, jewelry, and decorative items. The presence of numerous metal workshops throughout the city indicates that this industry played a significant role in the local economy. Food production and processing: Pompeii was home to various food-related industries, such as bakeries, mills, and fish-salting facilities. There were several bakeries in the city, which used large, donkey-powered mills to grind grain into flour, which was then used to make bread. Fish-salting workshops have also been discovered, where fish were preserved by packing them in salt, a process that played a vital role in the long-distance trade of perishable food items. Construction and building materials: The construction industry was also essential to Pompeii's economy, with evidence of stone quarries, brick-making facilities, and workshops producing tiles, mosaics, and other building materials. Skilled craftsmen, such as stonemasons, carpenters, and plasterers, were in high demand for the construction and maintenance of the city's buildings and infrastructure. Trade and commerce: Trade played a vital role in the economy of Pompeii, as the city was well connected to other urban centers and ports in the Mediterranean region. Goods produced in Pompeii were exported to various parts of the Roman Empire, and the city also imported a wide variety of products, such as exotic spices, luxury items, and raw materials. These crafts and industries, along with others not mentioned here, contributed to the diverse and vibrant economy of Pompeii. The archaeological remains of these activities provide valuable insights into the daily lives and economic activities of the city's inhabitants before its tragic destruction.

House of Menader

Possibly of Quintus Poppaeus Sabinus (probably related to the wife of Nero). This house is interesting as it has TWO lararium. One hypothesis is that bottom right Quarter is a Servile Quarters, this area is also a storage space with the housing space for workers. This house probably required 10-15 people to work to maintain it. The house is named after a fresco depicting a scene from a play by the Greek dramatist Menander that was discovered in one of its rooms. one of the largest and most luxurious houses in Pompeii

Discuss the Roman family. How did it work? Who was in charge?

Roman Family • Composed by Father mother children but also slaves • The head of the family was called the pater familias • The paterfamilias has literally right of life and death on everybody in his family including adult children Adoption • If you did not get a male heir, one of the most common practice was to adopt a child from one of the relatives or from another rich family • You take the name of your new family Gaius Octavius Thurinus Becomes Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Augustus) Roman Marriage Ceremony • The main purpose of a Roman marriage was to bear children (i.e., the production of heirs) and to cement bonds between different families. • On the wedding day, the bride went to her husband to be's house carrying a torch lit from her family's hearth, symbolizing the joining of the two families. • The marriage was formalized by the clasping of right hands. • Divorce was possible, but the bond between the two families was not broken Moral Reforms Lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis (17 BCE): • Permanent court to judge infidelity • A wife's adultery could not be forgiven by a husband unless he accused himself to be an accessory to the crime • Divorce becomes more difficult • Married women are now protected from being accused of adultery in case of violence (before it was just unmarried girls) Moral Reforms Lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus (17 BCE): • all men between 25 60 and all women between 20 50 must marry • Divorced and widows need to remarry within 6 months or a year • Childless and unmarried people forbidden to inherit • Marriages between citizen and freedmen and women allowed (unless you are a senator) • Tax relief to people with more than three kids Some changes in the Lex Papia Poppaea (9 CE) The Roman family, or "familia," was a fundamental unit of Roman society and played a crucial role in shaping the social, political, and economic life of ancient Rome. The family structure in Rome was hierarchical, and it included not only the immediate family members but also extended family, slaves, and sometimes freedmen. Paterfamilias: At the head of the Roman family was the "paterfamilias," the eldest male member, who held ultimate authority and responsibility over the household. The term "paterfamilias" means "father of the family" in Latin, and this figure had considerable power over the lives of his family members. He had the right to make decisions on matters such as marriage, divorce, and property management. He also had the responsibility to provide for the family's needs and ensure their well-being. Family members: The Roman family consisted of the paterfamilias, his wife (materfamilias), their children, and other relatives, such as grandparents, unmarried siblings, and cousins. The wife, or "materfamilias," played a significant role in managing the household, raising the children, and maintaining the family's social connections. Children in the Roman family were raised and educated under the guidance of their parents and other family members. Sons were expected to follow in their father's footsteps, learning his trade or profession and eventually taking on the responsibilities of the paterfamilias. Daughters were usually raised to become wives and mothers, with an emphasis on domestic skills and virtues. Slaves and freedmen: In addition to the immediate and extended family members, Roman households often included slaves and, sometimes, freedmen. Slaves were considered property and were under the complete control of the paterfamilias. They performed various tasks, such as cooking, cleaning, and providing personal services to the family. Freedmen were former slaves who had been granted their freedom by their masters. While they were no longer considered part of the family, they often maintained close ties to their former owners and could still be under their patronage. Marriage and family alliances: Marriages in ancient Rome were often arranged by the families, with a focus on creating alliances between powerful or influential families. The primary purpose of marriage was to produce legitimate heirs and ensure the continuation of the family line. Women typically married in their early teens, while men married in their late teens or early twenties. Divorce was relatively common and could be initiated by either the husband or the wife. In summary, the Roman family was a hierarchical unit that revolved around the authority of the paterfamilias. Family life in ancient Rome was deeply rooted in tradition, social connections, and the continuation of the family line. While the family structure has evolved over time, the Roman family remains an important model for understanding the social dynamics and values of ancient Rome.

Slaves and freedmen

Roman Slavery • We know a lot more about enslaved people that we know about other lower classes • "goes back to Romulus" • Often prisoners of war • Teachers, accountants, and physicians were enslaved usually • Life in the country vs. life in the house Vernae : house born slaves (Sometimes children of the master) Freedmen Enslaved people can be freed: manumissio 3 part name ex: Tiberius Claudius (masters name) Chyseros (foreign) Children of freedmen are full citizens depending on their mother Freedmen cannot run for office or become high level priests Freedmen (especially imperial ones) could become extremely wealthy

Talk about Roman slavery. What evidence do we have for it? Can it be seen from archaeological evidence?

Roman Slavery • We know a lot more about enslaved people that we know about other lower classes • "goes back to Romulus" • Often prisoners of war •Teachers, accountants, and physicians were enslaved usually • Life in the country vs. life in the house Enslaved People and the Economy • In town: Work in their master business • In the country: villa economy -Remember the 2nd Punic war? - Influx of prisoners - new agricultural system latifundia Servile Wars 3 slave revolts during the Roman Republic - Between 135-71 BC - First two happen in Sicily - Spartacus lead the 3rd Revolt (better known) •Third Servile war: - Closer to Rome - 120.000 may have joined - It took 8 legions to stop them Being part of the household • All aspects of housework • More freedom of movements •Vernae : house born slaves (Sometimes children of the master) • Where are they? • Saturnalia Enslaved P eople and Religion • Worshipping within the house, together with the family Enslaved P eople and Religion • Worshipping within the house, together with the family • Imperial cult: " ministri Augusti" and ministri Fortunae Augustae" Freedmen • Enslaved people can be freed: manumissio • 3 part name T. Claudius Chryseros • Children of freedmen are full citizen ( depending on mother) • Freedmen can not run for office or become top level priests • Freedmen (especially imperial ones) could become extremely wealthy Roman slavery was a widespread and integral part of Roman society, with slaves performing various tasks and roles, from agricultural labor and domestic service to skilled trades and administrative work. Slavery in ancient Rome was not exclusively based on race or ethnicity; instead, it was a legal and social status that individuals could acquire through various means, such as being prisoners of war, being born to enslaved parents, or even falling into debt. Evidence for Roman slavery comes from a variety of sources, including literary texts, inscriptions, legal documents, and archaeological evidence. Some of the main sources of evidence for Roman slavery include: Literary texts: Roman authors, such as Cicero, Pliny the Elder, and Seneca, provide valuable insights into the lives and experiences of slaves in ancient Rome. Their writings often describe the roles and duties of slaves, as well as the relationships between slaves and their masters. Inscriptions: Slaves were often mentioned in inscriptions, such as tombstones, dedicatory inscriptions, and public monuments. These inscriptions can provide information about the names, origins, and roles of individual slaves, as well as the relationships between slaves and their masters. Legal documents: Roman law codes and legal documents, such as contracts and wills, often contain references to slaves, providing insights into their legal status, rights, and obligations. Archaeological evidence: While archaeological evidence for Roman slavery can be more indirect, there are several types of findings that can shed light on the lives of slaves in ancient Rome: Living quarters: The remains of living quarters for slaves have been found in many Roman villas, urban houses, and agricultural estates. These spaces were often small, cramped, and located near the service areas of the property. Graffiti: Graffiti inscriptions on the walls of ancient Roman cities, such as Pompeii, can provide firsthand accounts of the thoughts and experiences of slaves, offering glimpses into their daily lives and concerns. Material culture: Objects associated with slaves, such as tools, shackles, or clothing items, can provide insights into their roles, living conditions, and daily activities. Skeletal remains: In some cases, the skeletal remains of individuals who were likely slaves have been found in Roman cemeteries. The analysis of these remains can reveal information about their health, diet, and living conditions. Although Roman slavery was a complex and multifaceted institution, the various sources of evidence, including archaeological findings, can help us develop a more comprehensive understanding of the lives and experiences of slaves in ancient Rome. By examining the living conditions, roles, and relationships of slaves within Roman society, we can gain insights into the social dynamics and values that shaped Roman life.

Pompeii

Roman city near Naples, Italy, which was buried during an eruption of Mount Vesuvius in A.D. 79.

Cn. Helvius Sabinus

Running for aedile in 79 CE. Used a lot of Programmata (Painted "posters" urging people to vote for a certain candidate).

Boscoreale

Site of a villa near Mount Vesuvius that was buried by the volcanic eruption in 79 C.E. Illegal excavations: the Boscoreale Treasure. Boscoreale is a small town located in the Campania it has many ancient Roman villas like Villa Regina, Villa of Fannius Synistor and Villa della Pisanella.

Lararium

Small shrine towards the lares Defied ancestors Pantry gods Protectors of the house If you don't have money for much painting, you can have your lararium painted.

Patron/client

Social use of Atrium A client (pl. clientes ) is a free man • Salutatio (morning ritual of greeting the patron) • Receive money, or a daily sack of food and protection • In exchange he helps out his patron

Stabia

Stabiae was destroyed in the same eruption of Mount Vesuvius that buried Pompeii. Villas at Stabiae • Best known are v. San Marco and v. Arianna - on a cliff, in front of the sea. - Among the largest villas known in the Mediterranean (s. Marco over 22,000 sq meters). - Excavated in 1749 1754; 1950s; 2011. - Reconstruction of the gardens. - For some parts we still have second floors. - Frescoes removed in the 1700s, but many still in place.

Taberna/thermopolium

Taberna (also called Thermopolium) was a commercial establishment where people could purchase ready-to-eat food and drinks.

Tablinium

Tablinum- The tablinium acts as an archive of the family. It had death masks in it.

Titus

The Roman emperor at the time of the eruption. Emperor Titus announced a state of emergency •resettled survivors and called a special session of the senate to offer aid. Neither Pompeii nor Herculaneum was resettled in antiquity.

Villa of the Mysteries

The Villa of the Mysteries is an ancient Roman villa located in Pompeii, Italy, on the outskirts of the city.

Impluvium/compluvium

The compluvium allowed light, fresh air, and rain to enter the atrium. The impluvium was necessary to capture any rainwater and channel it to an underground cistern.

What are the main characteristics of the four Pompeian styles?

The four Pompeian styles refer to the different phases of interior decoration found in the excavations of Pompeii, a Roman town that was buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. Each style is characterized by specific features in the use of colors, motifs, and techniques. Here are the main characteristics of each style:First Style (also known as the Masonry Style or Incrustation Style): This style was used in the late 2nd century BCE and is characterized by painted imitations of marble or other stone materials to create an illusion of opulence. The walls were painted in bright colors such as red, yellow, and blue, and were divided into panels or blocks by using vertical and horizontal lines. The design aimed to mimic the appearance of expensive marble slabs and give the illusion of a grand architectural space.Second Style (also known as the Architectural Style): This style emerged in the 1st century BCE and was characterized by the use of perspective to create the illusion of three-dimensional space. The paintings portrayed architectural elements such as columns, arches, and pediments, as well as landscapes and mythological scenes. The colors used in this style were more varied than in the first style, with the addition of green and purple.Third Style (also known as the Ornate Style): This style was popular in the 1st century CE and is characterized by a more delicate and intricate use of motifs and colors. The walls were painted in monochromatic backgrounds with intricate designs featuring small figures, mythological creatures, and delicate foliage. The colors were more muted, with the use of pastel shades such as pink, green, and blue.Fourth Style (also known as the Intricate Style or Baroque Style): This style was developed in the mid-1st century CE and continued until the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. The fourth style combined elements from the previous three styles and included a mix of architectural motifs, small figures, and mythological scenes. The paintings often covered the entire wall, and the use of illusionistic painting created an almost theatrical effect. The color scheme was more diverse, featuring deep reds, greens, and blues, as well as gold and silver pigments. The four Pompeian styles refer to the classification of Roman wall paintings, specifically those found in Pompeii, based on their characteristics and the time period in which they were created. The styles are named First, Second, Third, and Fourth Style, and they span the period from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD. First Style (also known as Incrustation Style) - 2nd century BC to early 1st century BC: The First Style is characterized by its imitation of marble or other stone materials. The walls were painted to resemble colorful, polished marble slabs, with stucco used to create a three-dimensional effect. This style was inspired by Hellenistic Greek wall paintings and was popular in the late Roman Republic. The focus was on creating an illusion of depth and solidity, using mainly geometric patterns and architectural motifs. Second Style (also known as Architectural Style) - Early 1st century BC to around 20 BC: The Second Style is characterized by the use of painted architectural elements to create the illusion of space and depth on the walls. The artists employed techniques like linear perspective and foreshortening to create realistic, three-dimensional architectural scenes. The paintings often depicted colonnades, porticoes, and other architectural features, as well as landscapes, gardens, and mythological scenes. In this style, the walls became a canvas for creating imaginary, extended spaces beyond the room. Third Style (also known as Ornamental Style) - Around 20 BC to early 1st century AD: The Third Style moved away from the illusionistic architectural elements of the Second Style, focusing instead on decorative motifs, such as delicate, intricate designs, floral patterns, and small, floating mythological scenes. This style featured a more monochromatic background with flat, solid colors, often in shades of red, black, or white. The paintings in the Third Style were less focused on creating an illusion of depth and more on enhancing the surface of the walls with elegant, stylized designs. Fourth Style (also known as Intricate Style) - Early 1st century AD to 79 AD: The Fourth Style is characterized by a combination of elements from the previous three styles, with a particular emphasis on the illusionistic architectural elements of the Second Style. The paintings in the Fourth Style often feature elaborate architectural frameworks, intricate details, and a mix of large-scale and small-scale mythological, landscape, and genre scenes. This style is marked by its complexity and richness, as well as its fantastical, almost theatrical approach to wall decoration. These four Pompeian styles reflect the evolution of Roman wall painting techniques and the changing tastes and preferences of the society during the time period. The well-preserved examples of these styles in Pompeii continue to provide valuable insights into the artistic capabilities and aesthetic sensibilities of the ancient Romans.

Herculaneum Gate

The gate farthest to the west, facing Herculaneum (North-West = 2). Out side this gate is Necropolis of Porta Herculaneum

Talk about the evolution of Roman houses in Pompeii

The houses in Pompeii are a valuable source of information about the domestic life of the ancient Romans. Pompeian houses underwent significant changes during the different historical periods, reflecting the tastes and needs of the society that inhabited them.During the Samnite period, Pompeian houses were characterized by a rectangular shape, with rooms arranged around an open central courtyard. The houses were usually made of tuff stone and had a wooden roof. During the 2nd century BCE, when Pompeii became a Roman colony, the houses began to change in structure and decoration. The atrium became the main feature of the house, a central space with a skylight that let light in and allowed rainwater to be collected in an impluvium. Other rooms, such as the tablinum, where the master of the house received guests, and the peristyle, an open courtyard surrounded by columns and usually decorated with a garden or a fountain, were added to the house.In the 1st century BCE, the Pompeian house underwent further transformations, influenced by the Hellenistic architecture that was spreading throughout the Roman world. The peristyle became more ornate, with elaborate mosaics and frescoes, and the garden was replaced by a pool. New types of rooms were added, such as the triclinium, a dining room with couches for reclining, and the cubiculum, a small bedroom.In the Imperial period, Pompeian houses reached their peak of splendor, reflecting the wealth and sophistication of the Roman elite. The houses were built with higher quality materials, such as marble, and were decorated with elaborate frescoes, mosaics, and sculptures. The peristyle was often turned into a garden, complete with trees, flowers, and exotic animals.The most famous example of a Roman house in Pompeii is the House of the Faun, named after the statue of a dancing faun found in the peristyle. The House of the Faun is a large, luxurious house with multiple courtyards and elaborate decoration, including mosaics and frescoes depicting scenes from Greek mythology. Other notable houses in Pompeii include the House of the Vettii, the House of the Tragic Poet, and the House of the Surgeon. The evolution of Roman houses in Pompeii can be observed through various phases of development, influenced by factors such as changing architectural styles, urban planning, and socio-economic conditions. Roman houses, also known as "domus," evolved over time to reflect the preferences, needs, and status of their occupants. Early Roman houses (pre-2nd century BC): In the earliest phases of Pompeii's history, the city featured modest dwellings constructed with simple materials like sun-dried mud bricks and wooden beams. These early houses often had small rooms arranged around a central courtyard and were relatively basic in terms of decoration and furnishings. Hellenistic influence (2nd century BC): As Pompeii became more prosperous and urbanized, it experienced significant cultural influence from the Hellenistic world. This impact is evident in the architectural styles and decorative elements of the houses built during this period. The homes became larger, and the central courtyard, or atrium, was introduced. The atrium featured a central opening in the roof called the compluvium, which allowed rainwater to collect in an impluvium, a basin located below. This period saw the introduction of more elaborate decorations, such as frescoes and mosaics. Roman Republic and early Roman Empire (1st century BC - 1st century AD): During the Roman Republic and the early years of the Roman Empire, Pompeii continued to prosper, and the houses became even more elaborate. The peristyle, a colonnaded garden area, became a popular addition to the domus, providing residents with a private outdoor space for relaxation and entertainment. Houses of this period often featured separate spaces for business and living, with shops or workshops located at the front of the property. The decoration of the houses during this period evolved as well, with frescoes featuring scenes from mythology, landscapes, and daily life. Late Roman Empire (1st century AD - 79 AD): In the final years before the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, the houses in Pompeii continued to evolve, reflecting the changing tastes and socio-economic conditions of their inhabitants. Some houses were remodeled or expanded, often incorporating adjacent properties. The decoration of the houses became even more refined, with the development of the Fourth Style of Roman wall painting, characterized by elaborate architectural designs and intricate details. Throughout the evolution of Roman houses in Pompeii, the emphasis on creating comfortable, aesthetically pleasing living spaces remained constant. The changes in architectural styles and decorative elements over time reflect the city's growth, prosperity, and cultural influences from the wider Mediterranean world. The well-preserved remains of these houses offer a unique opportunity to study the architectural and social history of Roman domestic life.

What is the importance of a site like Pompeii to the study of Roman daily life? What can it tell us? What can't it tell us? Discuss TWO examples

The importance of a site like Pompeii to the study of Roman daily life lies in the fact that it provides a unique snapshot of the ancient Roman world, preserved in time due to the volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. This catastrophic event covered the city in ash and pumice, effectively preserving the buildings, artifacts, and even the remains of its inhabitants. Consequently, Pompeii has become an invaluable source of information for historians, archaeologists, and other scholars interested in understanding Roman daily life. What Pompeii can tell us: Architecture and living spaces: The well-preserved buildings in Pompeii offer insight into the architectural styles and construction techniques of the time. They also illustrate the layout of Roman houses, with spaces such as the atrium, peristyle, and triclinium, revealing how people lived and organized their homes. Pompeii's public buildings, such as the forum, basilica, and amphitheater, shed light on the political, social, and entertainment activities that took place in the city. Art and decoration: The frescoes, mosaics, and sculptures found in Pompeii provide valuable information about the artistic styles and preferences of the Romans. They reveal a great deal about the popular themes, techniques, and materials used by the artists of the time. Moreover, these artworks offer glimpses into the religious beliefs, myths, and cultural values of the people who lived in Pompeii. What Pompeii can't tell us: Temporal and regional variations: Although Pompeii offers a wealth of information about Roman daily life, it is important to remember that it represents a specific moment in time and a particular region of the Roman Empire. The customs, practices, and architectural styles of Pompeii may not necessarily reflect those of other Roman cities or different time periods. The full scope of social and economic diversity: While Pompeii does provide some evidence of social and economic differences, the nature of the city's preservation means that we mostly get glimpses into the lives of the wealthier residents, whose homes and possessions were more likely to survive the volcanic eruption. As a result, our understanding of the lives of the less privileged, such as slaves or the urban poor, may be more limited. In summary, Pompeii offers a wealth of information about Roman daily life, but it is important to be cautious in generalizing its findings to the entire Roman world or assuming that it provides a comprehensive picture of all aspects of Roman society.

What evidence do we have for gardens? How can study them?

There is substantial evidence for the presence of gardens in Pompeii, both in the form of physical remains and artistic depictions. Gardens were an integral part of Roman domestic life, providing not only a source of food and shade but also a space for relaxation, contemplation, and socializing. The study of gardens in Pompeii can help us better understand the daily lives, preferences, and values of the city's inhabitants. Some of the main sources of evidence for gardens in Pompeii include: Archaeological remains: The excavations in Pompeii have uncovered numerous gardens, both in private homes and public spaces. The remains of plants, trees, and flowers have been found in and around the city, often preserved as impressions in the volcanic ash or as carbonized remains. These findings can provide information about the types of plants grown in the gardens and the layout of the planting beds. Garden features and infrastructure: The physical layout and features of the gardens can also provide valuable insights into how they were used and maintained. For example, the presence of fountains, pools, and water channels indicates that the ancient Pompeiians were conscious of water management and irrigation. Peristyle gardens, which were surrounded by colonnades, were common in larger homes, providing a shaded and enclosed outdoor space for the residents. Wall paintings and mosaics: Many frescoes and mosaics in Pompeii depict garden scenes, providing a visual representation of the idealized Roman garden. These artistic depictions, often referred to as "paradeisos" paintings, can reveal information about the aesthetics, layout, and preferred plant species in Pompeian gardens. They may also show the presence of various garden structures, such as arbors, trellises, and sculptures. Literary references: Ancient Roman authors, such as Pliny the Elder and Columella, wrote about horticulture, gardening practices, and the importance of gardens in Roman life. Although their writings may not specifically pertain to Pompeii, they can provide general insights into Roman gardening preferences and techniques. To study gardens in Pompeii, archaeologists, historians, and other researchers can employ a variety of methods, including: Analyzing the archaeological remains, including plant material, to determine the types of plants grown, as well as their arrangement and purpose. Examining wall paintings, mosaics, and other artistic representations of gardens to gain insights into the aesthetic preferences and design principles of the time. Studying the architectural features and layout of the gardens to understand their function, accessibility, and maintenance. Consulting ancient literary sources for information on Roman gardening practices and cultural values related to gardens. By combining these various sources of evidence and research methods, we can develop a more comprehensive understanding of gardens in Pompeii and their significance in the daily lives of the city's inhabitants.

79-81 CE

Titus Emperor

Triclinium

Triclinium- It had three couches and people ate dinner lying down. It was decorated in a T U shape with the centre having the mosaic.

Villa A (of Poppea) at Oplontis

Villa A associated with Poppea Sabina Located in the town of Oplontis, between Pompeii and Herculaneum- Named after its presumed owner, Poppaea Sabina, second wife of Nero and Empress of Rome- The villa followed an axial plan but was progressively expanded later on- Most rooms of the villa were decorated with 2nd style wall paintings, with some 4th style paintings following damage from earthquakes

Villa della Pisanella

Villa della Pisanella (early 1st c BC) LARGE amount of Dolia Excavated in the early 20th c. and covered up 🙁 This is the villa that the Boscoreale Treasure is from Interesting designs -> repoussé décoration Skeletons collecting grapes Political designs Might have to do with the reign of Tiberius → had to convince the elite to like him after Augustus. Material culture for the elite was produced depicting his triumphs Bathing rooms had large black and white mosaics of aquatic or semi aquatic animals Water spouts look like animal mouths or theater masks Led boiler with led pipes to heat the baths and has a channel to feed the excess out a spout. 2 wine presses → 20,000 gallons of wine every year For olives, the first crushing can't be done by a wine press 2 separate production spaces (olive oil is messy and smell) Space for keeping small animals and space for sieving grain

Villa of Fannius Synistor

Villa was under construction at the time of the eruption All the wall paintings had been sold to different museums and are now in different museums Illegal excavations: the Boscoreale Treasure Some Fresco in MET Museum New York Villa of fannius synistor in Boscoreale The Cubiculum → housed in the MET, clear 2nd style. Large triclinium (H): megalographia Reminiscent of hellenistic paintings→ def in 2nd style. Maybe art of alexander the great maybe 2 women as personifications of greece etc Another 2 people on the other wall Possibly Achilles with his mother → he is naked so we know he is a hero. On the side walls, east wall room H Woman with shield → possibly w Achilles' armor Woman with instrument Inspiration: Hellenistic Greek paintings→ similar in drapery, poses, and palettes.

Villa San Marco

Villas at Stabiae - on a cliff, in front of the sea. - Among the largest villas known in the Mediterranean (s. Marco over 22,000 sq meters). - Excavated in 1749 1754; 1950s; 2011. - Reconstruction of the gardens. - For some parts we still have second floors. - Frescoes removed in the 1700s, but many still in place. Has not been fully excavated Not an axial plan 2 atriums Large garden with fountain Some of the walls have been partially restored Has 3rd style art Also has fantastical villas painted on the walls in the villa Ceiling of the peristyle has paintings of mythological scenes Celestial bodies personified Stucco niches in the Nympheum Of Neptune - it's a fountain and also overlooking the sea Mosaics in the nympheum Europa and zeus the bull Elle escaping on a ram - ram becomes the golden fleece

Commercial Gardens

Vineyard in the city - Foro Boario

Vesuvius

Volcano in Italy which erupted in 79 AD and buried the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum under ash no lava.

Oplontis

an ancient Roman site near Pompeii. • Name known from Medieval Sources • Smaller harbour compared to Pompeii • First discovered in the 1600s • Excavations in 1830; 1950-60; current • Since 1997 is a UNESCO site • Villa A and Villa B - Villa A associated with Poppea Sabina

Caupona

caupona = inn (no hot food)

altar tombs

characterized by their altar-like appearance, often featuring a rectangular or square base with inscriptions and reliefs on the sides

Insulae

city blocks

columelle

column-like structure found in some Pompeian tombs. to mark individual burial sites within a tomb or a necropolis. They served as grave markers, similar to the function of headstones or grave stelae

Villa urbana

could easily be reached from Rome Villa was the country house for wealthy people

Villa rustica

farm house estate occupied by the servants Villa was the country house for wealthy people

House of the Faun

has Faun statue - Has 2 atriums - They bought the house next door and combined the houses 2 peristyles too

Mos maiorum

how our ancestors behaved ← What we look back to

Megalographia

large-scale wall paintings optical illusions to make their gardens seem bigger.

Villa luxuria

luxurious or opulent villas that belonged to wealthy residents of the city. examples of luxurious villas in or near Pompeii include the House of the Faun, the House of the Vettii, and the Villa of the Mysteries.

Paradeisos

wall painting depicting garden scenes often featuring scenes of exotic wildlife

Lanifricaria

workshops for wool scouring Textile production

What do we know about Roman painters? How were the workshops organized? What were the steps involved in the realization of a wall-painting?

• Drawing was part of the Greek educational curriculum not so much in Rome. • Collecting Greek art (statues and paintings) becomes a trend in the 2nd c. BC • This creates a market for foreign painters - e.g., Metrodorus , Demetrius, Iaia of Cyzicus mentioned in the sources - Egyptomania in the second style Hierarchy in the workshop • Painters of figures: 150 denarii per day • Painter of backgrounds 75 denarii per day • Mosaicist 50 denarii per day • Mosaicists and sculptors tend to travel, painters not really - Inscriptions - Local differences in styles Plain • Yellow: ochre ( 2 8 denarii per pound) • Green: green earth ( celadonite • White: calcium carbonate • Blue: Egyptian blue (11 denarii) • Black: Carbon Florid • Cinnabar • Armenium (75 denarii per • Indigo, purple (organic dyes) • Gold leaf Roman painters in Pompeii likely operated in workshops led by a master painter, who was responsible for the overall design and execution of the artwork. The workshop would have included assistants, apprentices, and specialized craftsmen, each with different levels of skill and experience. These workshops were organized in a manner that allowed for the efficient division of labor, with each member of the team contributing to the completion of the project. Steps involved in the realization of a wall-painting: Preparation of the wall surface: Before starting the actual painting, the wall surface had to be prepared. This process involved applying a rough layer of mortar or plaster, called the "arriccio," which served as the base layer. This layer was made of lime, sand, and water, and it was left to dry before the next step. Application of the "intonaco": Once the arriccio layer was dry, a second, smoother layer of plaster called "intonaco" was applied. This layer was made of a finer mixture of lime, sand, and water, providing a smooth surface for painting. The intonaco had to be applied in sections, as it needed to be painted while still wet, a technique known as "fresco" (Italian for "fresh"). Sketching the design: The design of the painting was often sketched directly onto the intonaco layer using charcoal or a thin brush. This step allowed the painter to plan the composition and ensure that the proportions and perspectives were accurate. In some cases, the design was first drawn on a smaller scale, and then transferred to the wall using a technique called "pouncing" or "spolvero," which involved poking holes along the lines of the drawing and then dusting charcoal or chalk through the holes onto the wall surface. Painting the fresco: Once the design was sketched on the wall, the actual painting process began. Roman painters used pigments derived from minerals and organic materials, mixed with water, to create a range of colors. The pigments were applied directly to the wet intonaco layer, allowing the colors to be absorbed into the plaster as it dried. This technique resulted in a durable and long-lasting painting. The artists used brushes made of animal hair or plant fibers to apply the pigments, and they would work section by section, completing each area before the intonaco dried. Details and finishing touches: After the main painting was completed, the artists might add details or finishing touches using the "secco" technique. This involved painting on the dry plaster surface using pigments mixed with a binding medium, such as egg or glue. The secco technique allowed for greater precision and control but was less durable than the fresco technique. The study of Roman wall paintings in Pompeii reveals a highly skilled and organized approach to creating these intricate artworks. While we may not know the names of the individual painters, their talent and craftsmanship continue to be admired and appreciated through the surviving frescoes found in the ancient city.

Fullonicae/fullones

• Fulling improves the quality of textiles • 3 phases : soaping, rinsing and polishing • "fulling stalls" consisting of tubs embedded in the floor surrounded by low walls covered by waterproof plaster • 13 fullonicae at Pompeii • Also found at Ostia and Rome -Power of the fullones

Roman marriage

• marriage age was 12 for girls and 14 for boys • usually involved two citizens of equal or near equal status • three kinds of marriage - confarreatio (high marriage) - coemptio , "by purchase" - usus (habitual cohabitation) •Divorce possible - Limitation under Augustus •concubines

Lucius Caecilius Jucundus

•Might have been a freedman (or the son of one) •Alive in first half of 1st century AD •Argentarius-Banker/middleman inautions •Archive in his house Archive of L. Caecilius Jucundus •153 tablets •Dated to 15-62 CE •137 are receipts of transactions -Transaction, names of sellers and buyers, date, sum, witness -All types of people are mentioned -342-38,079 sesterces •16 tablets are between C. Jucundus and the administration