PPR

The four processes that Marcia defined are:

Foreclosure, Identity Diffusion, Moratorium, and Identity Achievement.

Measurement-based Assessment

Formal or standardized assessments that report learning of constructs in numerical terms; assessment of learning reported in numbers.

Preconventional (Gilligan)

Goal is individual survival

Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development

He proposed children understand the world based on social interactions within their culture and the sign systems that represent ideas.

Foreclosure

In this state, an adolescent may blindly accept whatever ideology or values system that has been given to them from their parents or family members. This indicates a "pseudo-identity" that is too rigid or fixed to meet life's future crises.

Private Speech

Inner speech or children's self-talk that guides thinking and actions.

Developmentally Appropriate Education

Instruction intentionally adapted to the current developmental level of students rather than planned according their chronological age or grade level.

English as a Second Language (ESL)

Instruction program for students who are not native speakers of English in which all instruction is provided in English.

Gifted and Talented (GT)

Instructional programs designed for students with exceptional intellectual ability, creativity, or talent.

Bilingual Education

Instructional programs for students who speak little or no English in which instruction is provided in the native language as well as English.

James Marcia

James Marcia is a Canadian developmental psychologist who expanded on Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development. His research and writings have largely focused on adolescent development. His work was to identify and classify processes that adolescents go through when they experience identity crises.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, developed a theory of how cognition develops and changes over time.

Metacognition

Knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn.

Prior Knowledge

Knowledge about or experience with a topic that enables connections for learning.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning

Lawrence Kohlberg proposed students pass through three levels and six stages of moral reasoning.

Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, developed a theory of cognitive development based on two key ideas.

Zone of Proximal Development

Level of development immediately above a student's present level. The tasks within the zone of proximal development require assistance from the teacher or a more knowledgeable other.

Schemes

Mental patterns that guide behavior; cognitive structures that help children process and organize information to make sense of the environment.

Accommodation

Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations in the environment.

Self-Concept

One's perception of oneself.

Overt/Covert Behavior

Overt behavior is observable and covert behavior is cognitive and involves thinking.

Centration

Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation; what is commonly called tunnel vision.

Four Stages of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget proposed that a child's intellect progresses through four stages: 1) Sensorimotor (0-2) 2) Preoperational (2-7) 3) Concrete operational (7-11) 4) Formal operational (11-adulthood)

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Piaget proposed that as children's thinking becomes more advanced their understanding of moral problems deepens.

Parallel Play

Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence.

Postconventional (Gilligan)

Principle of nonviolence (Do not hurt self or others)

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)

Provision in IDEA that requires students with disabilities to be educated with non-disabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate.

Choral Response

Responses to questions made by an entire group of student in unison designed to provide the highest level of support with immediate feedback.

Conventional (Gilligan)

Self sacrifice is goodness

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Social class defined in terms of income, occupation, education, possessions, and prestige in society. A measure of prestige within a social group.

Risk-Free Environment

A classroom in which all learners feel their opinions and contributions are valued.

Performance-based Assessment

An alternative assessment method based on a student's performance of a skill based on a real-life situation.

Portfolio

An authentic assessment tool used to assess student progress; a systematic collection of student work documenting evidence of learning.

Multicultural Education

An educational approach designed to improve outcomes for all students of different cultural backgrounds and genders.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

An hierarchy of requirements for the well-being of a student including deficiency and growth needs.

Disequilibrium

An imbalance between what a child understands and what the child encounters through new experiences.

Direct Instruction

An instructional approach in which the teacher transmits information through goal-oriented, structured lessons.

Inclusion

An instructional arrangement whereby students with disabilities receive instruction and services in a general education setting with regular education peers.

Multiple Intelligences

An intelligence theory developed by Howard Gardner that changes the question from "How smart are you?" to "How are you smart?"

Motivation

An internal process that activates, guides, and maintains behavior over time.

Bloom's Taxonomy

An ordering of learning objectives or questions based on levels of thinking from simple learning tasks to more complex.

Seriation

Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect. Seriation involves arranging things in a logical progression.

Rules

Articulated expectations regarding student behavior; general expectations or standards of behavior.

Summative Assessment

Assessment data collected after instruction to evaluate a student's mastery of the curriculum objectives and a teacher's effectiveness at instructional delivery.

Formative Assessment

Assessment data that show a student's progress or lack of progress toward curricular objectives during the process of instruction.

Egocentric

Believing that everyone sees the world as you do.

Carol Gilligan

Carol Gilligan was born on November 28, 1936, in New York City. She has received her doctorate degree in social psychology from Harvard University in 1964 and began teaching at Harvard in 1967. Then in 1970 she became a research assistant for the great theorist of moral development, Lawrence Kohlberg.

Cambourne's Conditions for Learning

Characteristics of the environment that support learning.

How does Piaget think kids learn?

Children learn through active interaction and manipulation of the environment.

Procedures

Communicated expectations for specific student behavior.

Conflict Contaminants

Conditions in which negative conflict grows.

Principle of Least Intervention

Correcting misbehavior by using the simplest or least invasive intervention that will work.

Authentic Assessment

Demonstrating learning or a specific skill by constructing a product or solving a problem that could be generated from a real-life situation.

Preconventional Level of Morality

Stages 1 and 2 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which children make moral decisions in their own interests to avoid punishments. Safety is the main consideration.

Conventional Level of Morality

Stages 3 and 4 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning during which children make moral decisions in consideration of others. Fairness is the main consideration.

Postconventional Level of Morality

Stages 5 and 6 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning in which students define their own values in terms of ethical principles. Ethical behavior is a decision of conscience according to self-chosen principles and laws can be changed for the good of society.

Cooperative Learning

Strategies in which students work together to help one another learn by sharing perspectives and providing models of slightly advanced thinking.

Mental Set

Students' attitudes of readiness to begin a lesson that involves motivation and activation of prior knowledge on the topic of instruction; focus.

Scaffolding

Support for learning and problem solving that include clues, reminders, examples, or encouragement.

Sign Systems

Symbols that cultures create to help people think, solve problems, and communicate.

Conflict Resolution

Techniques employed to reduce or eliminate conflict between classroom participants.

Transfer

The ability to apply learning in one area to learning in another area.

Reversibility

The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse thinking to return to the starting point.

Class Inclusion

The ability to think simultaneously about a whole class of objects and about relationships among subordinate classes; a framework for thinking.

Inferred Reality

The ability to understand stimuli in the context of relevant information. Preschoolers see what they see with little ability to infer the meaning behind what they see. Students in the concrete operational stage respond to inferred reality and see things in the context of other meanings.

Pacing

The amount of content covered; rate at which content is taught with understanding.

Self-Efficacy

The belief that one is capable of accomplishing something.

Conservation

The concept that certain properties of an object remain the same regardless of changes in other properties.

Reliability

The consistency of test results over time.

Withitness

The degree to which the teacher is aware of and responsive to student behavior.

Sensorimotor Stage

The earliest stage (0-2) of cognitive development during which infants learn about the environment by using their senses and motor skills. Children develop object permanence and progress from reflexive behavior to goal-directed behavior.

Object Permanence

The fact that objects are physically stable and exist even when the objects are not in the child's physical presence. This enables the child to start using symbols to represent things in their minds so they can think about them.

Objective

The focus of a lesson; what students are expected to learn.

Flexible Grouping

The formation of groups for a short period of time to support instruction.

Formal Operational

The fourth stage of cognitive development (11-adulthood) in which abstract and symbolic thought is possible. Problems can be solved through the use of experimentation and critical thinking.

Extrinsic incentive

an environmental reward or consequence affecting attitude

ELL students must acquire:

both social and academic language proficiency in English.

Advanced level of English proficieny

can participate in most writing activities, with second-language acquisition support. Uses predominately grade-appropriate English to write, using some detail. With support from the teacher, has an emerging ability to express herself using self-generated, connected text Occasionally exhibits second-language acquisition errors.

Intrinsic incentive

internal or natural desire or interest

Reflective Practice

is a term which encompasses ways teachers may self-assess teaching practices and critically examine their work. Through reflection, teachers analyze lessons and teaching practices, which helps them develop as professionals.

Four types of Bilingual Education

language immersion; transitional; paired bilingual; and two-way bilingual

Cambourne's Conditions for Learning include:

1) Immersion 2) Demonstration 3) Expectation 4) Responsibility 5) Employment 6) Approximation 7) Engagement

Bloom's Taxonomy (levels)

1) Knowledge 2) Comprehension 3) Application 4) Analysis 5) Sythesis 6) Evaluation

The seven parts to a direct instruction lesson

1) State learning objectives 2) Review prerequisites 3) Present new material 4) Conduct learning probes 5) Provide independent practice 6) Assessment and feedback 7) Review and provide distributed practice

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs includes:

1) Survival 2) Safety 3) Belonging 4) Self-Esteem 5) Intellectual Achievement 6) Aesthetic Appreciation 7) Self-Actualization

The Eight Intelligences

1) interpersonal 2) intrapersonal 3) musical-linguistic 4) spatial 5) logical mathematical 6) bodily-kinesthetic 7) linguistic 8) naturalist

Admission Review and Dismissal (ARD)

A committee composed of the parent, administrator, assessment personnel, regular education teacher, special education teacher, and other pertinent representatives who meet on a regular basis to make decisions in regard to admission, services, and dismissal from special education.

Top-Down Processing

A constructivist approach in which students begin with complex problems to solve, and then work out or discover (with teacher guidance) the basic skills and generalizations.

Individualized Education Program (IEP)

A customized plan for a student with a disability developed by an ARD committee that guides the instruction and services the student receives.

Evaluation

A formal measurement and judgement of student performance or behavior.

Home Contingency

A home-based reinforcement system in which teachers work out with parents an arrangement to give or remove students special privileges at home if they meet well-specified standards of behavior.

Assessment

A measurement appraisal process that is ongoing, developmentally appropriate, and dynamic; the process of gathering evidence of learning.

Inversion

A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking.

Reciprocity

A mental transformation that requires reversible thinking.

Instructional Strategy

A plan, approach, or technique used to teach learning objectives.

Group Contingency

A program in which rewards or punishments are given to a class or group as a whole for adhering to or violating rules or procedures.

Psychosocial Theory

A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development.

Ethnicity

A shared cultural heritage and traditions often based on race, religion, language, or national identity.

Transivity

A skill learned during the concrete operational stage in which children can mentally arrange and compare objects.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

A special education law that requires schools to educate students with disabilities in least restrictive environments to the greatest extent of their abilities using plans tailored to the individual needs of the students.

Limited English Proficient (LEP)

A student who possesses limited mastery of the English language affecting instruction and learning.

Overlapping

A teacher's ability to predict and respond to behavior problems without interrupting a classroom lesson or activity.

Distributed Practice

A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time or intermittently.

Massed Practice

A technique in which information or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time.

Criterion-referenced Test

A test takers performance reported as mastery of learning criteria or standards. Passing requires answering a certain percentage correctly. (STAAR, TAKS)

Norm-referenced Test

A test takers performance reported in comparison to other test takers in the same age or grade sample. Results are reported in standard scores, percentile ranks, t scores, or z scores.

Learning Styles

A theory of individual learner preferences proposed by Dunn & Dunn addressing environmental factors.

Heteronomous Morality

According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the younger stage when children think rules are unchangeable and that breaking rules leads to punishment.

Self-regulation

According to Vygotsky's theory, self-regulation is the ability to think and solve problems without the help of others.

Autonomous Morality

According to Piaget's theory of moral development, the older stage when children understand that rules are created and that punishments are not automatic.

Intermediate level of reading proficiency

The learner will have the ability to read and understand simple, high-frequency English used in routine academic and social contexts. The learner should be able to seek clarification from the teacher in English.

Wait Time

The length of time a teacher waits for a student to answer a question before helping the student answer or asking another student. Research indicates teachers who wait approximately 3 seconds after asking a question get better results that teachers who wait less (Tobin, 1986).

Retention

The level to which students remembers or retains relevant learning information.

Calling Order

The order in which students are called on by the teacher to answer questions during the course of a classroom activity or lesson. Most teachers expand the definition of calling order to include the decision of whether to ask a question and then call on a student or call on student and then phrase the question.

Time-on-Task

The portion of allocated time students are actively engaged in learning; engaged learning time. Allocated time refers to the opportunity for the entire class to engage in learning while engaged time differs for each student.

Adaptation

The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment through assimilation or accommodation. According to Piaget, this is how learning occurs.

Classical Conditioning

The process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to create a conditioned response.

Equilibration

The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences. According to Piaget, learning depends on this process so it is important for teachers to confront students with new experiences or data to advance their cognitive development.

Preoperational Stage

The second stage (2-7) of cognitive development in which children learn to represent things in their mind. During this stage students develop the ability to use symbols to represent objects in the world. Thinking remains egocentric and centered.

What do Piaget's stages mean?

The stage the child is in determines how they see the world. Piaget believed that all students pass through the stages in order and cannot skip any stage.

Momentum

The teacher's ability to avoid interruptions or slowing down instruction (Kounin, 1970); keeping an appropriate pace for instruction.

Smoothness

The teacher's ability to maintain a continued focus on a meaningful sequence of instruction (Kounin, 1970); transitions between instructional sequences that maintain a focus on learning.

Shaping

The teaching of a new skill or behavior by using reinforcement for incremental steps toward the desired goal.

Primacy Effect

The tendency for learners to remember items at the beginning of a list more easily than other items.

Recency Effect

The tendency for learners to remember items at the end of a list more easily than other items.

Concrete Operational Stage

The third stage (7-11) of cognitive development in which children develop the capacity for logical reasoning and understanding of conservation but can use skills only in dealing with familiar situations. New abilities include operations that are reversible. Thinking is decentered, allowing them to understand that others may have different perceptions, and problem solving is less restricted by egocentrism. Abstract thinking is not possible.

Validity

The truthfulness of the assessment information; a determination of how closely a score report measures what it purports to measure.

Reinforcement

The use of consequences to strengthen behavior.

Operant Conditioning

The use of positive or negative consequences to control the occurrence of behavior.

Classroom Climate

The way a classroom feels to the participants.

Identity Diffusion

This state is a struggle of identity that is marked by no real progress in deciding an occupation or ideology of one's own. There is no commitment to anything or ability to develop one's sense of self. An individual may have had an identity crisis, but it would not have been resolved.

Identity Achievement

This state is the state of clarity and of development of one's identity. It marks a commitment to an ideology or more direction in terms of occupational goals. These decisions have been autonomously made and developed by a formed ego identity.

Moratorium

This state marks little real commitment to an ideology or occupation but is also a state of experimentation. It also marks an ongoing identity crisis and the examination of alternate life choices.

Gilligan's Stages of the Ethic of Care

Three stages: Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Trained by Freud as a psychoanalyst, Erikson proposed people pass through eight psychosocial stages of development. A psychosocial crisis is resolved at each stage.

Assimilation

Understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes.

Due Process

describes the parents' rights to disagree with an IEP or an evaluation of their child's abilities. Disagreements may be settled through an impartial due process hearing presided over by an officer appointed by the state.