Praxis 5081 World History

Hundred Years War

(1337-1453) -France was decentralized without a king sometimes; suffering the effects of the Black Plague; vulnerable to English attack; and periodically under English rule. -Joan of Arc led the French in the 1429 Battle of Orléans, reinvigorating French resistance to English incursions. -England lost its last territory in France, Bordeaux, in 1453 to the French King Charles VII

Early Societies [Middle East: Babylonia, Assyria, Hittites]

*Babylonia* (18th century B.C.E): overtook Akkadians in Southern Mesopotamia -used Sumerian in religious settings and Akkadian language -King Hammurabi of Babylonia developed courts and an early codified rule of law- *The Code of Hammurabi*- justice on an equal basis "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth". -organized agriculture, warfare, administration and justice. -Babylon: major ancient city -developed more advanced astronomy, medicine, math, philosophy, and art (clay, building bricks and bas relief) -came under control of Assyria until they finally defeated them in 612 B.C.E in the Battle of Nineveh (Assyrian capital) -Controlled Mesopotamia until fall of Babylon to the Persian Achaemenid Empire in Persia in 539 B.C.E *Assyria* (18th century B.C.E) overtook Akkadians in the Northern Mesopotamia. -powerful city state -culture based on Sumerian and Akkadian legacies -unique sculptures, jewelry, military dominance, important role in regional trade -grown to encompass most of fertile crescent. *Hittites* (1200 B.C.E) from Anatolia. -flourished in the *Iron Age*, developing expertise in metallurgy to create strong weapons. -threat to Assyrians and Egyptians; later Assyria would surpass them.

Greece after the War with Persia

*Demokratia* "people power": participatory rather than representative, officials chosen by groups rather than elected. -controlled by the poor and working classes under the Athenian leaders Pericles and Ephialtes -men only; no women and practiced slavery. -Criterion of double descent: to participate in political life both their parents had to be Athenian. In this period and into the fourth century B.C.E, the Parthenon was built, and other masterpieces of ancient Greek sculpture and architecture -Socrates taught philosophy, influencing Plato who founded the Academy where figures like Aristotle emerged, establishing basis for western philosophical and political thought. -Playwrights like Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus. *Peloponnesian War* (431- 404 B.C.E): Athens and Sparta; involved most of the Hellenic world and crippled Athenian democracy permanently. -instability which Philip II of Macedonia would later use to take over most of Greece. -Philip's son, *Alexander the Great*, would go on to conquer Persia, spreading Greek civilization throughout much of Western and Central Asia.

Cold War [Détente]

*Détente*: warming of relations. -US and SU signed *Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty*: agreed not to further spread nuclear weapons technology. -US and SU signed *SALT I Treaty*: limiting strategic weaponry. US began making diplomatic overtures toward communist China. -China and SU had difficult relations due to different views of communism (Sino-Soviet Split 1960s). -Despite advances in agriculture and some industrialization, Mao's programs like the Great Leap Forward had taken a toll on the people. -Communist China permitted to join the UN (which had been represented by KMT in Taiwan) 1970s-1980s: arms race would resume. -President Ronald Reagan pursued militaristic policy, prioritizing military development with the goal of outspending the SU on weapons technology.

Trade in Asia and the Middle East

*East African Slave Trade*: Arabs, Asians and other Africans kidnapped African people and sent them to lives of slavery throughout the Arab world and South Asia. -Zanzibar: East African port from which slaves, gold, coconut oil, ivory and other African exports made their way to Asia and the Middle East. -Also sent north to markets in Cairo, where they were sold and dispersed throughout the Arab-Islamic, Fatimid and Ottoman Empires. Swahili language adopted aspects of Arabic and other Asian language; in Africa

Cold War Consequences

*Gulf War*- Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait and took over oil reserves and production facilities. -US and other countries went to war (with UN mandate) to expel Iraq from Kuwait and to defend Saudi Arabia in order to regain control of world's oil reserves. -cemented US as sole world superpower. Instability in the Balkans after the fall of the Iron Curtain -Bosnian War: between Bosnian Serbs, and Bosnian Muslims and Croatians (resulted in deaths of thousands of civilians and another European genocide; Bosnian Muslims) Cold War proxy wars brought instability: -*Rwandan Genocide*- Hutus massacred Tutsis and violence continued on both sides. -In Zaire, instability following the fall of Mobutu Sese Seko, the US-supported dictator (Renamed Democratic Republic of the Congo). -1980s drought in the Horn of Africa lead to widespread famine, humanitarian affairs and issues came into the public eye and general public >wealthier families became more concerned about providing aid to the suffering. -Somali leader Mohamed Siad Barre was overthrown in 1991 and Somalia was broken into pieces controlled by various warlords and clans. >people suffered from starvation. >US tried to intervene with humanitarian aid but strong military resistance from warlord Muhammad Aideed impacted US public opinion and the effort failed.

Early Societies [India]

*Indus Valley Civilizations*: in the Indian Subcontinent and Indus and Ganges river basins Harappan: based in Punjab (3000 B.C.E) -cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro: featured grid systems indicative of urban planning (may be earliest to do so) -trade links between them and Mesopotamia. *Gupta Empire*: Golden Age of India, region was economically strong, with active trade with China, East Africa and the Middle East in species, ivory, silk, cotton and iron (highly profitable exports) [did not have the bureaucratic skills; did not have the military] -music, art, architecture, Sanskrit literature and philosophy. -practitioners of Hinduism (tolerant of Buddhists and Jains) -Chandragupta II: governed a large territory due to organized administration and rule of law. -500 invasions from the north by the Huns and internal conflicts led to imperial decline.

Rise and Fall of Other Empires

*Ivan the Terrible* in Russia wanted to expand further, integrate into Europe and strengthen Russian Orthodox Christianity. -first *tsar* (emperor): reformed government, strengthening centralization and administrative bureaucracy and disempowering the nobility. -organized the church and reorganized the military (promoting officials based on merit rather than status). -overextension of resources and his oppressive entourage, the oprichnina, depopulated the state and gave him the reputation as a despotic ruler. Descendant of Timur, Babur, laid claim would found Mughal Empire of India -identified as Turkic due to tribal origins, and enjoyed support from powerful Ottoman Empire in Turkey. -secured land from Kandahar in the West to Bengal in the east. -his grandson, Akbar would consolidate the empire. -rule until British takeover in 19th century. 1644 Ming fell to peasant revolt; the *Mancha*, a non-Han group from the north took the opportunity to seize Beijing and take the country. -Qing Dynasty which would last until 1911. >First emperor, Kangxi Emperor promoted arts and education. >Under Qianlong Emperor (1736-1796): China grew to its largest size, including Tibet, Mongolia, Xinjiang and part of Russia; dominate power in East Asia and successful multi-ethnic state (also patron of arts) Persia: Safavids emerged in 1501 in the wake of the Timurid Empire. -rival of the Ottoman Empire. -Sufism: supported art, literature, architecture and other learning. -order and stability until 1736 when Qajar Dynasty took over.

Reformation

*Martin Luther's 95 These*: letter of protest to the Pope in 1517 where he outlined ways he believed the Church should reform. -Reformation: movement for reform of the Church -Luther's ideas led to offshoots of new versions of Christianity in Western Europe. -Luther and *John Calvin* addressed things such as the supposed infallibility of the Pope (and teaching that the Pope was without fault) and the selling of indulgences, or guarantees into heaven.

Mesoamerican Civilizations

*Maya*: Yucatan peninsula around 300 -complex spiritual system accompanied by relief art, built pyramidal temples. -detailed calendar and written language using pictographs; studied astronomy and math. -Monarchical city-states from around 300-900 until the civilization began to decline. -*Teotihuacan*: major city comprised of various Mesoamerican peoples such as Toltecs, Mixtecs, Zapotecs, some Mayans and other peoples. *Aztecs*: military power and militaristic culture allowed them to dominate region and regional trade in precious objects like quetzal bird feathers. -*Tenochtitlan*: founded in 1325 and at its height, would be home to several million people. -class based: slaves, indentured servants, serfs, independent priestly class, military and ruling class. >did allow for upward mobility, especially those that prove themselves in battle. -same calendar as Mayans. -Worship of the god Quetzalcoatl, a feathered snake. *Incas*: Based in Cuzco (Andes) -consolidated power and strength in the area due to a surplus of their staple crop maize, around 1300. -conquer peoples further South due to domesticated llamas and alpacas which allowed the military to transport supplies through the mountains. >moved conquered groups elsewhere in the empire and repopulated conquered areas with Incas. -built Machu Picchu and imperial infrastructure, including roads throughout the Andes. -highly developed mountain agriculture; could grow crops at high altitudes and maintain waystations on the highways stocked with supplies. >kept track of them through a system called quipus, knotted cords.

Systems of Dominance in the Wester Hemisphere

*Mercantilism*: the colonizing or mother country took raw materials from territories they controlled for their own benefit. -developing goods and selling them back to those colonized lands at inflated prices. *Encomienda system*: granted European landowners the "right" to hold lands in the Americas and demand labor and tribute from local inhabitants. *Columbian Exchange*: -conflict and illness brought by Europeans (smallpox) decimate Native Americans and the Europeans were left without labor to mine silver and gold or to work the land. -African slavery was the answer; mass scale unseen before. -Europeans raided African kingdoms and kidnapped people -*Triangular trade*: European slavers took kidnapped African people from Africa to the Americas, sold them at auction and exchanged them for sugar and raw materials; material traded to Europe for consumer goods, which were then exchanged in Africa for slaves. -Taken in crammed, unsafe, unhygienic ships. -Maroon communities of escaped slaves did resist. -*Toussaint L'Ouverture* led a successful slave rebellion in Haiti, winning independence from the French in 1791.

The Proxy Wars [The Cold War and the End]

*Non-Aligned Movement* / The Third World: countries that wanted to avoid succumbing to the influence of either of the superpowers, many found a forum in the UN in which to strengthen international profiles. Proxy wars fought throughout the world. -1980s: US supported anti-communist Contras in Nicaragua, who were fighting communist Sandinista government. -1979: USSR invades Afghanistan (contribute to Soviet collapse); US supporting anti-Soviet mujahideen forces (some of those patrons would later attack the US). -Angolan Civil War, Mozambican Civil War, Nicaraguan Revolution 1991 Soviet Union fell when Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev implemented reforms like glasnost and perestroika (openness and transparency). -was nearly overthrown in a coup, led Boris Yeltsin, who had been elected president of Russia, stopped the coup. -SU dissolved later that year and Yeltsin became president of the Russian Federation. -War in Afghanistan and military overspending in an effort to keep pace with American military spending weakened SU to the point of collapse, Cold War ended.

Earliest Humans

*Paleolithic Era*- time before agricultural development and settled communities. -Early Hominids that used tools - homo sapiens. -Stone Age- rudimentary technology based on stone. -hunter-gatherers until development of agriculture about 11,000 B.C.E. -60,000-70,000 years ago, humans began migrating from Africa, spreading across continents in several waves of migration to Europe, Asia, Australia, the Pacific Islands, the Americas. *Neolithic Period*- behavioral and technological change (the wheel). -11,000-10,500 B.C.E: humans settle in communities, develop agricultural practices, began domesticating animals. -create tools and weapons made of metal. -all species except homo sapiens became existent. *Bronze Age*- humans began working with copper and tin, creating stronger tools and weapons.

Hinduism

*Reincarnation*: universe and its beings undergo endless cycles of rebirth and *Karma*- one creates one's own destiny. -Soul reincarnates until it has resolved all karamas, at which point it attains moksha, liberation from the cycle. -multiple divine beings. -Based on Vedic scriptures and other important texts like Upanishads, Mahabharata, and the Bhagavad Gita. Primary religion in India and intertwined with the caste system, the hierarchical social structure.

The European Renaissance

*Renaissance*: rebirth, included revival of ancient Greek and Roman learning, art, and architecture. -inspire new learning and prosperity, enabled exploration, colonization, profit and imperialism, and led to scientific and religious questioning and rebellion against the Church and monarchical governments. -Russia did not experience this until the 18th century when *Peter the Great and Catherine the Great* copied modern European culture, modernized the military and updated technology, including building a new capital city, St. Petersburg, a cultural center. -Ottoman conquest of Constantinople, brought scholars with Greek and Roman texts to Italy and Western Europe *Humanism*: emphasizing human nature, creativity and an overarching concept of truth in all philosophical systems (syncretism) -allowed for questioning of the church; Dante, Petrarch, and Erasmus. Florence: 15th century, Italy; Art as a form of expression and science flourished. -explored anatomy in sculpture, design and perspective. -Leonardo da Vinci, Bramante Michelangelo, Rafael, and Donatello. -Medici family funded extensive civic projects, construction, décor, and public sculpture throughout Florence. *Scientific Revolution*: use reason and scientific methodology rather than religion to understand the world. -Galileo, Isaac Newton and Copernicus. -rooted in knowledge of Islamic empires, which had been imported through economic and social contact initiated centuries prior in the Crusades. *Johann Gutenberg*: printing press -first book published = Bible -text more widely and rapidly distributed and people had more access to information beyond what their leaders told them.

The End of WWI/ The Great War

*Schlieffen Plan*- war on two fronts: -Eastern: Russia mobilized too quickly and German army spread too thin. -Western: became bogged down in trench warfare against the British, French and later US. US intercepts Zimmerman Telegram (German alliance with Mexico to attack US); spurred US intervention. -Despite Russian withdrawal after Bolshevik Revolution, Germany was forced to surrender in the face of invasion by the US-supported allies. *Treaty of Versailles*: held Germany accountable for entire war; economic hardship by forcing them to pay reparations; Wilhelm forced to abdicate and ever again regain power. -Created the *League of Nations*: international organization designed to prevent future outbreaks of international war (toothless because US did not join)

Imperialism in Europe

*Scramble for Africa*: industrial economic of Europe would profit from natural resources abundant in that continent. *1884 Berlin Conference*: control of Africa was divided among European powers (Africans not consulted). -Following the *Boer War* (1889-1902) between Afrikaaners of Dutch origin and the English, Britain officially gained control of South Africa. >Would rule the country until the end of Apartheid in the early 1990s. -France controlled West Africa and eventually North Africa (Algeria, Mali, Niger, Chad, Cameroon, republic of Congo). Japan did not fall to imperialism: -Meiji Restoration (1868): promoted modernization of technology, especially in the military. -Defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1905) and proved itself as a world power.

Early Societies [China]

*Shang Dynasty* ruled Huang He (Yellow River) (Second millennium B.C.E). -Chinese writing which united Chinese-speaking people throughout the region. -bronze technology, horses, wheeled technology, walled cities and other advanced beyond Neolithic societies. *Zhou Dynasty* (1056 B.C.E) expanded Chinese civilization to Chiang Jiang (Yangtze River) region. -political infrastructure in which family aristocracies controlled the country -capital Hao (near Xi'an) -Ancestral cults controlled tracts of land throughout the country (similar to later European feudalism); hierarchical rule and social stratification. -*Mandate of Heaven*: emperor had a divine mandate to rule; land was divinely inherited. -Spring and Autumn Period: instability during end of Zhou Dynasty -Confucius lived at this time; his teachings basis for *Confucianism*: Chinese philosophy emphasizing harmony and respect for hierarchy. Warring States Period (475- 221 B.C.E): *Qin Dynasty* emerged (221-206 B.C.E) -unified disparate Chinese civilizations and regions under the first Emperor, Qin Shihuangdi. -centralized administration, expanded infrastructure, standardization in weights and measures, standardized writing and currency, and strict imperial control. -Administrative bureaucracy established by emperor was the foundation of Chinese administration until the 20th century. -constructed the Great Wall of China -Shihuangdi's tomb is guarded by famous terracotta figurines (Thing at the front is the protector. Horse and camel suggest integration of central Asia into Chinese culture. The servant (next to the camel) little lawyer to argue whether he led a good or bad life. Another guard helps you navigate the afterlife.) -expanded as far as Vietnam. *Han Dynasty* (206 B.C.E - 220 C.E): retain Qin administrative organization and adding Confucian ideals of hierarchy and harmony. -Confucian ideals: educated men should control administrative government.

Cultural Exchange

*Silk Road*: trading routes stretched from Arab-controlled Eastern Mediterranean to Song Dynasty China, where science and learning blossomed. -transnational nature of Central Asia: nomadic culture of Central Asia lent itself to trade between major civilizations of China, Persia, Near East and Europe. -Buddhism and Islam spread into China -Chinese, Islamic and European art, pottery, and goods were interchanged between the three civilizations- early globalization. Islamic traditions of hajj, pilgrimage to Mecca, allowed those of the Islamic faith from different regions to meet. Islam spread into West Africa. -Brisk trade between gold-rich Kingdom of Ghana and Muslim traders in Morocco brought Islam to the region. -*Mali Empire* (1235-1500): father south in Timbuktu, extended beyond original Ghanaian boundaries all the way to the West African coast and controlled valuable gold and salt trades. >center of learning and commerce >at its peak: Mansa Musa made a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324. >by 1500 Songhai Empire overcame them.

Conflict in the Balkans: The Balkan Wars

1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, disregarding Russian objections. Russia helped form Balkan League: Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria, which sent to war with the Ottomans in the 1912 First Balkan War. -Ottomans defeated and lose nearly all their European possessions -Disagreement over the division of land led to the Second Balkan War the following year between Bulgaria and a Serbia-Greek alliance. >Serbia wanted to keep Albanian territory, which Austria-Hungary insisted remain independent; Bulgaria wanted control over more land in Macedonia (which had come mainly under Greek and Serbian rule) This instability would lead to the WWI which was triggered by the *assassination of the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand* by the Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1914.

Russian Revolution of 1917

1917: Russian widespread food shortages and economic crisis; morale was low due to conscription and as the military suffered enormous losses and humiliating defeats under the command of Nicholas II. -Formed the Petrograd Soviet (Council) in the February Revolution: Tsar forced to abdicate; fall of the Romanovs. -Provisional government was ineffective at solving economic problems; elected Soviets seemed to better represent the interests of the workers and peasants who suffered the most, and so they became more powerful. Bolsheviks felt, unlike the Mensheviks, that the revolution needed to be planned and instigated at the right moment, not a phenomenon meant to occur naturally (not in February Revolution) -power in control of Soviets not in the Duma; Russia make peaceful withdrawal from the war; land redistributed among peasants; economic crisis in cities resolved. -*October Revolution*: Lenin, Trotsky, and the Bolsheviks took control of the Petrograd Soviet and Russia, defeating the Provisional Government in a coup. Russian Civil War (1918): White Armies (formers supporters of the tsar) vs Red Army (Bolsheviks). -during the War the communists consolidated power by industrializing industry, developing and distributing propaganda portraying themselves as defenders of Russia against imperialism, and forcefully eliminating dissent. -By 1921, Bolsheviks successful and they formed the Soviet Union or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

Leading up to WWII

1919 Weimar Republic established in Germany: a democratic government -Blamed for WWI, Germany owed huge reparations according to Treaty of Versailles to pay for costs of war. -hyperinflation resulted and impoverishing the country and its people. -rise of *Nazi Party* led to further political instability. -US called for its loans back during Great Depression. -unemployed workers supported communism. -*Adolf Hitler*, gained support from business interests which feared communist power in government Hitler made chancellor in 1933. -charisma and popular platform: cancel the Treaty of Versailles. -*Joseph Goebbels*: effective propaganda campaign -Hitler's rule The *Third Reich*. -1934 Hitler became Führer or leader of Germany. -Fire in the Reichstag (German Parliament): allowed Hitler to arrest communist leaders -rise of the Gestapo, secret police -banning of political parties and trade unions. Set in motion their agenda of racism and genocide against "non-Aryan" or racially impure people -Mainly Jewish people; passed laws limiting Jewish rights, including jobs, rights of citizenship, places they could go, public facilities they could use, whom they could marry, even names they could have -*Kristallnacht* (1938): organized series of attacks on Jewish businesses, homes, places of worship; windows of these places were smashed. -*Ghettoes* (1939): Jews forced from their homes into these places that were isolated, overcrowded urban neighborhoods. -1941 yellow stars identifying them as Jewish -*Concentration Camps* and the *Final Solution* (to the "Jewish Question"): to murder Jewish people by systematically gassing them at death camps. -At least six million European Jews were murdered by the Nazis in the *Holocaust*. -Roma, Slavic, homosexuals, disabled people, people of color, prisoners of war and communists would also be subjected to these conditions.

Rome in decline

300 C.E Rome was in decline; unstable administrations *Diocletian* (284-305 C.E.) took over as Emperor, effectively dividing the empire into two: Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (because it was too large for a single leader to rule) -established some stability and more effective administration, creating a loose power-sharing agreement throughout the empire. -The Christian *Constantine*: took over the eastern half the empire, establishing a new capital at Constantinople, and Christianity was the official religion. >Constantine would later reconquer the Western Roman Empire and reunite it in 324 C.E. >capital still Constantinople. Western Church gained more power in Rome. -One of Jesus Christ's followers, Peter, was considered to be the first Pope, leader of Christian ministry (executed in Rome where the *Vatican* (seat of Catholic Church) was). Western portion of Rome felt into disarray: agreements with European clans like the Anglo-Saxons, the Franks, Visigoths, the Ostrogoths and the Slavs to protect western and northern borders. -these groups rebelled against the government and what was left of the Roman Empire in the west fell (defeated them due to equestrian skills, superior wheels, and iron technology) -last Roman emperor killed in 476 C.E, marking the end of the empire. -tribes took over the territories.

Arabian Peninsula

7th century, Prophet Muhammad began teaching Islam. -based on the teachings of Judaism and Christianity, Islam presented the final version of these two religions -its own set of laws and philosophical teachings. -held universal appeal Conversion happened by practicing the faith -religion transcends national and ethnic differences -offers the possibility of redemption, forgiveness of sins and a pleasant afterlife. -Muslims accepted Jews and Christians as People of the Book rather than forcing their conversion, enabling their later conquest of Southwest Asia and facilitating relationships in the region. Small group of followers out of the desert to conquer Arabian cities of Mecca and Medina, where they would establish the *Caliphate*, the political embodiment of the society envisioned in Islam. -come to control Southwest Asia and North Africa.

Conflict in the 21st Century

911 US attacked by Terrorists resulting in thousands of civilian casualties; led to War on Terror -Afghanistan's radical Islamist Taliban government providing shelter to group that took responsibility for attacks, al Qaeda (led by Osama bin Laden). >al Qaeda inspired by Wahhabism of the remote Arabian desert followed by the Saudis. >bin Laden had fought with mujahideen during the 1980s but angered by US intervention in the Middle East throughout the 1990s and its support of Israel. -Iraq War (2003): invaded Iraq under premise that Saddam Hussein's regime was involved with al Qaeda, supported international terrorism and possessed weapons of mass destruction and that it intended to use them in pursuit of terrorism. *Arab Spring* (2011) in Tunisia, Egypt, Bahrain and syria where reform movements replaced dictatorial regimes with democratic governments; other countries still enjoy limited freedoms or civil unrest. -In Syria, civil war between Bashar al Assad and opposition fighters; resulted in enormous movements of refugees into Europe. Islamic State of Iraq and al Sham (ISIS) has filled the vacuum in parts of northern and western Iraq and eastern Syria. -established a de facto state in Iraq and Syria with extremist Islamist policies and presents a global terror threat. Conflict over control of Gaza and the West Bank -Gaza passed from Israel to control of Palestinian Authority (2005) -Now Gaza is controlled by Hamas following political divisions within Palestinian factions. -Palestinian Authority controls West Bank.

Song Dynasty

960-1276 C.E. controlled most of China. -tremendous development and economic growth. -increasing urbanization, complex administrative rule (competitive written examinations required to obtain prestigious bureaucratic positions in government) -traditions recognized as Chinese occurred during this era: consumption of tea and rice, common Chinese architecture. -overland trade along the Silk Road, exporting silk, tea, ceramics, jade and other goods and also sea trade with Korea, Japan, Southeast Asia, India, Arabia and even East Africa.

Islam

Angel Gabriel spoke to Prophet Muhammad, transmitting the literal world of Allah (God), which was later written down in the *Qur'an*. -Muhammad final prophet of the god of the Jews and Christians and Islam shares moral teachings. -Recognizes leaders like Abraham, Moses and Jesus but unlike Christianity, views Jesus as a prophet, not as the son of God. -Muhammad was a political, religious and military leader; conquered Arabian Peninsula and other parts of the middle East. >protected People of the Book, or Jews and Christians. Sunni-Shi'a Schism after Muhammad's death: over succession and some teachings. Hadith: book of legal teachings

After WWII

By 1949 the Chinese Civil War continued (after a pause to fight the Japanese) and the communist emerged victorious. -KMT withdrew to Taiwan, while Mao and the CCP took over China (communist). Extreme horrors of WWII helped develop the concept of *genocide*: effort to extinguish an entire group of people because of their ethnicity. -idea of human rights. -Formation of the *UN*: a body to champion human rights and uphold international security >*Security Council*: permanent member states which can intervene militarily in the interests of international stability.

Imperialism [Britain: Africa and India]

Carnatic Wars (1763-1764): violence between the British East India Company and the French East India Company. After loss of Thirteen colonies, Britain still had control of Canada, rich in natural resources like beaver pelts and timber. -Also controlled Indian continent which was rich in resources and strategically important. -would become the strongest naval power in the world and continue to expand its empire, in search for new markets for its manufactured goods to support its industrial concept. 1837 Queen Victoria (1837-1901): -Penal colony of Australia in 1788 but 1851 British people settled there. -Indian Mutiny in 1857 caused her to take the position of Empress of India, cementing the imperial nature of government and the Raj (imperial administration) -1877: British annex South Africa following the Boer Wars (gold and diamond rich) >Cecil Rhodes tasked with exploring Africa despite conflicting European claims, claims by Afrikaaners, and residence of the Matabele, who had lived there for centuries. >Rhodes took over Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Nyasaland (Malawi) and Bechuanaland (Botswana) using treaties, diplomacy and violence. David Livingstone: working in Kenya. -Borders drawn between Germany (Tanganyika) and the British (Kenya and Uganda) without considering the Kikuyu, Masai, Luo tribes living in the era. *White Man's Burden*: white Europeans were obligated to bring their "superior" culture to other civilizations around the globe; drove imperialist adventure, popularizing it at home and in Europe.

Middle Ages (Dark Ages) [Celts, Germanic, Franks]

Celts controlled Britain and Ireland until the invasion of the Saxons around 600 C.E: Saxons got Britain while the Celts were pushed to Ireland, Scotland and Brittany. -Monasteries in Ireland and England retained and protected classical documentation in the wake of the fall of Rome and insecurity in Italy. Germanic Tribes vied for control in Germany and France -threatened by Asian invaders like the Huns, increasing instability in central and eastern parts of Europe, where Slavs also fought for supremacy north of Byzantium. North African Moors, expanding Islamic civilization, had penetrated Iberia and were a threat to Christian Europe. -Charles Martel (leader of Franks in France) defeated the Moors at the Battle of Tours (Poitiers) in 723 C.E, effectively stopping further Moor incursion. -*Charlemagne*: took over the Merovingian kingdom following disputes over succession. >maintain Frankish unity and consolidate his rule, extending Frankish control into Central Europe and defending the Papal States in central Italy. >crowned Roman emperor by Pope Leo III in 800 C.E (despite its fall, people still saw themselves as part of the Roman empire) [Carolingian Empire] >feudal system became truly organized. >did not last: dissolved into small fiefdoms and territories. -In 962 C.E., Otto I became emperor of the *Holy Roman Empire* in Central Europe, a confederation of small states which remained important to European power until it dissolution in 1806. -In 1066 *William the Conqueror* left Normandy. >Normans established organization in England, more consolidated economy and kingdom supported by feudalism. >consolidated Christianity as the local religion. >parts of France, a kingdom but consisting of smaller territories with some level of independence. >intermarriage and conquest result in more land.

Middle Ages (Dark Ages) [Japan]

Chinese Model: Links with Tang China -Korea -Buddhism -Great Taika Reform - beginning of Chineseification of Japan. Nara (710-784) -Chinese style capital -street design; palace in the north, markets in the south. Buddhism in Japan -Shinto- idea that there are gods and spirits in human/earthly things. -no place for salvation in the afterlife; no way to see that you are improving yourself. -Buddhism and Literacy - kanji (Chinese); hiragana (onna-de; woman's hand)(Lady Sarashina and other females writers used it); katakana (foreign words that are transliterate) Heian Japan (794-1185) -Eiga -describes a key fascination of Heian elite. Fixation (love) and pursuit with splendor/ritual, ceremony, compo circumstance. -mono no aware -sensibility; aweness (coolness), desire to be awe-struck; things that are not permanent. Sense of awe for things that are impermanent.

Height of the Revolution in France

Considerable French losses against an alliance between Austria, Prussia and Great Britain. Jacobins split into: -Girondins (concentrating power in the hands of the bourgeoisie) -Montagnards, led by *Robespierre* (radical social policy empowering the poor) Fear of counterrevolutionaries and instability abroad led to the creation of the Committee of Public Safety in 1793. -Robespierre led the Committee and the *Reign of Terror*, during which thousands of people were executed by *guillotine*, including Louis XIV, Marie Antoinette and Robespierre the next year.

Cultural Exchange after the Crusades

Crusades never resulted in permanent European control over the Holy Land, they did open up trade routes between Europe and the Middle East, stretching all the way along the Silk Road to China. -Ongoing interactions between Europeans and Muslims exposed Europeans, to improved education and goods, thanks to international trade which allowed them to afford it. *Bubonic (Black) Plague*: spread to Europe due to global exchange -killed off a third of its population from 1347-1351 bubo/bubonic- enlarged lymph nodes -Rattus Rattus: common black rat -does not work that fast (up to 10 weeks). -fleas and rats are less mobile in winter months but the trends don't go down then. -Septicemic plague (blood) (Poison) - fever, chills, weakness: tissue bleeding and dying tissue appears black -Pneumonic plague (respiratory)- chest pain, cough, diarrhea-people could die as quick as 36 hours. -combination of all 3 of these: summer bubonic, septicemic all year round, pneumonic during winter. -effective way to prevent the disease is quarantine (40 days; long enough to protect people from slowest developing plague and from the fastest).

Persia and Greece in Conflict

Cyrus, founder of the *Achaemenid Empire*, conquered the Babylonians in the 6th century B.C.E. -His son Darius extended Persian rule from the Indus Valley to Egypt and north to Anatolia by about 400 B.C.E, where they encountered the ancient Greeks. -In Anatolia, the Persian king Xerxes led two campaigns against Greek forces. >Decisively defeated at the battles of Marathon (490 B.C.E) and Slamis (480 B.C.E). *Greek (Hellenic Civilization)*: political, philosophical, and mathematical thought, art and architecture and poetry and theater. -*City-states/communities (Polis)* like Athens, the first known democracy, and the military state Sparta. -Athens and Sparta normally enemies but united to come to the aid of Ionian Greeks in Anatolia under Persian rule and push them out of Greece. >Greeks held them at bay and Greece became unified under Athens following the war. >*Golden Age* of Greek civilization that much of the Hellenic art, architecture and philosophy known today emerged.

Seven Years' War

Death of Hapsburg Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI lead to the *War of Austrian Succession*: a series of continental wars over who would take control of Hapsburg territories. -Maria Theresa (Charles Daughter) and Britain vs Frederick II (Frederick the Great) of Prussia and France, Bavaria and Spain. -Forced by dwindling finances: Treaty of Aix la Chappelle in 1748: Gave Theresa most of Austrian possessions and Silesia to Prussia. -Britain formed an alliance with Prussia to protect its allies in Hannover; Austria allied with France (Diplomatic Revolution) -1756: Frederick the Great attacks Austria (before they could attack him), which starts the Seven Years' War. The War: - Frederick the Great invaded Silesia, then Bohemia in 1787 (repelled) -British lost to France in the west; Sweden attacked from the north and Russia from the east. -Frederick called on Britain for more support. -William Pitt the Elder (essentially Prime Minister) authorized enormous financial contributions to Prussia; began focusing the war overseas against France on imperial possessions in the Western Hemisphere and Asia. -Catherine the Great took over Russia and withdraw from the conflict, focusing on the development of Russia. -Hostilities would die down.

Leading up to the Cold War

Despite initial positive relations between the US, Britain and the SU, at the Potsdam Conference in 1945 things had changed: -SU did not like that the US had used the atomic bomb. -*Marshall Plan*: US plan to rebuild europe by providing aid to European countries in an effort to restart the European economy and rebuild the continent >Stalin broke his promise made at the 1945 Yalta Conference to allow Eastern European countries to hold free elections (instead occupied and put them under communist control) >claimed it was a buffer zone to accommodate their heavy casualties in WWII. >*Iron Curtain*: an imaginary boundaries dividing Eastern and Western Europe. *NATO* (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): agreement among Western states wherein an attack on one was an attack on all (*Collective security*) US development of containment and the Truman Doctrine. *Warsaw Pact*: organization of Eastern European countries. Nuclear weapons (especially hydrogen bombs) raised the stakes of conflict. -*Mutually Assured Destruction*: understanding that a nuclear strike by one country would result in a response by the other, ultimately destroying the entire world (prevented outbreak of active violence)

The Rise of the Byzantine Empire

Eastern part of Roman empire, capital Constantinople, evolved into the unified Byzantine Empire. -*Justinian* (527-565 C.E) re-conquered parts of North Africa, Egypt, Greece, established rule of law, reinvigorated trade with China and built the *Hagia Sophia* (the cathedral and center of orthodox Christianity). -continued establishment of Christianity and eliminating the last vestiges of Greco-Roman religion and competing Christian sects. -control areas in Anatolia, the Levant and North Africa until the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. A schism between different doctrines between the church in Rome and Christians in Constantinople would create the Roman Catholic Church and the Greek Orthodox Church.

Reconquista

End of 10th century, Abbasid Caliphate was in decline -Shi'ite Fatimids took control of Syria and Egypt, addressing the Shi'ite claim to the caliphate. In Spain, Abd al-Rahman III (891-961) had defied the Abbasids and the Fatimids, taking over al-Andalus (Spain) himself and fostering a unique Hispano-Arabic culture where intellectual pursuits bloomed. -despite some coexistence between christians and Muslims under Muslim rule, raids and conflict were ongoing during lengthy period of the Reconquista. >Small Christian Spanish kingdoms fighting for dominance until: Ferdinand of Castilla and Isabella of Aragon married which enabled them to re-take Grenada and end the Reconquista in 1492 (uniting Spain) Inquisition: Ferdinand and Isabella extended persecution of Jews and Jewish converts to Christianity who continued to practice Judaism in secret. -Jews were tortured, killed and exiled; belongings and property confiscated. -Muslims also persecuted and forced to convert to Christianity or be exiled.

Changes in the Middle East

End of WWI = end of Ottoman Empire (1923 dissolved). -1908 Young Turks, a military government, effectively taken over the empire in an effort to modernize it. >nationalism and Turkishness (Turkish ethnicity and culture). >1915 Christian Armenian genocide in order to control ethnic groups it believed threatened the Turkish nature of the empire (1.5 million killed). >ally of Germany and defeated in the war. *Sykes-Picot Agreement* (1916): planned for the Middle East following the defeat of the Ottomans. -divided up the region into spheres of influence to be controlled by each power; Palestine would be governed internationally. -*Balfour Declaration* (1917): promised the Jews an independent state in Palestine, did not honor this agreement; conflicted with S-P Agreement. -divided into *mandates*, areas nominally independent but effectively controlled by Britain and France. -refugees and migrants traveled with identification to places that suddenly had restricted borders -ethnic and religious groups were divided by what would be modern borders of the Middle East. King Fuad in Egypt and Husayn ibn Ali (King Hussein) backed by the British. -Rest of the Arabian Peninsula was taken by the *Saudis*, a tribe from the desert that followed an extreme form of Islam, the Wahhabi Movement. >King Saud would eventually conquer Mecca and Medina but never take the title of Caliph. -*Pan-Arabism*: Arabs and Arabic speakers should be aligned regardless of international borders. -Islamism: The Muslim Brotherhood: established in Egypt in the 1920s, filling social roles that the state had abandoned or could not fill; inspired groups like Hamas and Hezbollah.

Age of Revolutions

Enlightenment ideals like democracy and republicanism, coupled with political instability, would trigger revolution against absolute monarchy -drew from people like John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu, whose beliefs such as republicanism, the social contract, the separation of powers, and the rights of man would drive the Age of Revolutions.

Middle Ages (Dark Ages) [Feudalism]

Fall of Rome to about the 10th century were a chaotic, unstable and unsafe time. -protection and stability were represented and maintained by Catholic Church and the feudal system. *Feudalism*: society and economics characterized by decentralized, local governances. -Hierarchy where land and protection were offered in exchange for loyalty. -For protection, *vassals* would pledge *fealty*, or pay homage to *lords*, landowners who would reward their vassal's loyalty with land or fiefs. -*Manors*: self-sustaining areas possessed by lords but worked by peasants. >*Serfs*: not slaves but not entirely free; tied to the land they worked in exchange for protection, not obligated to fight (lives effectively controlled by lord) >*Knights*: fought for lords; rewarded with land and could become minor lords in their own right. >Lords could be vassals of other lords. >hierarchy extended upward to kings or the Catholic Church. -Limits on Sovereign power: 1215 Magna Carta signed by King John protected their property and rights from the king and was the basis for the parliamentary system in England. -Catholic Church was a major landowner and political power; the Pope not only a religious leader but a military and political one.

Judiasm

First monotheistic religion, one god. -God came to the Hebrew Abraham and that the Hebrews, Jews, were to be God's chosen people to serve as an example to the world. Moses would lead the Jews out of slavery in Egypt, and God gave him *Ten Commandments* or laws, the basis of what would become Judeo-Christian and Islamic moral codes. -confirming one singular God, laid out social rules for organizing a society under one God; to refrain from theft and murder and to honor one's parents, among others. *Torah and Talmud* (religious and civil law)- holy texts -different branches: Orthodox, Conservative, Reform Judaism, among others.

The end of the Revolution and the Rise and Fall of Napoleon Bonaparte

France continued its effort to spread the revolution throughout the continent, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, who occupied Egypt. -In 1799, Napoleon took power in France (revolution over) 1804 Napoleon emperor of France and proceeded to conquer much of Europe throughout the *Napoleonic Wars*. -weakened Spain and revolutionary movements resulted. -triggered a collapse in the Holy Roman Empire; Prussia emerged with a strong sense of militarism and Germanic nationalism that took root in the face of opposition. >Prussia would later unify the small kingdom of Central Europe that had made up the Holy Roman Empire, forming Germany. -Napoleon defeated in Russia in 1812 and forced by European powers to abdicate in 1813. Escaped prison on island of Elba, raised an army, and overthrew Louis XVIII. -defeated a the Battle of Waterloo by the British and was exiled once again but to St. Helena. *Congress of Vienna* (1815): European powers (Prussia, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Russia and Britain) agreed on a balance of power in Europe.

Cooperation in the Modern World

G-20: world's twenty most important economic and political powers, includes many formers colonies and non-European countries. -BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa)- recognized as world economic and political leaders. *European Union*: formed after Maastricht Treaty in 1992. -countries remain independent, but they cooperate in international affairs, justice, security and foreign policy like environmental factors and economic policy. -many also share common currency (euro). -*Schengen Agreement*: some EU countries have open borders. *African Union*- organization peacekeeping missions throughout the continent. -forum for African countries to organize and align political, military, economic and other policies. Globalization and free trade: -Lower prices and more consumer choice, but unemployment increases in more developed countries and labor and environmental violations are more likely in developing countries. -NAFTA (North America), Mercosur (South America), Trans Pacific Partnership (between nine countries on the Pacific ocean). -World Trade Organization oversees international trade. -Technology like improvements in transportation infrastructure and the internet make international communication faster, easier and cheaper.

Conflict in the Balkans: The Path to WWI

Germany and Austria-Hungary formed the Dual Alliance to respond to fears of pan-Slavism. -Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary formed the *Triple alliance*: Italy needed assistance to fight France who threatened their imperial ambition in North Africa. Second Balkan Crisis (1885): Bulgaria declared unification and independence, violating the Treaty of Berlin and Russian interests. -Serbia went to war against Bulgaria, requiring Austro-Hungarian support. Russia felt slighted by old alliance, would align themselves with Britain and France in the 1907 *Triple Entente* (setting the stage of WWI).

Cold War [Intense Conflict]

Germany: -Berlin Blockade: West Germany (Britain, France, US); Eastern Germany (SU). -*Berlin Airlift*: western powers providing supplies to West Berlin by air. -1961: Refugees from the Eastern bloc came to West Berlin, seeking better living conditions; West Berlin center for Western espionage. -1961: SU constructed Berlin Wall under Khrushchev and closed the border between the two sides. Korea: -North Korea (Communist Kim il Sung) and South Korea (Syngman Rhee; non-communist); divided at 38th parallel. -1950: Sung invaded the South with Russian and Chinese support, intending to create a communist Korea. -UN troops dominated and led by the US came to aid of the nearly defeated South Koreans, pushing back Sung's troops. -China supported Sung and war until 1953, when Eisenhower threatened to use nuclear bombs. -ended in a stalemate Cuba: -Revolutionary Fidel Castro took over in 1959. -Allowed SU military bases to be constructed in Cuba, which threatened US. -Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): close to nuclear war when the SU sent missiles to Cuba. -American blockage of SU ships, tensions grew as the US considered invading Cuba. -Agreement between Kennedy and Khrushchev: SU dismantled missiles in cuba as long as the US ended the blockade and secretly dismantled their own missiles in Turkey. Vietnam: -*Gulf of Tonkin Resolution*: authorized president to manage ongoing conflict without consulting Congress; troops deployed, fueling conflict. -Came to the aid of Vietnam's old colonial master France -Ho Chi Minh led guerrilla fighters called *Viet Cong* in a war for independence throughout the 1960s. -Viet Cong outnumbered by knew the terrain, got support from Russia and China, and had determination; resulted in victory. -Guerrilla warfare demoralized American military -*1968 Tet Offensive*: enormous losses, North Vietnamese won a strategic victory in this coordinated, surprise offensive. -US withdrawal due to high casualties, extreme objection to the war, and demoralization.

WWII in Europe

Hitler was a *fascist*, believing in free market accompanied by a dictatorial government with a strong military. -Annexing Austria and the Sudetenland; German-majority areas. -*Appeasement* by the French and British granting Hitler the Sudetenland in order to avoid another war and maintain stability (threat posed by Soviets made them think a stronger Germany would be helpful). -Appeasement failed and Hitler went to invade the rest of Czechoslovakia and formed an alliance with Italy. -SU and Germany pact (1939): Germany not invade SU, and the two countries would divide Poland (Germany then invaded Poland; considered beginning of WWII) Hitler controlled more land than any power since Napoleon. -1940: Germany took Paris. -1940 Battle of Britain: Germany suffered its first defeat and was unable to take Britain. -Hitler invaded Russia, but in 1942 the SU defeated Germany at the *Battle of Stalingrad*, a turning point in the war during which the Nazis were forced to turn from the Eastern Front. Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin all met in Tehran to discuss the invasion of Italy; Allies took Rome later that year. -1944: Allies invaded France on *D-Day*. -Liberated Paris in August, *Battle of the Bulge* extended into 1945; despite thousands of American casualties, Hitler's forces were pushed back. -Spring of 1945: US crossed Rhine while the USSR invaded Berlin; Hitler killed himself and the Allies accepted German surrender.

Early Societies [Middle East: Where and what are they? & Sumerians]

In the *Fertile Crescent*: area in North Africa and Southwest Asia stretching from Egypt through the Levant and into Mesopotamia. -large centralized communities with social stratification and rule of law. *Sumerians* (2500 B.C.E): developing irrigation and advanced agriculture. -supported settled areas that transformed into city-state and eventually cities like Uruk. -*Cuneiform*: earliest known example of writing to use characters to form words. >early education, literary and artistic development (Epic of Gilgamesh), and architectural achievements like ziggurats. >writing system facilitated more advanced government and administration. -Overcome by Semitic-Speaking, nomadic peoples; formed the Akkadian Empire. >adopted cuneiform and developed Semitic Akkadian language.

Early Societies [Middle East: Egypt]

In the Nile Valley (5000 B.C.E) -known for pyramids, art, hieroglyphs (pictorial writing) -evidence of monarchy (pharaoh) dates to First Dynasty, 3000 B.C.E -fertile land of Nile leant itself to agriculture and irrigation; enabled them to develop settle communities. -Capital of Memphis Fourth Dynasty: well developed institutions, written language, art, architecture -pyramids: erected at Giza; burial tombs for Pharaohs Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure (2400-2500 B.C.E). -complex mythology of various gods. 2200 B.C.E instability allowed fighters from the city of Thebes took over, establishing 11th Dynasty. -12th Dynasty: took over gold and resource rich Nubia. 18th Dynasty: apex of power (1500-1290 B.C.E), led by Pharaoh Thutmose III, expanded into the Levant. *King Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV)* abolished Egyptian religion, establishing cult of the sun-Aten- linked to him. -period of iconoclastic art and sculpture 19th Dynasty: Ramesses I and Ramesses II; returned to traditional values -Ramesses II: battled Hittites in the Levant, reaching a stalemate -Eventually fell into decline, losing control of Levant to Assyria.

[Decolonization] The Middle East

Israel given to the Zionist movement after Balfour Declaration of 1917 (finally fulfilled in the 1940s). Artificial borders based on the Sykes-Picot Agreement were vulnerable to political instability; with added unrest, Middle Eastern governments fell. Egypt: *Gamal Abdul Nasser* led the Pan-Arabist movement in the region; creating an Arab alliance against Israel. -1967 *Six Day War*: Arabs allies launched a war against Israel and were badly beaten (Arabs was embarrassed and Israel took control of Sinai Peninsula, Golan Heights and West Bank of the Jordan River.) -*1973 Yom Kippur War*: US supported Israel, SU supported Syria and Egypt. >Syria and Egypt had launched surprise attack on Israel on the holiest day of the Jewish year in an attempt to gain territory back lost years prior. >Israel was able to maintain its defenses. -*Camp David Accords*: peace between Egyptian leader Anwar Sadat and Menachem Begin brokered by Jimmy Carter. Iran under the oppressive regime of western-supported Shah Reza Pahlavi for decades (allowed Britain to explore oil interests). -Pahlavi Dynasty took over Persia in 1920 from the Qajars, who had ruled since 1785. -By 1970s, Pahlavi's regime was unpopular but propped up by the West. -*1979 Iranian Revolution*: forces (communists and Islamic revolutionaries) overthrew the Shah; Islamist revolutionaries would take over the country. >Led by a group of clerics led by the Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khomeini. >stricter interpretation of Islamic laws and traditions and enforcing those throughout the country as national and local law. Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein (ally of US), declared war on Iran (1980-1990) -despite Sunnis being in government, Iraq had a Shi'ite majority; feared Iran would inspire Shi'ite to rebel. -Also, sought control over strategic Shatt al-Arab waterway and some oil-rich territories inland.

WWII in Asia

Japan joined the Axis powers -Second Sino-Japanese War (1937)- Japan tried to extend its imperial reach into China resulting in atrocities like the Rape of Nanking (1937-1938). >Mao formed an alliance with Chiang to stop Japanese; CCP became stronger as a result; KMT demoralized and little support. -1941: Attack Pearl Harbor; caused the use to join the war. -Japan continued imperialist policies: took advantage of war to occupy French Indochina, Indonesia and Burma and the Philippines. Strategic Battles fought in Saipan and Iwo Jima to secure landing strips for American bombers. -Leyte: US destroyed most of Japanese navy. -fighting US for territory in the Philippines and *Okinawa* (US would use a staging point for an invasion of Japan in order to force a Japanese surrender) -President Truman elected to avoid the hundred of thousands of casualties that a land invasion would cause and opted to drop atomic bombs on *Hiroshima and Nagasaki*. >civilian casualties forced the emperor to surrender and WWII ended.

Changes in East Asia

Japanese imperialism in Asia: Wanted to gain power and access to raw materials, limit European rule in what Japan considered its Sphere of Influence -1894-1894 First Sino-Japanese War with Qing Dynasty China: establishing trade rights there, gaining influence over China's vassal Korea, and controlling Taiwan in the Treaty of Shimonoseki (showed Chinese military and organizational limitations and Japanese military superiority). -Japan granted Germany's Pacific Islands by the League of Nations -1931: Japan invaded Manchuria, creating the puppet state Manchukuo. Xinhai Revolution (1911): China; resulting in overthrow of Qing and the end of dynastic Chinese rules, establishing the Republic of China. -led by Sun Yat-sen, the revolutionaries not only had the support of the disaffected Chinese people but the financial support of millions of Chinese living abroad. -left a power vacuum which allowed for the rise of warlords and the government was unable to establish control. -The Kuomintang or *Nationalist Party* of the revolutionary government worked to consolidate government power >Following Sun-Yat Sen's death in 1925, the KMT leader Chiang Kai-Shek (Jiang Jieshi) went on to take control of much of China back from the warlords. *Chinese Communist Party* rose out of anger with the European powers who gave German possessions in China to Japan. -KMT and CCP worked together to take back Republic. -Chiang would turn on CCP and force them South. -CCP focused organizing activities in the countryside on the peasants, becoming powerful in Southern China. -KMT attacked ccp in the south and forced the CCP to retreat on the Long March north. -*Mao Zedong* was the leader.

Colonization in the West

King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella agreed to sponsor Christopher Columbus' exploratory voyage in 1492 to find a seat route to Asia to speed up commercial trade there. -landed in the Caribbean. *Montezuma II and the Aztecs and Hernan Cortés* in Tenochtitlan after Cortés had invaded other areas of Mexico in 1519 -Spanish superiority in military technology forced Montezuma to seek compromise; Cortés did not want to (sought wealth and prestige) -Cortés arrested Montezuma and took over the city. -Wanted to subdued Aztec religion: ceremonies of human blood and sacrifice, and control gold. *Francisco Pizzaro* (early 16th century) wanted to spread Christianity and economic exploitation. -defeated Incas king Atahualpa and installed a puppet ruler. -desecrated important religious artifacts- like mummies important for ancestor worship- installed Christianity, and took economic and political control of the region.

England [During the Reformation]

King Henry VIII: developed the *Protestant Church of England* to consolidate his own power, allowing divorce and marrying several times himself. -House of Tudor' -Religious differences between Protestant England and Scotland and Catholic Ireland made the kingdom unstable. The Catholic Mary Queen of Scotts, daughter of King James IV, had been betrothed to Henry VIII's son Edward -guardians canceled it, causing conflict with England. -married Earl of Darnley who forced her to advocate thrown; had a kid James who became James VI of Scotland -she would flee to England and seek safety with *Elizabeth I* (daughter of King Henry VIII and queen of England) >imprisoned as Elizabeth viewed her and James as a threat to her inheritance of the throne and because she was Catholic. >had her executed Upon Queen Elizabeth's death, James succeeded her as King James I of England and Ireland, ushering in the House of Stuart. -oppression of catholics continued. -His son Charles I continued the anti-Catholic conflict upon his succession to the throne. -1630: Charles I withdraws and conservative Protestants in England and Scotland (Puritans) began to suspect a royal movement to weaken Protestantism and restore Catholicism in the Kingdom; moved to North America.

Beginnings of a Revolution in France

King Louis XIV had consolidated the monarchy in France, taking true political and military power from the nobility. -Built Palace of Versailles to centralize the monarchy and contain and monitor nobility. -Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu and Voltaire criticized absolute monarchy and the repression of freedom of speech and thought. Colonialism and mercantilism fueled the growth of the early middle class: those were were not traditionally nobility or landowners under the feudal system but were becoming wealthier and more powerful thanks to early capitalism. -*Bourgeoisie*: disliked rule of nobility, which generally inherited land and wealth (merchants, lawyers; educated and read and write; publish more in the press) -paying higher taxes to the nobility, resentment brewing -Louis XIV had taken power from nobility (made him popular among bourgeoisie); his successors did not which made them unpopular among bourgeoisie and nobility. >resented their lack of standing in society and government. -advancements in medicine increased population growth, empowering the peasantry and bourgeoisie. Struggling financially after supporting American Revolution -Controller-general of finances suggested reforms to tax nobility. -In response, nobility called for the *Estates-General* to be convened in 1787. >weak and reflected French society >clergy, nobility and the *Third Estate* (middle class and poor peasants or commoners) >taxation usually fell on Third Estate; tithe, paying 10% of earnings to nobles. Poor food harvest led to conflict; Louis XIV tried to permit elections to Estates-General and some free speech to alleviate frustration. -Estates-General convened at Versailles in 1789: disagreement between nobility and elite clergy, and the Third Estate and lower-level parish priests. >came to terms and formed the National Constituent Assembly: Louis XIV and the nobility suspicious; king planned to dissolve it.

The Rise of Stalin

Lenin died in 1924 -Stalin vs Trotsky; Stalin won. Stalin's government: socially and politically repressive. -Purges: in the Communist Party and military, anyone who was a potential threat to Stalin's power was imprisoned or executed. -The Great Terror: purges towards the general population; any hint of decent was reported to the secret police (the NKVD) and resulted in imprisonment for life. -*Russification*: persecuting ethnic groups; people forced to speak Russian and limit or hide their own cultural practices; religious practices restricted or forbidden. *Collectivization* of land and agriculture in an attempt to consolidate control over the countryside and improve food security. -had Kulaks (landowning peasants) sent to gulags, enabling the government to confiscate their land. -millions of Russians sent to gulags or prison labor camps, usually in Siberia, thousands of miles from home; millions died. -allowed Stalin to encourage peasants to leave the country and become industrial workers, to produce agricultural surpluses to sell overseas and to eliminate the kulaks. *Five Year Plans*: focused on accelerating industrial development; increased production in industrial materials and staples like electricity, petroleum, coal and iron. -construction of major infrastructure. -opportunities for women but conditions were dismal. -quickly became an industrial power, but at the expense of millions of Russians, Ukrainians and other groups who lost their lives in purges, forced labor camps and famine.

Rome reaching the height of its power

Lepidus was sent from Rome to Hispania and Africa. Mark Anthony (East) and Octavian (West) split control of Rome. -Went to war after Mark Anthony became involved with Egyptian queen Cleopatra, upsetting the balance of power; Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra taking control of rome in 31 B.C.E. -Octavian took the name Augustus Caesar when the Senate gave him supreme power in 27 B.C.E, becoming the first Roman emperor and starting the Roman empire. Height of its power: -*Pax Romana*- period of stability. >Latin literature flourished, as did architecture, philosophy, math, science and international trade. -controlled the entire Mediterranean region and lands stretching as far north as Germany and Britain and territory into the Balkans, Middle East, Egypt, North Africa and Iberia -would never reach the height it had under Augustus again. -During this time that a Jewish carpenter named Jesus in Palestine began teaching that he was the son of the Jewish God, and that his death would provide salvation for all humanity. >crucified, followers of Jesus Christ, called Christians, preached his teachings throughout Rome. >followers persecuted, the concept of forgiveness of sin became popular and Christianity would eventually become the official religion of Rome. >universal applicability to people of diverse backgrounds allowed it to spread quickly.

The Crusades

Loss of Byzantine territory to Islamic empires meant loss of Christian lands in the Levant- including Jerusalem and Bethlehem-to Muslims. -1095 C.E: Byzantine Emperor asks Pope Urban II for help to defend Jerusalem and protect Christians. -history of incursions create anti-Muslim sentiment and made people easily inspired to fight in the Levant, or *Holy Land*. -Pope offered lords and knights the chance to keep lands and bounty they won from conquered Muslims (and Jews) in this Crusade. >also, offered *indulgences*- forgiveness for sins committed in war and guarantees they would enter heaven. *The First Crusade*: -Christians saw they had more in common with each other than Muslims -decline of Abbasids had left the Levant vulnerable; decentralization of power in Mesopotamia, Persia and Central Asia; smaller sultanates emerged; economic production declined -Christian crusaders were able to establish settlements and small kingdoms in Syria and on the Eastern Mediterranean coast and taking Jerusalem by 1099. Kurdish military leader Salah al-Din abolished the Fatimid Caliphate; in 1178 he reconquered Jerusalem driving European Christians out for good. -Mamluks (1250-1517): al-Mutasim's fighting fore, controlled Egypt; later they would defeat the Mongols in 1260.

Pre-Revolutionary Russia

Lost 1905 Russo-Japanese War to Japanese superior technology, including naval technology, training and leadership. -Russia had been slow to industrialize, due to size and terrain. -Serfdom only abolished in 1861: most were poor rural farmers, and industrialization brought wretched conditions to urban cities. -Absolute monarchy. Tsar Nicholas II not popular: loss in R-J War; strengthening European industrial economy; and limited freedoms -unlawful trade unions appeared; workers began striking; and peasants rose up in protest of oppressive taxation. -One such protest: *Bloody Sunday* protest for working conditions in ST. Petersburg ended in a blood massacre of civilians by the Tsar's troops. >Set off *Revolution of 1905* in which the Tsar temporarily lost control of Russia and was discredited. >After Revolution Tsar established Duma, or Parliament. -Marxist Social Democrats: Bolsheviks (led by Lenin) and the Mensheviks would gain power.

19th century

Modern European social and political structures and norms: nationalism and the nation-state. Economic theories based on the industrial revolution: socialism, communism; class divisions brought on by urbanization and industry.

The Decline of the Mongols

Mongol expansion, the Black Plague, financial problems and flooding led to the decline of Yuan Dynasty. -rise of native Chinese Ming Dynasty in 1368. >*Zhu Yuanzhang* led Chinese to victory and ruled as first Ming emperor from Nanjing, moved to Beijing in 1421. >returned to traditional methods of administration >*Forbidden city*: home of the emperor in Beijing, helped consolidate imperial rule. >emphasized trade: demand for ceramics, silk and tea was high abroad. >exploration by sea: *Zheng He* traveled to India, Sri Lanka, and Asia. Timur (Mongol) began conquering land; Moscow and turned toward Persia in 1383. -Turn of the century had taken Persia, Mesopotamia, much of Caucasus and Delhi. -15th century: Syria, invaded Anatolia and extracted tribute from Egypt. -Samarkand: capital of his empire. In Russia *Ivan the Great* took back Moscow from the Mongols. -brought other neighboring Slavic and Baltic lands under Russian rule. -achieved a centralized, consolidated Russia that developed into an empire and sovereign nation that sought diplomatic status with Europe.

Arab-Islamic Empires [The Rise and Fall]

Muawiya first caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate (empire), named for the leading Meccan tribe that had supported Muhammad from the beginning. Abbasid Caliphate in 750 C.E due to conflict among Arab elites. -al-Mutasim: professionalized military, creating professional soldiers called mamluks, freed slaves (usually of Turkish origin). >helped him consolidate control and improve tax collection. -fostered an Arabic literary culture; permitted open trade routes, economic development and cultural interaction throughout Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and parts of Europe. -al-Mamun would foster cultural and scientific study >universality of Arabic language enabled translations of texts of varying civilizations which could be shared throughout the Islamic World. >studied Greek and Persian astronomy and engaged in further research. >studied math from around the world and developed algebra, enabling engineering, technological and architectural achievements >Islamic art well known for its geometric designs.

Conflict in the Balkans: The Russian Slight

Ottoman Empire weakening due to European imperialism and small nations supported by European puppet master. Three Emperors' League (1873): Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary. -if one country went to war, the others would remain neutral -powers would consult each other on matters of war. First Balkan Crisis (1874): Bosnia Herzegovina rebelled against Ottomans; did not want to submit to Muslim landlords. -Serbia and Montenegro rebelled in support of Bosnia. -Serbia and Montenegro under control of Russian influence thanks to *pan-Slavism*: Slavic ethnic groups throughout eastern and southeastern Europe should embrace their Slavic heritage and turn toward Russia for support. -This attracted Russian attention and when Sultan Hamid II refused to institute reforms to protect Balkan Christians, Russia declared war. Russo-Turkish War ended in 1878 with Treaty of San Stefano, which favored Russian territorial gains. -Austro-Hungarian and British objections threatened influence in the region. -1878 Congress of Berlin: Britain and Austria-Hungary changed the outcome of the war with the Treaty of Berlin (Russia kept Serbia and Montenegro but lost influence in Bulgaria as well as territorial gains in Asia)

Revolution in France

Panic over low food supplies and suspicion over a conspiracy against the Third Estate triggered the Great Fear among peasants in July 1789. -Suspicion into actions; King sent troops to Paris. -July 14: people stormed the *Bastille* prison in an event symbolic of the overthrow of tyranny. -Peasants revolted in the country-side -NCA abolished feudal system and tithing, and issued the *Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen*: assuring liberty and equality, in the model of Enlightenment thought. Peasants marched on Versailles when Louis XIV failed to accept these changes. -*Jacobins*: revolutionary political clubs, became members of the Assembly. -Assembly continued reforms, including nationalizing the lands of the Catholic Church to pay off debt, disempowering the Church. -Assembly organized administration of the ancien régime (old government) which allowed the election of judged. Revolutionary principal of self-determination drove revolutionary France to support its ideal abroad. -This and the American revolution inspired other rebellions: *Simón Bolivar* led or influenced independence movements in Venezuela, Colombia (also what is today Panama), Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia in the early 19th century. -Country declared war on Austria but following severe defeats by joint Austrian-Prussian forces, the people became suspicious of the unpopular queen Marie Antoinette (originally from Austria, encouraged invasion, hoping to suppress the revolution). -people imprisoned the royal family; Jacobins abolished the monarchy, establishing the republic later that year.

Buddhism

Prince Siddhartha Gautama said to have renounced worldly goods and lived as an ascetic in what is today northern India, seeking enlightenment around the 3rd century B.C.E -Desire (the ego/self) is rooted in suffering, and that giving up or transcending material obsessions will lead to freedom, or *nirvana* (enlightenment) Mahayana- prevalent in northern and eastern Asia (Korea, parts of China, Mongolia) Theravada- Southeast Asia and Indian Ocean regions Vajrayana- central to Tibetan Buddhism

WW1 / The Great War

Princip's actions kicked off the system of alliances that had been in place among European powers (assassination on other card). -Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and Russia came to Serbia's aid. -Triple Alliance forced Germany to declare war on Russia. -France prepared for war and German invasion. -Belgium asked for European help which caused Britain to declare war on Germany. *Kaiser Wilhelm II*: sought to expand territories in Europe and overseas (focused on naval power). -In Togo, Britain and France took over an important German communications point. -In China, Japan allied with Britain and France, taking control of the German settlement of Tsingtao and of German colonies in the Pacific Islands. British and French imperial power allowed them to call fighters from all over the world. -1914 *Battle of the Marne* between Germany, French and British forces defending France resulted in trench warfare that would continue for years, marking the Western Front. -At Gallipoli (1915): Australian and New Zealander troops fought the Ottoman Empire, allies of Germany, near Istanbul. -German U-Boat, sank the Lusitania, a passenger ship in the Atlantic, killing many American civilians. -*Battle of Verdun* (1916): Longest battle of the war, ended in the failure of the Germans to defeat the French army. -Battle of Jutland (1916): British navy pushed back German navy (diminished German naval power for the rest of the war). -Battle of the Somme (1916): allied effort to repel Germany using artillery to end the stalemate on the Western Front (only gained 5 miles).

Formation of Germany

Prussia dominated the German-speaking states that once compromised the Holy Roman Empire. -emphasized military prowess in the 19th century -rival with Austria and France Went to war with France in the *Franco-Prussian War*, during which Prussia took control of Alsace-Lorraine, mineral rich and later essential for industrial development. *Otto Von Bismarck* unified those linguistically and culturally German states of Central Europe. -Prussian power fueled by nationalism and the *nation-state*, or the idea that individuals with shared experience (ethnicity, language, religion and cultural practices) should be unified under one government. -1871 German Empire became a united state. -encouraged economic cooperation, instituted army reforms and created an image of Prussia as a defender of German culture and nationhood, portraying other European nations in opposition to that.

[Decolonization] Asia and Africa

Role of UN to help with decolonization process. *Mohandas Gandhi* led a peaceful independence movement in India against the British, winning Indian independence in 1949. -Gandhi assassinated by Hindu radicals led to conflict between Hindus and Muslims in the subcontinent, resulting in *Partition*, the bloody division of India. -Hindus in India -Muslims in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh and West Pakistan). Africa: -Algerian War (1954-1962) against France -Mau mau Rebellion against the British in Kenya (1950s) and violence movements against belgium in the Congo ultimately resulted in African independence for many countries (1950s-1970s). -Apartheid regime in South Africa, where segregation between races was legal and people of color lived in oppressive conditions, not lifted until 1990s. >Nelson Mandela led the country in a peaceful transition process. -Horn of Africa: Somalia was formed when Italian administered UN trust territory of Somalia united with British protectorate of Somaliland in 1960.

Christianity

Roman Palestine: Jesus taught that he was the son of singular Jewish God. -Jesus came to suffer and die for sins of mankind so that mankind may be forgiven for sin. -Jesus crucified -Believed that Jesus rose from the dead three days later (the Resurrection) and ascended to heaven. -Jesus was born from a virgin mother (the Virgin Mary) -*Holy Trinity*- God (the father), the Son (Jesus) and the Holy Spirit; all parts of one God. Catholic Church led by the Pope and descended from the early Western Church that followed the *Schism of 1054*, when theological disagreement divided the Church into western Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Christianity. -Protestant Reformation would give rise to other forms of Protestant, or non-Catholic, Christianity.

Rome beginning to expand

Rome (eighth century B.C.E); important trade route for Greeks and other Mediterranean peoples. -Culture drew from the *Etruscans*: native inhabitants of the Italian Peninsula, and the Greeks, from whom it borrowed elements of architecture, art, language and even religion. Originally a kingdom, became a *republic* under Lucius Junius Brutus in 509 B.C.E. -elected lawmakers (senators) to the Senate. -highly advanced infrastructure (aqueducts and roads) *Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.E)* expanded Westward to North Africa; against Carthage. -First Punic War (264-241 BC)- Rome land vs Carthage sea. Rome defeated Carthage navy off the shore of Sicily. Rome took Sicily. -Second Punic War (218-201 BC)- Hannibal (Carthaginian general, brought his armies over the alps, right to the Romans. He left Carthage open and exposed.) Roman generals attacked Carthage, Carthage leader recalled Hannibal. They were defeated. -Third Punic War (149-146 BC) force them back; and burn Carthage to the ground. -conquest of territory and expansion of trade brought slavery. -*Plebeians*: working class Romans, displaced. -*Patricians*: wealth ruling class became more powerful and corrupt. -Protest movements by the tribunes (elected-officials) Gaius and Tiberius led to legislative reform and republican stabilization, strengthen it.

Moving into the Middle Ages

Russian Grand Prince of Kiev, Vladimir I, converted to Christianity and ordered his subjects to do so as well. -influenced by Byzantine doctrine, become Greek Orthodox Christianity. Series of Schisms (1054): Roman Catholic Church and Greek Orthodox Church over matters of doctrine: role of Pope and papal authority; use of leavened versus unleavened bread in religious services; some theological concepts.

Middle Ages (Dark Ages) [Exception to the chaos]

Scandinavian Viking (end of 8th century until 1100): expanded their influence from Scandinavia, ranging from the Baltic Sea to the East to the North Sea to the North Atlantic -extraordinary seafaring skills and technology -traded with Byzantine Empire and European powers -raided parts of Britain, Ireland, France and Russia. -Erik the Red: settlement in Greenland -Leif Erikson: may have traveled as far as North America. -Complex religion with a pantheon of gods and well-developed mythology -Literary canon of sagas in Old Norse, basis of some Scandinavian languages today. -controlled England and Scotland along with Danish settlers and various local Anglo-Saxon rulers.

Rome and conflict in the Republic

Still class divide: Optimates- wealthy ruling class; Populare (the people)- working, poor and military that favored democratization. Senate was weakening -*First Triumvirate*: military leaders Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) and the wealthy citizen Marcus Licinius Crassus; consolidated rule of republic. >Caesar was an achieved and well liked military leader: conquest of Gaul; respected and beloved by military got personal devotion to troops. >Crassus good among Optimates but not Populare; defeated slave rebellion of the gladiator Spartacus. >Pompey conquering territories in Syria and the Levant, also took credit for stopping Spartacus (rift between two) >Crassus died fighting in Turkey; left Caesar and Pompey to fight for power, which Caesar won. Caesar began to transition Rome from a republic to what would be an empire. -Assassinated by a group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius in 44 B.C.E. -Caesar was able to consolidate and centralize imperial control. >*Second Triumvirate*: Caesar's cousin Marcus Antonius (Mark Anthony), Caesar's friend Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and Caesar's nephew Gaius Octavius Thurinus (Octavian); defeat Brutus and Cassius two years later at the Battle of Philippi.

Central Asia

Tang Dynasty closed its borders and trade on the Silk Road declined. -Nomadic Seljuks, turks from Central Asia, took over the region from Central Asia through parts of the Levant (lacked effective administration or central authority) Islam remained a unifying force: -instability and decentralization allowed local culture to develop, particularly Persian art and literature. -local religious leaders (ulama) had taken up community leadership positions >Islam became a guiding force in law, justice, and social organization *Mongol invasions* destroyed agriculture, city life and planning, economic patterns, trade routes and social stability. -dealt a blow to the concept that Islam was inherently favored by God. -led by *Genghis Khan* -expanded across Asia due to horsemanship and archery. >Central Asia decentralized; Southwest Asia weak after decline of Abbasids; Seljuks and remaining Byzantines disorganized. -took over most of Eurasia- Pannonia (Hungary) through the Middle East, Persia, Central Asia, Northern and Western China and Southeast Asia. >destroyed Chinese infrastructure like the civil service exam. >Genghis Khan's grandson *Kublai Khan* conquered China and founded the Mongol Yuan Dynasty in 1271. >upended social hierarchy: mongols > non-ethnic Han Chinese > Han Chinese.

Imperialism [Britain: China]

To gain access to closed Chinese markets, Britain forced China to buy Indian opium. -Opium Wars ended with Treaty of Nanking (1842) signed between the British and Qing government -China lost power to Britain and later other European countries which gained *spheres of influence*, or areas of China they effectively controlled. -Also *extraterritoriality*, privileges in which their citizens were not subject to Chinese laws. Discontent with Qing Dynasty: coming under control of European imperialists; casualties from the Opium Wars and Sino-Japanese War of 1896. -*1900 Boxer Rebellion*: uprising led by a Chinese society against the emperor. -Boxers belief that physical exercises like shadow-boxing would make the impervious to bullets. -Rebellion led by The Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists. -only put down by European help; embarrassed to have to pay West enormous reparations for their assistance. -living conditions for Chinese people continued to deteriorate.

Thirty Years War (1618-1648)

began in Central Europe between Protestant nobles in the Holy Roman Empire who disagreed with the strict Catholic Ferdinand II. -Ferdinand II elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1619, was a leader of the *Counter-Reformation*: attempts at reinforcing Catholic dominance throughout Europe during and after the Reformation in the wake of the Renaissance and related social change. Protestant Denmark and Sweden in Poland and Germany stirred further anti-Catholic discontent among local nobles in Germany, who wanted independence from Holy Roman Empire -Despite British, Danish, Dutch and Swedish support the military leader Albrecht von Wallenstein took control of most of Protestant German states and Denmark. -Ferdinand II issued *Edict of Restitution*: restoring rebellious Protestant German territory to imperial, Catholic control. -Sweden reemerged in 1630 to reignite the Protestant cause; allied with the Netherlands, Sweden reestablished a Protestant revival throughout Germany, driving imperial forces south. -Ferdinand sought aid from the Catholic Spanish Hapsburgs and the Papacy: Sweden was defeated at Nordlingen in 1634 and Catholicism was reestablished. France declared war on Spain in 1635 and shortly after on the Hapsburg-supported Holy Roman Empire -Spain's victory in Central Europe cemented its power in the region -Hapsburg dominance in France's south and east represented a threat War centered on alliances and concerns about the nature of Christianity -Tangled Alliances between European powers resulted in war between not only France and Spain but also Sweden and Austria, with small states of the weakening Holy Roman Empire caught in the middle. -*1648 Treaty of Westphalia*: European powers agree to recognize state sovereignty and practice non-interference in each other's matters-at the expense of family and religious alliances. >modern international relations where politics and religion are not intertwined. >religious empires would lose control over ethnic groups and their lands, giving way to smaller nation-states.

Arab-Islamic Empires [The Foundation of Islamic Divides]

characterized by brisk commerce, advancement in technology, and learning and urban development arose in the Middle East as the Byzantine Empire was declining. -before the rise of Islam in the 7th century, the Arabian Peninsula was located at the intersection of the Byzantine Empire, a diverse collection of ethnicities, ruled by Greek Orthodox Christian and the Sasanians (Persians) who practices Zoroastrianism. >both wanted to control trade with Central and eastern Asia along the Silk Road and trade ties with Christian Axum (Ethiopia). After Muhammad's death in 632 C.E, his followers, led by the first caliph Abu Bakr went on to conquer land beyond Arabia north into the weakening Byzantine Empire. -well organized Muslim Arabs, based in Arabia, led incursions into Syria, the Levant and Mesopotamia and taking them over. -military, bureaucratic and organization skill and their ability to win over dissatisfied minorities helped them to isolate the Byzantines to parts of Anatolia and Constantinople and crush the Persian Sasanians Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali, his wife Fatima, and their followers believed that the leader of the Muslim Arabs should be a blood relative of Muhammad. >since he had no sons, the logical choice was *Ali*. >Meccan elites felt differently and Abu Bakr was chosen as the first Caliph. >Ali was to become the fourth caliph but others in power like Muawiya (from Damascus) led the opposition to Ali (*Sunni-Shi'a Schism*) >Shi'ite Islam emerged in Mesopotamia: Ali was rightful heir to Muhammad's early Islamic empire, and maintained focus on martyrdom. >Sunnis "Orthodox Muslims" with a focus on community rather than genealogy.

The Ottoman Empire

controlled much of Anatolia from the late 13th century. -spread west to the Balkans, consolidating their rule in 1389 at the Battle of Kosovo -captured Istanbul in 1453, from where they would come to rule much of the Mediterranean world. Mehmed the Conqueror (15th century) and his successors would enable the Ottomans to conquer Pannonia (Hungary) North Africa, the Caucasus, the Levant and Mesopotamian regions, western Arabia and Egypt. *Suleiman the Magnificent* (1520-1560) the Ottoman Empire consolidated control over the Balkans, Middle East and North Africa and hold that land until the 19th century. -capture of Istanbul (Constantinople) represented the true end of the Byzantine Empire.

Imperialism [Belgium]

controlled the Congo, along with its vast resources in Central Africa. -Came into conflict with Cecil Rhodes at its southern edge. -Belgian Congo reached its heights under King Leopold II, and was rich in timber, minerals and diamonds. >Also, allowed for control of Congo River Basin, allowing extraction of materials from the interior to the Atlantic coast.

Revolution in England

fear of King Charles I: feared he was trying to weaken Protestantism and support Catholicism. -moderate protestant leaders, including the weak parliament (he sidelined them) and aristocratic class, upset by Charles' dictatorial reign. -Age of Revolution marked by Locke and Rousseau's belief in the natural rights of man and the social contract between people and government. -Conflict between England and Scotland in the late 1630s and an Irish uprising in 1641 weakend Charles further, as disgruntled English aristocracy, consolidated their own power. *English Civil War* (1642): Royalists (supported monarchy) vs Parliamentarians (wanted a republic) -Royalists fell and Charles was executed -England lost control of Ireland, Oliver Cromwell was sent to reestablish control from Charles II (Charles son), which he did. >installed as Lord Protector in 1653. Following Crowell's death: Charles II and James II (catholic). -William and Mary defeated James and consolidated Protestant control over England, Scotland, and Ireland under a protestant constitutional monarchy in the *Glorious Revolution*. -*1689 English Bill of Rights* established the constitutional monarchy, in the spirit of the Magna Carta.

Enlightenment

humanism and increased emphasis on secular thought became a threat to the Church and monarchs who ruled by divine right. -Enlightenment: basis for reinvigorated European culture and political thought that would drive its development for the next several centuries and inspire revolution. European seafaring knowledge, navigation and technology benefited from Islamic and Asian expertise. -could now venture beyond the Mediterranean. -exploration to Asia -exploration to the Western Hemisphere

Early Societies [The Americas]

migrated to the Americas from Asia during the Paleolithic period (13,000-13,000 years ago) -Evidence: Clovis people in New Mexico -gradual, occurring over hundreds of thousands of years -crossed by land from Siberia to Alaska or may have had naval capabilities and arrived by boat. Olmec (1200 B.C.E): Mexican Gulf Coast. -massive sculptures reflect complex religious and spiritual beliefs. -later civilizations in Mexico included Zapotecs, Mixtecs, Toltecs and Mayans. -throughout Mesoamerica: irrigation to expand and enrich agriculture. Chavin, Moche, Nazca in South America: preceded Inca (artistic evidence) -Chavin: focused on animals, influenced later Andean art -Moche: complicated ceramics comparable to Hellenic artifacts -Nazca: Nazca lines, enormous sketches in the ground only visible from air. North America: mounds of Mississippi Valley region: ancient spiritual structures (US History cards)

Time of Change in Europe (late 17th century)

national sovereignty and nation-states (political organization) -European economies became dependent upon colonies and were starting to industrialize. -both allowed for improved militaries which put Asian governments at a disadvantage (eventually succumbing to European influence or come under direct control of Europe)

Italian Unification

region of small independent states occupied by France and then Austria. -Napoleonic concepts of nationalism, freedom, equality, and justice under the law spread throughout the peninsula, what was left of feudalism faded. *Risorgimento*- movement for reorganization. -After Franco-Austrian War (1859) Austria lost territorial control in northern Italy, allowed states to unite via elections. -*Giuseppe Garibaldi*: led northern Italian overthrow of Southern Italian monarchies, uniting the peninsula with the exception of Rome and Venice. -Kingdom of Italy declared in 1861, under Victor Emmanuel II. -Took control of Venice in 1866 after Austro-Prussian war. -Franco-Prussian War gave them control of Rome and the Papal states; brought them into the Kingdom of Italy.

Confucianism

teaches obedience and adherence to tradition in order to maintain a harmonious society. -practice integrity and respecting wisdom would ensure that authority would be used for beneficial purposes.

Industrial Revolution

textile production in Britain, fueled by cotton from its overseas territories in North America and later India (cotton) and Egypt (textill mills). -First factories in Manchester, where urbanization began and poor people from rural areas flocked to cities in search of higher-paying unskilled jobs in factories. -Sped up harvesting and transport of crops and their conversion to textiles. Accelerated manufacturing was based on capitalism, the *laissez-faire* (free market) theory developed by *Adam Smith* >Smith believed that an invisible hand should guide the marketplace- governments should stay out of the economy regardless of abuses, as the economy would automatically correct for inequalities, price problems, among other things. -Technology: Spinning Jenny and Flying Shuttle exponentially increased amount of cotton that workers could process into yarn and thread -*Steam engine* efficiently powered mills and ironworks; factories no longer had to be built near running water to access power. -Advances in iron technology allowed for stronger machinery. Resources in South Africa and the Congo to power metallurgy. -development of early middle class in Europe and North America: need for luxury goods like tea, spices, silk, precious metals and other items from Asia increased to meet consumer demand. -gained by selling back to the colonies from which they had harvested the raw materials. *Second Industrial Revolution*: late 19th, early 20th century: based on heavy industry, railroads and weapons.

Issues with the Industrial Revolution

workers suffered from abusive treatment, overly long hours, low wages or none at all, and unsafe conditions including pollution. Marx and Engels developed *socialism*: philosophy that the workers, or the *proletariat*, should own the means of production and reap the profits, rather than the *bourgeoisie*, who had no interest in the rights of the workers at the expense of profit and who did not experience the same conditions. -*Das Kapital*: Marx argued for abolition of class system, wages and private property. Collective ownership of both the means of production and products, with equal distribution of income to satisfy the needs of all. -Marx and Engels *Communist Manifesto*, a pamphlet laying out their ideas and calling for revolution. -Adaptations of their theories: >*Marxism-Leninism* (Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky): embraced socialist ideals and believed in revolution; however, felt that communism could not be maintained under a democratic governing structure. >Lenin wanted *Dictatorship of the Proletariat*, paving the way for the political and economic organization of the SU.