Prehistoric to Medieval: Final

The Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace), marble, 13-9 BCE, Rome - Early Empire Rome

"Altar of Augustan Peace" Constructed to mark Augustus' triumphant return to the capital after 3 years of war in Spain and Gaul (Germany), A walled, elevated, rectangular enclosure built around an open-air altar. Made entirely of marble Covered with relief sculpture on all sides The imagery combines mythology and portraiture, and was intended as propaganda for Augustus' government. The exterior walls: Divided into two levels - figures above, vegetal motifs below, Most likely painted when it was first complete. The vegetal motifs are full of dynamic energy. We see a vine called an Acanthus growing vigorously. If you look closely, hidden in the leaves are animals like birds, scorpions, and salamanders. Eastern Wall: Upper level panels on the shorter walls depict mythological figures. A goddess sits amid a scene of fertility and prosperity with twins on her lap. Scholars have variously suggested that identity of the goddess, but she is most likely either Tellus (Earth), of Pax (Peace). Southern Wall: Upper level panel shows a continuous procession - perhaps a real historical event. On the Southern side, we see members of Augustus' imperial family - men, women, and children, Dynastic ambitions of Augustus are made evident in this family portrait. The figures march solemnly, while the children fidget - a realistic portrayal of interactions.

Apollodorus of Damascus - Markets of Trajan, Forum of Trajan, 113 AD, Rome - High Empire Rome

170 shops, offices, storehouses - in brick-faced concrete, Up to 4 stories high, Cut into the hill-side, Trajan had to destroy a commercial district in order to build his basilica structure. To make up for this loss, he ordered Apollodorus of Damascus to also construct a handsome market place, comparable in size and elegance to a modern shopping mall. The structure was built into the hillside that the architect had to excavate in order to build the forum below. For this reason, the market has multiple levels. Terraced onto 6 levels on a complicated and irregular site. Well-lit interiors. Shops all have the same dimensions and were uniformly built out of brick-faced concrete. Roman architecture increasingly turned to concrete after the great fire of 64 AD for safety. Each shop was composed of a basic unit (the Taberna form) formed by a barrel vault, and had had 2 levels. You can see the uniformly shaped openings of each level here, across a single façade. We may consider this a kind of "modular" architecture. We are looking at the indoor market hall here, roofed by a groined cross-vault - which is, 2 barrel vaults intersecting at right angles, like a cross. This large covered space is located at the top of the hill. The Markets of Trajan (like the Colosseum we saw last unit), remind us that these monumental complexes were gestures by the emperors to give back to the Roman people. Construction of public spaces for learning, commerce, fitness, entertainment, and jurisprudence becomes an important task of Roman rulers running the government.

Abbey Church of Saint Denis, 1135-1145, Paris, France - Gothic

A Benedictine abbey just north of Paris. Considered the first Gothic building. Saint Denis was an Early Christian martyr sent from Rome in the 5th century, who became the first bishop of Paris. (He's buried here.) It housed the tombs of the French kings, and the crown of the king. Around 1135, a construction project began to enlarge an existing church, under the guidance of Abbott Suger. The first section of the church to undergo reconstruction was the façade seen here, around 1135. One of the original bell-towers on the façade was destroyed during the French revolution. How was the Church updated? In this plan drawing, we see the outlines of the various structures of Saint Denis superimposed. The darkest outline in the center is the Romanesque structure, which the Gothic structure (built around it) enlarged and replaced. The older building had become too small to accommodate the growing crowds of pilgrims. Depending on the availability of funds, masons and carpenters worked in phases. The large entrance was the first place they started. Side chapels were added to the side of the building. What makes this the first Gothic building? The choir area. Retains the key features of the Romanesque pilgrimage church plan (semicircular apse, ambulatory + radiating chapels for relics). What is revolutionary here is the openness of the flowing space, enclosed by non-loadbearing walls, perforated everywhere by windows. Pointed arches, stained-glass windows, ribbed groin vaults, and external buttressing. The weight of the structure is carried not by thick walls, but by piers, and external buttresses - this new construction technique allows for taller, more open interiors that are filled with light. The Abbott Suger called this section of the new church "a circular string of chapels." Suger considered radiating light a physical manifestation of God. The church that he built embodies that idea. Light = means to illuminate the soul. Rib Vaulting. A form of groin vaulting. It was an important innovation in Gothic building technology. Skeletal ribs (constructed first) supported the web inserted within. The radiating chapels and ambulatory at Saint Denis became a prototype for a new architecture of space and light on a highly adaptable skeletal structure.

Cathedral of Saint James, 1078-1122, in Santiago de Compostela, Portugal, - Romanesque

A major pilgrimage destination in Portugal, where the body of the apostle Saint James is held - (Saint James spread Christianity to the Iberian peninsula). "Pilgrimage plan" "Side aisles" were common to all basilica plans, but here, notice how even the transept has side aisles? This is the result of functional planning - this allowed pilgrims to pay a close visit to the holy relic and circulate out of the building without disrupting religious services happening in the center. Romanesque churches were dark. This was in large part because of the use of stone barrel-vault construction. This system provided excellent acoustics and reduced fire danger. However, a barrel vault exerts continuous lateral (outward pressure) all along the walls that support the vault. This meant the outer walls of the church had to be extra thick. It also meant that windows had to be small and few. When builders dared to pierce walls with additional or larger windows they risked structural failure. Churches did collapse. Nave has 2 stories. The tall barrel vaulted ceiling is supported by piers. Half-columns are attached to the piers as ornament, and to create architectural rhythm. Dark Interior, small windows, Thick stone-masonry walls. To this day, hundreds of thousands of faithful travel the "Way of Saint James" to the Spanish city of Santiago de Compostela. They go on foot across Europe to a holy shrine where bones, believed to belong to Saint James, were unearthed. The Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela now stands on this site. In France alone there were four main routes toward Santiago de Compostela. A pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela was an expression of Christian devotion and it was believed that it could purify the soul and perhaps even produce miraculous healing benefits. A criminal could travel the "Way of Saint James" as an act penance. For the everyday person, a pilgrimage was also one of the only opportunities to travel and see some of the world. It was a chance to meet people, perhaps even those outside one's own class. The purpose of pilgrimage may not have been entirely devotional.

Gothic Art and Architecture

A new style and technique of building that originated in the French royal domain around Paris (Ile de France). C. 1200~ Dominated European architecture for 400 years. Made possible by advances in building technology, increases in financial resources, new intellectual and spiritual aspirations. Emerges from powerful monastic communities, but made possible because of the increased political authority of the monarchy. Desire to build ever-taller structures, airy interiors, with walls of colorful glass. Originally for religious structures, but adapted to all types of buildings. Took place in urban centers, which had undergone population growth and radical social change. Reflected the growing power of the cathedral bishops - working in cities - as opposed to the country monasteries more powerful traditionally in the middle ages. The Age of Cathedrals Between 1150 and 1250, nearly 2700 hundred churches were built in the Gothic style in the Ile de France region around Paris alone. The Goths were a so-called barbaric tribe who held power in various regions of Europe, between the collapse of the Roman Empire and the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire (so, from roughly the fifth to the eighth century).

Colosseum, Rome, 79 AD - Early Empire Rome

Across the street from the main area of the Golden House, Nero had built a vast man-made lake for his private use. On the site of this lake, in the middle of the palace grounds, is where Nero's successor emperor Vespasian built the Colosseum. The emperor's intent was to literally restore this part of the city to the populace by building a public sports arena. •Largest amphitheater ever built •159 feet high * Could hold 50,000-80,000 * Named after a colossal statue of Nero that used to stand next to it, Romans were huge sports fans. The Colosseum was the empire's largest sports arena. (Amphitheater) Oval in shape, it had seating in multiple levels that rose outward from the central platform. Many gates and entrances perforated the structure for easy flow of foot-traffic. (Crowd control) A variety of events would take place at the Colosseum, but the most popular were the gladiator combats. Performances with trained animals were held too, as were hunts. The opening events of the new stadium lasted 100 days! As many as 9,000 wild animals, 2,000 gladiators died for the event, for the populace's entertainment. Seabattles were also staged, by flooding the arena floors, Under the floor were rooms for storage of equipment and animals. The stone seats that once covered the sloping interior walls are now gone - for much of the middle ages, the Colosseum became a quarry for building material. Medieval and Renaissance builders often recycled stone from this site. Roman architects could start building in this monumental scale thanks to the discovery, experimentation and exploitation of concrete, arches and vaulting. The exterior wall is divided into 4 horizontal sections. The Colosseum uses the Doric order on the ground floor, Ionic on the second floor, and the Corinthian order on the 3rd floor.

Lysippos, Head of Alexander the Great, Marble, 3rd century BCE - Hellenistic Period

Alex had conquered as far east as Afghanistan for the Macedonians, ended the prominence of the Greeks by conquering them for Macedonia, Apollo-like face, heroic, young, boyish, would have been painted,

Philoxenos, Battle of Issus, Mosaic, 310 BCE

Alex, the smaller figure, on conquest against the Persians and their King Darius III, floor decoration mosaic, inlaid stone and small tiles, Darius flees from Alex leading the charge of Macedonians, Hellenism = Greek-inspired tradition, spreading elsewhere.

Church of Santa Sabina, Rome, ca. 420-430 AD - Early Christian Art

Although Old Saint Peter's is gone, early Christian architecture in the city of Rome is preserved at the Church of Santa Sabina, built about a century later. By the year 400 AD, with the emperors away in Constantinople, the city of Rome is now largely under the control of the Christian Pope. The papacy replaces the emperors and became the prime source of artistic and architectural patronage. This building demonstrated a particularly refined classical style, as a statement of Rome's ability to survive with dignity. The basic elements of early Christian architecture are clearly visible here. On the exterior, Santa Sabina is simple brickwork. The plan shows the structure to be a longitudinal basilica - with a nave, two side aisles, and an apse. On the interior, Santa Sabina displays a wealth of materials. Marble columns, Corinthian capitals, marble veneer in the spandrels over the arches. Mosaic in the apse Alabaster windows in the clearstory,

Christ the Good Shepherd, marble, ca. 300-350 AD, Rome - Early Christian Art

Although freestanding statues of Jesus were uncommon in late antiquity, several works of the "Good Shepherd" exist. These works symbolically represent Christ's role as a caretaker of the flock. The theme became very common in early Christian art. In this work, we see the sculptor employing the classical contrapposto pose. The lamb over his shoulder shows the soul he has saved, Comparison to: Polykleitos, The Doryphoros (Spear-bearer). C. 450 BC Greek, High Classical period, (the Good Shepherd is 3 ¼ inches tall, the Doryphoros is 6' 11") Notice the same bent knee, tapering of the hip, contortion of the neck? We tend to associate "Christian Art" with the middle ages, but in this example we see clearly that it is actually very closely aligned with classical Greek and Roman traditions.

Lysippos, Apoxyomenos, The Scraper, Marble, 330 BCE - Greek Late Classical Period

Anon. figure athlete in act of after workout using strigil to clean himself of sweat and dust, new proportion for the head to body ratio here! 1:8 instead of the traditional 1:7, longer body, legs, torso, break from frontal view, 360 degree walk around invitation, marble copy, original was bronze, arms extend into viewer's space!

Pont du Gard, c. 50 BCE, Nimes, France - Roman Republic

Aquaduct called the "Pont du Gard", Nimes, France, c. 16 BC Roman Empire, 27 BC -337 AD, A stunning example of early Roman use of the round arch. Pont du Gard is part of an aqueduct in southern France that transported water supply from springs 30 miles away to the city of Nimes. A primary example of the sophistication of Roman engineering during the Republican period. Each arch buttresses its neighbors Balance, proportions, and rhythm Powerful statement about Rome's ability to control nature in order to provide for its cities. A true arch is composed of wedge-shaped blocks (typically of a durable stone), called voussoirs, with a key stone in the center holding them into place. In a true arch, weight is transferred from one voussoir down to the next, from the top of the arch to ground level, creating a sturdy building tool. True arches can span greater distances than a simple post-and-lintel. The Romans also exploited the opportunities afforded to architects by the innovation of the true arch.

Porta Augusta, 200-100 BCE Perugia, Italy - Etruscan Art

Architect unknown, fortified city gate of Perugia, Italy, tunnel-like narrow, tall passageway between two huge towers, one of the few surviving examples of Etruscan monumental architecture, Etruscans were master builders, walls and protective towers and gates like this surrounded their cities, rounded arch construction, made monumental scale possible, Round arch and barrel vault will become staple of Roman architecture, with keystone! Decorative section filled with row of circular panels (roundels), alternating with rectangular, column-like upright strips (pilasters), reminiscent of Doric frieze, with triglyph and metope!

Iktinos, The Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, ca. 450 BCE - Greek Classical Period - Pentelic marble and limestone

Architecture is advanced, Doric columns on both sides, supports roof, interior cella houses a cult statue of Athena, Pericles used funds of allies to pay for Parthenon, mathematical marvel, curvatures difficult to discern by the naked eye, curved floors, columns taper inward, Iktinos is architect, slope towards the center, optical corrections - compensate for distortions in our human vision, Temple of Hera I had same optical correction idea and Ionic elements (frieze) Doric (triglyphs and metopes).

The Pantheon, 110-25 AD, Rome - High Empire Rome

Begun by Trajan, finished by Hadrian, Hadrian was born in Rome of Spanish parents - a second cousin of Trajan, who supposedly adopted Hadrian in his will. He was educated in Athens - and through this experience, encouraged Rome to show renewed interest in Greek literature and Greek visual arts. He sponsored many copies of classical Greek masterpieces. While Trajan's greatest legacy was his military career - the expansion of the empire - Hadrian paid no attention to wars - none of his public monuments refer to the battlefield. An amateur practitioner himself, Hadrian loved architecture, and sponsored some of the most important buildings in Roman history. The Pantheon is a temple dedicated to all the gods, one of the best preserved of Ancient Roman buildings. It is a reconstruction of a temple that was built during the time of Augustus by his friend and advisor, Marcus Agrippa. On the frieze, "Built by Marcus Agrippa son of Lucius who was Consul three times." The form of Agrippa's original Pantheon is debated. A huge fire in the year 80 AD destroyed it. The pediment was originally decorated with relief sculpture, probably of gilded bronze. Holes marking the location of clamps that held the sculpture suggest that its design was likely an eagle within a wreath. But like other ancient remains in Rome, the Pantheon was for centuries a source of materials for new buildings and other purposes—including the making of cannons and weapons. Whatever its original purposes, the Pantheon by the time of Trajan and Hadrian was primarily associated with the power of the emperors and their divine authority. Large Corinthian granite columns - 8 in the front row. The shafts of the columns are 40 Roman feet tall and the capitals are eight Roman feet tall. The grey granite columns that were actually used in the Pantheon's pronaos were quarried in Egypt at Mons Claudianus in the eastern mountains. Each was 12m tall, 1.5m in diameter, and 60 tons in weight. Dragged more than 100 km (62 miles) from the quarry to the Nile river on wooden sledges, the columns were floated by barge down the Nile when the water level was high during the spring floods, and then transferred to vessels to cross the Mediterranean Sea to the Roman port of Ostia. From there, they were transferred back onto barges and pulled up the Tiber River to Rome. Vestibule is a rectangular space in plan. It is, as you see, a field of columns. the easternmost 3 columns of the portico were replaced in the seventeenth century after having been damaged and braced by a brick wall centuries earlier; The large bronze door that you see today is original. To enter the temple proper, you have to walk under a large barrel vaulted arch - triumphal connotations. Interior is circular, enormous scale, geometric clarity, transition from rectangular space is unconventional, circles and squares are the unifying theme, checkerboard floor pattern contrasts with concentric circles of square coffers in the dome, optical illusion of an orb ceiling, Weight of the concrete dome supported by 8 wide piers. Thickness of the dome changes. - At its thickest point, the aggregate is heavy material like travertine and terracotta tiles, then at the very top, tufa and pumice, both porous light stones, The Pantheon is an important example of advanced Roman engineering. Its walls are made from brick-faced concrete The rotunda wall features a series of brick relieving arches, visible on the outside and built into the mass of the brickwork. From top to bottom, the structure of the Pantheon was fine-tuned to be structurally efficient and to allow flexibility of design, The Dome is the largest unreinforced concrete dome in the world. Oculus = 30 feet diameter opening - the interior's only source of direct light. The dome's coffers (inset panels) are divided into 28 sections, equaling the number of large columns below. Coffers - 28 days of the lunar cycle, 5 rows for the 5 known planets The sunbeam streaming through the oculus traced an ever-changing daily path across the wall and floor of the rotunda. Perhaps the sunbeam marked solar and lunar events, or simply time. The dome as the canopy of the heavens. the dome's half-sphere, and the moving disc of light - Part of the spectacle of this structure, The rotunda itself is perhaps a microcosm of the Roman world beneath the starry heavens, with the emperor presiding over it all, ensuring the right order of the world.

Polykleitos the Younger, Theater at Epidauros, Epidauros, Greece, ca. 350 BCE

Best preserved Greek theater, built into landscape for acoustic reasons, semicircle of audience around stage, terraced bench with stairs in between, orchestra = circle at bottom, stage would be behind that, radial plan around circle, still used today, relative of Polykleitos the original, drop pin into marble block on orchestra floor and it will reverberate everywhere with perfect acoustics, drama associated with religion, so only during religious festivals was this theater used, usually in honor of Dionysus.

Phidias, Birth of Athena, East Pediment, Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, ca. 450 BCE - Pentelic marble - Greek Classical Period

British Museum Marbles, Athena's birth (east), Athena and Poseidon compete for patronage of Athens (west), fit into awkward triangle shape, naturalistic, 3 goddess figures recline, crouching, folds of garments both conceal and reveal at once, other end - sun rising with Helios and his horses bringing dawn in a chariot, floor of pediment is the horizon line, emerging as he drags the sun!

Mnesikles, The Propylaia, Acropolis, Athens, ca. 450-400 BCE - Greek Classical Period - marble and limestone

Built on a mountainside plateau, sacred site dedicated to Athena, patron goddess of Athens, war memorial, during Persian war - one of the most damaged sites, Athenians vowed to build the Parthenon to mark victory, memorial to the dead, funeral at foot of the Acropolis, Athenian leader Pericles makes a speech describing the Parthenon as a war memorial, symbol of Greek democracy, commemorates victims of violence, monumental entrance to the plateau containing the Parthenon.

The Pergamon Altar, 175-150 BCE, (from Pergamon, Turkey) - Hellenistic Period

Built on the Acropolis of Pergamon in Asia Minor, colossal "Altar of Zeus" overlooked the city, not a temple, merely an altar, designed in Ionic order, Greek gods battle Giants for supremacy of the universe, altar base is decorated with sculptural friezes in high relief, showing the Battle between the Giants and the Olympian gods, made up of over 100 panels, showing gods in combat with giants, action, emotion, movement, Athena (city goddess of Pergamon) breaks the winged Giant Alkyoneus' contact to Earth from which the mother of the giants, Gaia, emerges. Alkyoneus was immortal only as long as he touched the ground, so Athena breaking his contact with the ground where he drew his power from Gaia, his mother, the Earth, let Athena get the upper hand, she lifts him, as Gaia pleads for his life below, Nike is to the right, crowning Athena with a wreath of victory, Hellenistic art was about achieving excitement, wild movement, strong feelings, not the harmony and serenity that characterizes classical Greek art.

Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna, 425 AD - Byzantine

Byzantium is the Eastern half of the Roman Empire, once Constantine moved the capital from Rome to Istanbul/Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire considered itself the true heir of Rome, especially after the fall of the Western Roman empire to Northern Germanic tribes in 473 AD, An early Christian burial structure for a member of the Imperial family, This was in the time after the city of Rome had become unsafe because of continuous invasions, so the rulers of the Western half of the former Roman empire moved the capital to the port city of Ravenna in northern Italy c. 400, this was where the Roman navy had been stationed, Galla Placidia was the daughter of the Emperor Theodosius, who was emperor of the Western part of the Roman Empire now in the 5th century. She was married off to the king of the Goths in the name of political alliance. She later remarried, but after her second husband too died, she ruled the Western empire instead of her young son. A very powerful woman, responsible for building a number of structures in Ravenna. Her brother is the one responsible for moving the capital of the Western empire to the city of Ravenna. She died in Rome and was not buried here in Ravenna, but the chapel seems to have been designed as a funerary monument. The structure was originally attached to a larger church. . The Mausoleum has a centralized plan, but in a shape of cross, not circular. On the outside the Mausoleum is small - it is made of re-used Roman brick. In the inside, we see clearly that the structure is laid out on a cross plan. Each of the four transepts have barrel vaults over them. In the center there's a shallow dome. The walls are covered upto about 7 feet in marble cladding Above that are fabulous mosaic decorations. What everyone comes to see is the interior. Amazing mosaics! Mosaic are small tiles of glass or stone. The original mosaics are completely intact today- what we see now is just as vibrant as it was when the work was first completed. Catch the light and glimmer - gold and blue glass tesserae, richness of interior is unimaginable from the humbleness of the exterior, Diffused light - Light filters through windows that are covered with alabaster - St. Lawrence with the flaming gridiron - running towards a fire. Saint Lawrence was a martyred by being barbequed on a grill! A very lively image that conveys movement, light/shade, heat and intensity of emotion. The books in the cupboard are the 4 books of the NT Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Early Christian, Complex geometric patterns indicate that these highly skilled mosaicists were trained in the classical Roman tradition. Barrel vaults made to look like the night's sky with stars. Golden pieces made by sandwiching goldleaf between the two sheets of transparent glass, no expense spared. The young beardless Christ leading the faithful (shepard taking care of the flock) We see this motif very common to the Early Christian period, as we saw in our last class.

The Basilica of Constantine (& Maxentius), 312-315 AD, Rome - Late Empire Rome

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE - - Focus on public works (arches, forums, apartments, baths as opposed to tombs & temples in previous cultures). - Buildings feature arches and vaulted spaces, sometimes of irregular shapes. - Extensive use of concrete. - Combination of stone and fired brick construction. The Basilica was begun in 306 by Maxentius and finished by Constantine. Scale - huge, comparable to Colosseum, sense of grandeur, use of concrete, no timber roof, borrowing building technology of the bath complexes, like the baths of Caracalla, emperor's image dominated the interior, concrete let architects shape space in a way impossible in the post and lintel architecture previously.

Equestrian Statuette of Charlemagne, 9th c. France - Early Medieval, Carolingian Art

Charlemagne (r. 768-814) was an able military leader that wanted to unite the Germanic tribes into a single Christian state. He wished to restore the Western Roman Empire. Having conquered the Lombard kingdom in northern Italy, he annexed Bavaria, and attacked the Muslims in Spain, capturing the northeastern part of the Iberian peninsula. The Pope in Rome anointed Charlemagne as "Holy Roman Emperor" protector of Christianity and successor to the Western empire. His ambition was to build a nation that could rival Byzantium to the east. In Charlemagne's time, The famous statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome was believed to be representing Constantine, the emperor who converted the nation to Christianity. Charlemagne clearly wanted to present himself as a proud equestrian leader. A mustache was a sign of nobility in Charlemagne's time.

Palatine Chapel (792-805) / Aachen Cathedral / Charlemagne's Imperial Palace Complex at Aachen, Germany - Early Medieval - Carolingian Art

Charlemagne built one of the most impressive early medieval palaces, a large complex that includes a throne room, reception halls, domestic structures, a chapel, a royal hunting lodge, and hot springs. Today the palace complex is the site of Aachen's cathedral. From Charlemagne's time, only the Royal Palace Chapel survives, Palatine Chapel was not only for royalty, but also served the public. The ground floor had a common entrance, while the second floor with a separate entrance was reserved for royalty. The chapel strongly relied on Roman building techniques, and became the first vaulted medieval structure north of the Alps. This Roman reference helped Charlemagne cast himself as the new Roman Emperor. An important architectural source for the chapel is Ravenna's church of San Vitale, which Charlemagne visited himself and was deeply impressed by. The Palatine Chapel, however, was altered and simplified to fit the Northern traditions and climate. Following the late antique imperial Mediterranean traditions exhibited by such major buildings as San Vitale, Hagia Sophia, and the Dome of the Rock, the Palatine Chapel is lavishly decorated with panels of colored marbles and its piers and vaults are covered with precious mosaics. The imperial ties are further highlighted by the incorporation of Roman and Ravennate spolia. (Recycled material from buildings of Rome and Ravenna transported to Aachen.), Charlemagne's throne - placed on the second level, above the ground floor and below the dome, seated directly opposite the altar of the Savior. In this hierarchical spatial structure, Charlemagne is positioned between heaven and earth, acting as a divinely sanctioned ruler and mediator between God and his people,

St Matthew the Evangelist, Coronation Gospels, early 9th c., - Early Medieval - Carolingian Art

Charlemagne's admiration for the Mediterranean culture manifested itself in his patronage of arts and learning. He not only imported numerous manuscripts from Rome but also fostered their production locally. The Coronation Gospels, for example, adapted the imperial late antique style to local traditions. The manuscript is written in golden letters on purple vellum, pointing to the tradition of imperial Byzantine manuscripts (in Rome and Byzantium purple is reserved only for the imperial family). In the pages of the Evangelist Matthew, the artist emphasizes the figure without any additional architectural components, symbols, vegetation, or animals. Tradition holds that this Gospel book was buried with Charlemagne in 814, and that in the year 1000 Emperor Otto III removed it from his tomb. Title derives from its use in the coronation ceremonies of later German emperors. The Coronation Gospel's Matthew is very classical in style: He is presented as a volumetric, full-bodied figure, and sketched with illusionistic brushwork to create a three-dimensional effect. Unlike the Hiberno-Saxon examples, the artist does not rely on the use of line and flat areas of color. This illustration also lacks local pre-Christian decorative references, such as interlace patterns or animal style ornamentation. Instead, here the Roman model is fully embraced; Matthew is dressed in a toga, with a huge halo, sitting at his lectern. The monumentality of the figure and the classical inspirations align well with Charlemagne's aim of establishing a new Christian Roman Empire. Comparison to the early Lindisfarne Matthew!

Tomb of the Leopards, Tarquinia, c. 480 BCE - Etruscan Art

Cities of the dead for Etruscans: Tarquinia and Cerveteri!!! Necropolis, tombs as "homes for the dead" like Egyptians, small town with grave mounds and street running between them, burial "tumuli" mounds at the Necropolis, city of the dead, of Tarquinia, tomb chambers are excavated deep underground, with vaulting covered by Earth, tombs arranged as interior spaces inside, often beautifully painted, vividly colored scene, activities of leisure, carefree diversions removed from the demands of daily life was a promise for the afterlife, feasting scene - Etruscans ate seated on a couch called a triclinium - here you see reclining figures drinking, eating, at a party, on the side walls, musicians and dancers entertain in a lively scene, These scenes of feasts imitate the rituals practiced by the living - who visited the tombs of relatives to celebrate them. Etruscans would hold funerary feasts with their deceased ancestors inside the tombs.

Chi Rho Iota Page, The Book of Kells, ca. 780-820 - Early Medieval Art - Hiberno Saxon Art

Considered the greatest achievement of Hiberno-Saxon art. The book has the largest number and greatest variety of full-page illuminations. Produced in an Irish monastery of Iona and carried to Kells to escape a Viking raids. It has been revered and treated almost as a relic since it was made. The one shown here, Chi Rho Iota Page, consists of the initial letters of Christ's name in Greek: χρι (χριστος - Christos) + Latin autem (abbreviated to h) generatio (literally "Christ happened"). The words, however, are barely legible. The letters are transformed into intricate and abstract designs of spirals, geometric shapes, and undulating lines that, again, are rooted in the Celtic and Anglo-Saxon metalwork tradition. A moth, a monks head emerging from the letter rho, cats flanking mice flanking a wafer, and an otter catching a fish. The pages of the Book of Kells are famous for the hidden imagery depicting humans and animals. Scholars have theorized that looking for these hidden images could be a kind of premeditation of God's word before properly studying the Scriptures.

The Arch of Constantine, Rome, 315 AD - Late Empire Rome

Constantine ended the period of conflict that followed Diocletian's retirement. Constantine's father was Caesar to one of the Tetrarchs of the West who shared power with Diocletian. After his father's death, Constantine invades Italy and seizes control of the Western part of the empire. In 312 CE, Constantine wins a decisive battle on the Milvian bridge outside of Rome, where he killed his rival Maxentius, takes control of the capitol. In time, he defeated also the Eastern co-emperor, Licinius, and in 324, reunified the empire under his rule. But as an unchallenged ruler, Constantine moves the capitol of the empire from Rome to Constantinople (Istanbul). Ancient cults decline rapidly. In 337, before his death, Constantine is baptized on his deathbed. - end of antiquity and the beginning of the middle ages. Triple-passage-way arch, dedicated by the Senate of Rome to Constantine, to commemorate his victory over Maxentius. Largest triumphal arch in Rome. Celebrates Constantine as "liberator Urbis" and Fundator Quietus (Bringer of peace) The arch tells the story of how Constantine came to power. Relief sculpture bands - long, horizontal, tell a continuous story. Constantine alienated the Roman senatorial class, which nonetheless rewarded him with the Arch of Constantine. "Constantine's Army marches out of Milan" The Arch of Constantine, Rome. 315 AD (West—short side). Roman Empire (27BC—337 AD). Figures are stocky, squat in proportion. Mechanical stiff gestures, repeated over and over. Emperor easily identifiable because he is larger - hierarchy of scale - determines the rank of figures. - new set of values. The builders, however, took much of the material from earlier monuments of Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius. "Spolia" spoils, reused from previous things. All of the columns and other architectural elements date to an earlier era. Attempts to associate Constantine with the 5 good emperors. Horizontal frieze shows Constantine's Oration. North (wide) side. The Arch of Constantine, Rome. 315 AD (round reused sculpture from the period of Hadrian) Roman Empire (27BC—337 AD).

Old Saint Peter's Basilica (Reconstruction), Rome, ca. 320 AD - Early Christian Art

Constantine ordered the construction of a large new "basilica church" to mark the place were Christians believed St. Peter was buried. This church was destroyed during the early 1500s (the Renaissance period). But we have written records and drawings that tell us what it looked like. End of the empire, beginning of the middle ages. Constantine stops making sacrifices to the Temple of Jupiter Maximus on the Capitoline - he legalizes Christianity - decriminalizing it. Christianity emerged from its status as a literally underground religion. Christians in Rome improvised churches in basements and frequented underground catacomb cemeteries as ritual meeting places. But soon above-ground structures were constructed. One of the first was this church, built on the site of the Apostle Saint Peter's burial. Roofs supported by wooden rafters, Illustration after a Renaissance manuscript showing view of interior prior to demolition in early 16th century: You see how the interior is filled with tombs and altars. The draftsperson took particular care to illustrate the wooden rafters here, that stretched above the nave and side aisles, Maerten van Heemskerck View from the South to Saint Peter's Basilica (Old and New Saint Peter's), ca. 1532-36, pen and brown ink - Although it's a little bit hard to see here, in the Renaissance drawing, we see the paintings that used to ornament the entrance façade to Old Saint Peter's basilica. When the Christians needed a building type specifically dedicated to their religion and their rituals, they adopted the imperial basilica as their model. Compare the Basilica Ulpia in Rome, built by Trajan for his forum to the basilica of Old Saint Peter's They both have a central nave, sandwiched between four side aisles, and an apse at the end of the building. A taller clearstory in the center of the structure, and a wooden roof. The Christians essentially appropriated this building type to satisfy their own emerging architectural needs.

Praxiteles, Aphrodite of Knidos (Venus Pudica), Marble, 350 BCE, Greek Late Classical Period

Contrapposto Venus, goddess of love and beauty, copy of a Greek original by Praxiteles now lost, best known in antiquity for sculptural work, cult statue, stood inside a temples at Knidos, Greece, religious setting, subject of devotion and sold to Knidos after another city rejected it, Roman copy, sensational as a 1st fully nude female figure displayed especially in a religious setting, tourist attraction at Knidos, in cella displayed, Munich copy has legs and hand missing, head tilted, cloth draping down onto vase at her feet, hair pulled back, nudity and the act of bathing, she disrobes, a banal, everyday female scene, seemed unheroic, too human? smile as welcoming, engaging, she covers her nudity, tension between the sensual portrayal and her modesty.

Praxiteles, Hermes and the Infant Dionysus, Marbel, 330 BCE, Greek Late Classical Period

Copy again, marble, copyist from workshop or descendant of Praxiteles, son/grandson, found at Temple of Hera in Olympia, Greece, Dionysus - Zeus' son with mortal, god of wine, mother incinerated when Zeus revealed his true self to her, Z sewed D into his thigh, asks Hermes the messenger to escort him to be raised by the nymphs on the island of Cyprus, safe from Hera, who would have been trying to kill him, oddly found in her temple? meeting for the 1st time, famous marble purity, highly polished, backside non-polished, meant to be seen from the front, interaction between the two, in conversation, held something in right arm, grapes to tease D? details of H's sandals, contrapposto exaggerated in a great S-curve, hip pushed out, dreamy expression, as opposed to Polykleitos' Spear-Bearer's glower, more human, psychologically relatable, hair is fluffer, curly, tendrils.

Reliquary of St. Foy, From the Abbey Church of Conques, France, 10th century - Romanesque

Cult Relics - Pilgrimage churches can be seen in part as popular destinations, a spiritual tourism of sorts for medieval travelers. Guidebooks, badges and various souvenirs were sold. Pilgrims, though traveling light, would spend money in the towns that possessed important sacred relics. The cult of relic was at its peak during the Romanesque period (c. 1000 - 1200). Relics are religious objects generally connected to a saint, or some other venerated person. A relic might be a body part, a saint's finger, a cloth worn by the Virgin Mary, or a piece of the True Cross. Relics are often housed in a protective container called a reliquary. Reliquarys are often quite opulent and can be encrusted with precious metals and gemstones given by the faithful. This reliquary is said to hold a piece of the child martyr's skull. A large pilgrimage church might be home to one major relic, and dozens of lesser-known relics. Because of their sacred and economic value, every church wanted an important relic and a black market boomed with fake and stolen goods.

Dying Gaul (Dying Gallic Trumpeter), marble, c. 220 BCE - Hellenistic Period

Deep humanity, man at the moments before his death, was powerful, lost strength, bleeding from wound in side, sword lays by his side, two horns lay by him, he was a trumpeter, feeling of empathy, agony on his face, beauty of the body with its destruction, found in Rome, Roman marble copies of what were Bronze originals, from the Attalo Monument Group, memorializes victory of a Pergamon Kingdom over Gaul, sympathetic portrait of the defeated, only showed the defeated on this monument, identified as a Gaul by his long hair, mustache, ring around his neck "torque." Concept of pathos here, musculature exaggerated (bulging veins, flexing muscles) to tell the story of a worthy enemy, a noble people, the Gallic warrior was an extraordinary man, a "noble foe." juxtaposed with the typical Greek characterization of the Gauls as uncivilized barbarians! freestanding and in the round, invitation to be viewed from all angles, stretched out along the ground, sinking down to death, emphasis on human form and anatomically correct figures, sense of DRAMA - tied to the rising popularity of theatre, human form as a vehicle to convey emotion!! technique known as EMOTIONALISM,

Riace Warrior, Bronze, 460-450 BCE - Greek Classical Period

Discovered in Riace, Italy, hollow cast bronze, accidental discovery by divers in the 1970s, one of a pair, 2000 years in the water, left arm has remnants of a clasp of a shield, contrapposto, head turned, S curve of body, hip out, freed arms, natural motion, eyes = inlaid glass, probably colored originally, slightly older = 30 y.o. a bit over lifesize, lost wax, hollows cast technique, clay covered in wax covered in clay, poured in bronze and remove outer layer to get bronze form, bronze goes where wax was, sight of ancient shipwreck probably on the way to a collector in Rome?

The Dome of the Rock, 687-691 AD, Jerusalem - Early Islamic Period

Dome of the Rock is not a mosque, as so often assumed, but a commemorative structure. The building is meant to display the triumph of the new faith in the holy city of Jerusalem. The shrine takes the form of an octagon with a towering dome and is considered the first great Islamic building. It was erected during the Umayyad dynasty, an important early Muslim dynasty that reached its peak of power during the reign of Abd al-Malik. From the outside, the building is iconic for its 75-foot-tall double-shelled gilt aluminum and bronze dome. Importantly, the building is located on a site equally sacred to Muslims, Christians, and Jews. At the center of the rotunda is a rocky outcropping that is associated with Adam, Abraham, and Mohammad. This is believed to be the site where the Hebrews built the Temple of Solomon, the location of Adam's grave, the spot where Abraham prepared to sacrifice Isaac, and where Mohammad began his journey to Heaven. Jerusalem is known as the center for three Abrahamic monotheistic faiths: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The construction of the Dome of the Rock served as a visual demonstration of Islam as a universal religion. The Dome of the Rock's location, build the site of the ruins of the Temple of Solomon, expressed the identity of Islam as a continuation and culmination of former Abrahamic monotheistic religions. The construction of the building was completed in 691 by the order of the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 646 - 705). It is the earliest remaining Islamic building with the earliest Qur'anic inscriptions. The octagonal building was intended for circumambulation around the holy rock found at it's center. It is not a single building but part of a pilgrimage complex made up of about 45 marked sites. The site has undergone several stages of renovation and transformation which took place in the centuries following its initial completion. The Dome of the Rock is one building within Abd al-Malik's "master plan" for the pilgrimage site which consists of about 45 marked sites. All of the gates surrounding the complex are named after Old Testament prophets, emphasizing the universalism of the Islamic religion. The Aqsa Mosque axially aligned with the Dome of the Rock was connected to a no longer extant Umayyad palace which was located south of the complex and had a direct passage to the mihrab area of the mosque (discovered during recent excavations). The decorations of Islamic religious monuments, including the Dome of the Rock are aniconic (non-figural), such as inscriptions, geometric, vegetal, and crown motifs, rather than figural imagery. Octagonal building, concentric space, outer octagon, inner octagon, circular innermost arcade supporting a double-shell wooden dome. Original dome collapsed and wa rebuilt by the Fatimids in the 11c. The centralized plan of the Dome of the Rock envelops a sacred rock, which is believed to mark the holy of holies in the former Jewish temple (the Temple of Solomon), that is, the inner sanctuary of the Jewish temple complex. It is considered to be the future site of the Divine Throne in the Last Judgment. Gold mosaics decorating cylindrical drum supporting the dome depict crown motifs, evoking the theme of God's Divine kingdom, source of legitimate earthly rulers or caliphate. Structure descended from the Pantheon in Rome, Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, San Vitale in Ravenna! Precious materials of gold, gilded bronze, colored marble. Spolia! The precious colored marble columns and Corinthian capitals of the Dome of the Rock were taken from earlier Christian buildings. This is an example of spolia, or the reuse of architectural elements from earlier monuments. The reuse of these prestigious materials raises questions about the craftsmen who were employed to decorate the monument. The use of marble and gold mosaics implies that some Byzantine craftsmen were imported to carry out this work, particularly the mosaics. "Bookmarking" used to form geometric patterns out of marble. It involves slicing the marble and aligning its naturally waving forms to create symmetrical patterns.

Etruscan Temple, based on descriptions by Roman architect Vitruvius, - Etruscan Art

Etruscans incorporated Greek deities and heroes into their religion, but we know little beyond this about their religious practices. Our knowledge of Etruscan temple architecture comes from a Roman source, the "10 Books on architecture" written by Vitruvius sometime between 33 and 23 BCE (some 500 years after the height of Etruscan power.) Statues on roof, elaborate terracotta decorations, wooden columns on deep porch, high stone base called podium, walls made of mud-brick, Etruscan temples only had columns on the front, so called "prostyle" Temple, post and lintel structure, gabled roof, bases, columns, capitals, Etruscans used the "Tuscan order" Unfluted shaft and simplified base,

Apollo of Veii, From the Temple of Minerva, Veii, terracotta, c. 500 BCE - Etruscan Art

Example of Etruscan figure temple sculpture decoration, dynamic, vigorously striding youthful figure, 5'10", monumental terracotta (clay) sculpture, muscular details, rippling folds in garments, more expressive than Greek archaic period sculptures,

Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul), 532-537 CE - Byzantine

First it was a Greek city "Byzantium", then it became part of the Roman empire In 324, Constantine decided to found a capital city here, which he called the "new Rome." and named after himself, Constantinople Right at the time when Constantine was recognizing Christianity. The emperor (Constantine) had his imperial palace close by. That was the reason why this church was built here. - Although the original church constructed under Constantine burnt down! Hagia Sophia is the 3rd church built on this site - in the 6th century. A way for the emperor Justinian to put people to work in a period of incessant riots. Justinian hired two theorists of mathematics and physics - to think about how to vault this space - and to use masonry instead of timber roof, to prevent fires. Justinian wanted to unify the longitudinal plan and a centralized plan. A Domed Basilica! Dome in center: On either side of the dome, semi-circular interior spaces called "hemicycles," which are covered by half-domes (or semidomes) also. Apollodorus of Damascus The Forum of Trajan is elegant—it is rife with signs of top-level architecture and decoration. All of the structures, save the two libraries (which were built of brick), were built of stone. There is a great deal of exotic, imported marble and many statues, including gilded examples. The main square of the forum was once a vast space, screened by architecture on all sides and paved in white marble. Several rows of trees, and perhaps rows of statues, ran parallel to the porticoes. Entry to the forum square was from the south, by way of a triumphal arch surmounted by a statue of Trajan riding in a triumphal chariot. Justinian's reconstruction of Hagia Sophia responded to a tense political situation The dome is enormously tall Mysticism of the dome. Semidome over the hemicycle. Pendentives - concave triangles to set the dome on a circular shape, rather than a rectangular base. Dome sits on 4 enormous arches, diameter of 102 feet, architects hide the huge piers that actually do most of the work of supporting the weight. Half dome on either side also help support the tall dome. Incredibly ambitious project. Trial and error process - initial dome fell in an earthquake- the architects built it taller! Arcade" 40 arched windows surrounding the dome Dome at Hagia Sophia "hovers" Ring of the dome does not touch the arches of the walls. Pantheon's dome sits on a round barrel drum, This dome is on a square body. Transformation of the physical into the spiritual Emperor not just the political leader, but also the head of the spiritual life of the empire - head of the church. A perfect expression of the political power and spiritual power of the emperor Justinian Gallery space screened. Upper gallery spaces reserved for the imperial family. Acanthus leaves, palm leaves!! Drawing attention to mystical effects of space, idea of light filtering through perforated walls also carried over into architectural ornaments, complex patterns.

The Severan Tondo, ca. 200 AD, tempera on panel - Late Empire Rome

Following the reign of the so-called "5 Good Emperors," Rome enters a period of political and economic decline. Roman frontiers in northern Europe began experiencing threats from non-Roman groups. Roman provincial governments were disrupted by outside forces, which Romans called "Barbarians." Eventually these safety concerns led to the army taking control of the government - and the empire shifted to an authoritarian form of rule. Despite the pressures brought on by political and economic change, the arts continued to flourish under the Severan emperors, who succeeded Commodus. Emperor Septimius Severus was born into a provincial aristocratic family in AD 145. He grew up in the Roman town of Leptis Magna, in modern-day Libya. Sources from the time refer to his multilingual ability, suggesting he spoke Latin, Greek and Punic. As an adult, he went to Rome to embark on a political career. He soon became a Roman senator. He marries Julia Domna from Syria, restored public buildings, commissioned official portraits, and revitalized the old cattle market in Rome into a well-planned bustling center for commerce. Their sons Caracalla and Geta succeeded Septimius Severus as co-emperors in 211 AD, but Caracalla murdered his brother the following year, and ruled alone until he was murdered in 217 AD. An example of imperial portraiture, mass-produced to be displayed in public buildings throughout the Roman Empire. (Like a portrait of a US president displayed at post offices etc). The Imperial family is wearing sumptuous ceremonial garments. Septimius Severus and his sons are holding sceptres and wearing gold wreaths decorated with precious stones. This image of a grey-haired Severus, with his wife and young children, emphasizes the dynastic ambitions of the new emperor. The darker skin tone of the Emperor reflects his North African origins in Libya. It may have been painted to celebrate the official visit of Septimius Severus to Egypt in AD 199, following his military victories against Parthia the previous year, and before his campaigns in north Africa in AD 203. Caracalla is depicted as a youth, indicating a date before AD 205. One son's face has been obliterated in a deliberate act of iconoclasm, and the vacant space smeared with excrement. Most scholars believe it is Geta, Caracalla's brother, whose face has been removed, probably after his murder by Caracalla and the ensuing damnatio memoriae. (Nero suffered the same fate).

Colossal Statue of Emperor Constantine, marble, 312-315 AD, Rome - Late Empire Rome

Fragments of the colossal statue of Constantine. (312—315AD) 8 feet tall head. This work used to stand inside the Basilica of Constantine, and the apse end of the structure. Revived the style of emperor portraits made popular by Augustus - the emperor is in perpetual youthfulness. Seated figure, modeled after Jupiter statue on the Capitoline, Personality lost, Over 30 feet tall, originally. Sculptors used white marble for the head, hands, chest, arms and legs. All supported on a wooden frame. The head combines features of traditional Roman portraiture and a more abstract type of representation. Heavy jaw, hooked nose, and jutting chin identify the figure as Constantine, but the face also includes more generic features as well, such as his eyes, eyebrows, and hair. The work projects imperial power and dignity. Comparison to Augustus' statue head in 9 BC, a lot of development, emphasis on power, might, bulbous-ness of Constantine, compared to the boyish smooth lines of Augustus.

Villa of Livia at Primaporta, ca. 20 BCE, Rome - Early Empire Rome

Garden motifs, trees, plants, fruits, birds - shows the artist's attempt to blur the boundaries between interior and exterior space. Garden Room of Livia (Wife of Augustus), The walls are populated by wonderfully observed birds - an idealized view of the natural world. Golden Oriole, Sparrow, Song Thrush, Swallow, Quail Partridge, etc. The painters used "atmospheric perspective" - the blurring of things that are further away from the viewer. This technique imitates the effects of the atmosphere on human vision.

Major Differences of Etruscan Temples and Greek Temples:

Greek: Stone, Marble, Stylobate, Fluting, no base on Doric, surrounded structure, stone-gable roof, one cella, house deity, pedimental sculptures, caryatids, metopes, house statues of gods for worship, sculptural mass - perfect harmony, unified, Etruscan: Wood, Mudbrick, podium, columns in front only, porch, columns unfluted with base, widely spaced, terracotta roof statues on raking cornice, narrative, 3 cellas for Tunia, Uni, Menrva, shelters the gods, about the structure. Simple in form, elaborate in decoration, dazzling displays of painting and terracotta structure, roof was where large sculpture was displayed, unthinkable in Greek art.

Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius, 176 AD, Bronze, Rome - High Empire Rome

Hadrian adopted 51 yo Antonius Pius before he died, but at the same time required Antoninus Pius to adopt Marcus Aurelius, guaranteeing a peaceful succession for two generation of emperors, over life size stature, imperial grandeur, made of bronze, beneath the horse's front leg, an enemy once cowered, begging the emperor for mercy, modeled after Trajan's equestrian statue in the Forum of Trajan which is now lost, this one survived because during the middle ages people thought the portrait depicted the emperor Constantine - the first Christian Roman emperor, Marcus Aurelius is aged here, tired, weary, saddened, constant warfare on frontiers and burden of ruling shows on his face, beyond Veristic portraits, shows inner character and likeness, a turning point here.

Temple of Portunus, c. 75 BCE, Rome - Roman Republic

High stone base called a podium, deep porch, only on the front, rectangular cella, like Etruscan temples, Half-columns (engaged columns) surround the cella to ornament it on the exterior. The Romans liberated the "column" from its purely structural function. In a Roman temple, columns are decorative as well - note the use of the half-columns around the cella. While the Greek temple encouraged viewers to walk around the structure, Roman temples are invited to enter the interior spaces. Longitudinal axis Symmetry Cella and Pronaos or Porch On the Forum Boarum, cattle market, The Romans utilized a volcanic stone native to Italy called tufa to construct their buildings. Although tufa never went out of use, travertine began to be utilized in the late 2nd century B.C.E. because it was more durable. Also, its off-white color made it an acceptable substitute for marble. Major differences with Greek, Etruscan, Roman Temples!

Catacomb of Saints Peter and Marcellinus, Rome, ca. 300-350 AD - Early Christian Art

In 312, Constantine wins a decisive battle on the Milvian bridge, and takes control of Rome, in essence becoming sole ruler of the Western half of the Roman empire. In time, Constantine defeated also the Eastern co-emperor, Licinius, and in 324, reunified the empire under his sole rule. As an unchallenged ruler, Constantine moves the capitol of the empire from Rome to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul). Having moved the capitol, in 325 AD Constantine designate Christianity as a state religion. Roman religion declines rapidly. In 337, before his death, Constantine is himself baptized on his deathbed and became a Christian. This is the end of antiquity and the beginning of the middle ages. In antiquity, (during the empire), burial grounds were all located outside of Rome's city walls. Regardless of religion (Christian, or pagan), bodies tended to be buried underground in catacombs - a tunnel-like corridor with burial chambers dug into the walls. The subterranean networks of galleries, chambers, burial sites stretched like a maze Just around Rome, there are more than 100 miles of tunnels. Christ the Good Shepherd & Orants Painting from the Catacomb of Sts. Peter & Marcellinus, Rome (early 4th C) Christian catacomb paintings The underground catacombs were not only burial grounds, but also places where Christians gathered to worship early on. Here we see an example of larger "rooms" carved out to accommodate larger crowds to celebrate mass. The walls of these "chapels" are decorated in fresco painting, with Christian subject matter. Episodes from the biblical story of Jonah, left - sailors throw Jonah from his ship, right - he emerges from the whale, bottom - jonah on land contemplates the salvation and mercy of God, prefiguration of Christ who died and rose from his grave, Orant - hand up in prayer, figures in between - Christian family, Symbolism - Jesus is a good shepherd who cares for His flock, rescues sinners who stray, pastoral metaphor would be easy for common people to understand, Roman influence - sketchy painterly brushstrokes like Pompeian painting.

Chartres Cathedral, 1140-1260, Chartres, France - Gothic

In a town south-west of Paris. Dedicated to the virgin Mary. Constructed in several stages. Represents a transition from the experimental 12th century Gothic to a more mature style of the 13th century. Holds the relic of a piece of garment, believed to have been worn by the Virgin Mary when she gave birth to Jesus. The healing powers associated to the relic drew large numbers of pilgrims to Chartres, which supported the local economy. The plan is essentially a Romanesque pilgrimage plan church, but with a significantly enlarged sanctuary, occupying nearly a third of the whole structure. Notice the thinness of the walls as opposed to the solidity of the piers and buttresses. A glass-filled masonry skeleton structure, enclosing a large open space. Over 45 feet wide and vaults over 120 feet tall. Pointed arches and ribbed groin vaults now used as standard elements of building. The tall ceiling and open interior is made possible at Chartres by the innovative use of flying buttresses, which braces the building's walls from the outside. Flying buttresses keeps tall skinny walls in place. Flying Buttresses - Arched exterior supports countered the lateral thrust of the nave vaults, and transferred the weight outward, over the side aisles, to buttressing piers. Flying Buttresses permitted larger clerestory windows, nearly equal in height to the nave arcade. Rose windows and lancet windows, Chartres - metal roof of the 1840s to replace the wood structure destroyed in a fire in 1838. Flanking all 3 openings on the jambs ae column statues of kings, queens and prophets from the Hebrew bible. These figures are not only important as biblical ancestors to Christ, but also because they emphasized the close ties between the church and the French royal house. Note their elongated proportions, linear drapery. Christ enthroned in majesty, surrounded by the four symbolic representations of the evangelists. Below them are the apostles, and surrounding them in 3 layers in the pointed arches are the 24 elders of the Apocalypse. Comparison to Church of Saint Pierre, Moissac Tympanums!!

Mausoleum of Santa Costanza, Rome, ca. 350 AD - Early Christian Art

In the eastern part of Rome, outside of the city-walls, this circular building was built to house the remains of two of emperor Constantine's daughters Helena and Costantina. The building is now a Christian church. It is strategically built near a large catacomb, and also near the imperial family's villa (country residence). A "Mausoleum" is a free-standing building, constructed to house the remains of a person. The circular (central-plan) form was a common type of tomb structure for imperial family members - Augustus and Hadrian both had circular mausolea built in Rome. From the plan drawing and the aerial view photographs, you can see that the central part of the building is taller than the peripheral ring. A large circular drum sits above the body of the tomb. The drum is perforated by arched windows. On the interior, the space is entirely open. We see that the wider, shorter drum essentially forms a continuous loop, like a continuous barrel-vault ring. This is called an "ambulatory." The central, taller drum rises above a series of paired granite columns. Centralized churches gather attention to the middle of the space - this is where the altar is located, and where mass would be celebrated. Building is a tall "rotunda," interior originally covered in mosaics, only those in the ambulatory survive, The mosaics recall the syncretic images in the catacombs, where classical motifs were repurposed to serve Christian worship. Here we see for example a bust portrait of Costantina in the center, surrounded by a tangle of grapevines, filled with putti - naked cherubs derived from pagan art - who harvest grapes and make wine. The technique and style is Roman The subject is traditionally associated with Bacchus, the god of wine, and his cult But the meaning is new here - In a Christian context, wine refers to the Eucharist shared during mass. The stomping of the grapes is also symbolic of death and resurrection Although Costantina, like her father, was a Christian, her husband adhered to the traditional Roman religion. Here in the mausoleum, the imagery in the mosaic ornament could be read to support either religion. Sarcophagus of Costantina Porphyry, 350 AD Costantina was buried in a spectacularly huge sarcophagus in a rectangular niche in a highly visible central place across from the entrance. Here we see grapevines with putti again.

Phidias, Procession of the Athenians, Frieze, Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, ca. 450 BCE - Pentelic marble - Greek Classical Period

Inner layer frieze, Contemporary Athenians process on horseback/walk, all ages, male and female, in ritual walking around Parthenon, part of worship was walking around the temple, circumambulating, to make the worship, mostly clothes, Phidias curved, controlling two horses at once, leading younger children, elites are seated and ends with them, continuous loop, been removed and housed in a museum.

Page with a man, symbol of St. Matthew, Gospel Book of Durrow, c. 660-680 - Early Medieval Art - Hiberno-Saxon Art

Irish monasteries became centers of learning, knowledge production, and art for next two centuries. The most important products of these monasteries were manuscripts (manually written books). All manuscripts were hand made and produced from animal skin (sheep, goat, pig, cow) through a complicated process (de-haired, soaked in a lime solution, stretched, and left to dry). The words and images were then hand-painted by monks in monasteries. In this period, manuscripts were the major means of knowledge transmission and were used for liturgy and for missionary activities. Manuscripts were extremely costly: an average book containing four Gospels required anywhere from 300 to 500 animals to produce the pages. In addition, one had to pay for pigments, dyes, and years of labor. In the case of illuminated manuscripts (manuscripts containing images), the cost could raise exponentially since every picture demanded adding pages (counted in animal skins) and pigments, The Book of Durrow is one of the earliest examples of such a Hiberno-Saxon illuminated manuscript. The book contains the four Gospels, fundamental to Christian teaching and liturgy. Reflecting the layout of Roman Christian models, the book has a vertical layout, yet the decoration and illuminations are uniquely Hiberno-Saxon. Each of the Gospels is preceded with a three-part introductory sequence of illuminations that are typical of most of the Gospel manuscripts. This layout consists of: 1) a page with a symbol of the Evangelist (not an Evangelist himself!), 2) a "carpet page" -a page full of pure ornamentation, and 3) the page with the initial letters of the Gospel (incipit). Using only four colors: yellow, red, green, and black, the artist focused on stylization, ornament, pattern, symmetry, and design. The checkerboard pattern and colors resemble cloisonné enamels (enamels produced by filling a golden or silver "pockets" with powdered silica mix and later fired to achieve a precious stone-like effect) that were popular wardrobe items during this period. Overall, this image indicates the persistence of local pagan traditions and its fusion with the Roman Christian subject matter. The lavish ornamentation of books like this could boost its owner's status-just like the belt buckle did for its wearer.

Lysippos, Farnese Hercules, Marble, 320 BCE - Greek Late Classical Period

Marble Roman copy of Greek bronze original, Farnese family collection, H is musclebound, copy signed by Glycon of Athens, nearly 2x life size, 10 ft tall, stood in a gym in Rome, in bathhouse, in gym, symbol of strength, physical prowess, inspiration for athletes, frowning expression, (compared to spear-bearer - which is younger, slimmer) exaggeration of H as middle-aged, with beard, emotion? slung arm, face faces down, weary? tired? more human than hero! resting on his club, ironic/comical to see him this way, antithetic to his persona, right hand behind him holds golden apples, the prize for his twelve labors, so this is right after the feats, makes sense why he is exhausted, have to see it in 360 to understand.

Phidias, Battle of the Centaurs, Metopes Reliefs, Southside of the Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, ca. 450 BCE - Pentelic marble - Greek Classical Period

Metopes! All the civilized Greeks in battle against the barbarian centaurs, centaurs are winning battle, body lies under rearing centaur, triumphant centaur, lifeless Greek corpse, high relief, almost appear attached to the background, expressing the function of the structure, showing the battles, fitting for a war memorial! commemorative!

Church of Saint Pierre in Moissac, France, 1100-1135 - Romanesque

Moissac Abbey was a Benedictine monastery, founded by the Frankish king Clovis in 509. Historical records however indicate that it was founded in the middle of the 7th century. The establishment of the monastery was difficult because of raids by Moors from the south and west and the Norsemen from the north. The abbey was sacked twice around 732 and was looted in the 9th century by Norman Pirates. Ste. Pierre was on one of the pilgrimage roads through France that led to Santiago de Campostela. Ste. Pierre in Moissac was a popular stop for those making the long and arduous journey. Architectural features of interest include the church's south-west portico, which is a crenulated structure with sculpture that is a major masterpiece of Romanesque. This reflected an expansion of image carving both in scope and size, and extended the use of sculpture from the sanctuary to the public exterior, Abbey church has one of the most impressive and elaborate Romanesque portals of the 12th century. Carved images occupy the walls of the extended porch leading to the door, the door itself, and even the space over the door. The tympanum depicts the Apocalypse of the Book of Revelation. Supporting the tympanum, a trumeau features a statue of the Prophet Isaiah, an outstanding example of Romanesque sculpture As pilgrims approached the portal of the church Saint-Pierre, they were met with spectacular imagery that warned against sin, and reminded them of Christ's sacrifice and his final coming. The portal at Moissac would have been a veritable feast for the Romanesque viewer's eyes and souls. Maiestas Domini (Christ in Majesty) At Moissac we are presented with a very literal depiction of a passage from the Book of Revelation (4:2-7) The moment is not a narrative in the sense that the Last Judgment is, but it is rather a more esoteric representation of the Second Coming of Christ and the End of Time - a topic very much on the minds of those living around this time. Imposing image - notice the hierarchy of scale! - Christ is gigantic here. What was the purpose of this apocalyptic image? Often times these relief sculptures on medieval churches are said to have been carved for the illiterate. But a certain knowledge of scripture was needed even in order to understand the work. More likely, these works were sermons carved in stone. The "trumeau" - Carved to represent an old testament prophet (Jeremiah?) on one side, and lions on the front,

Domus Aurea (the Golden House of Nero), Rome, 64-68 AD - Early Empire Rome

Nero was the last emperor in the Julio-Claudian line that began with Julius Caesar. Often described as the worst emperor of Rome, his rule is typically associated with tyranny and extravagance. The Domus Aurea was a vast landscaped palace built by the Emperor Nero in the heart of ancient Rome after the great fire in 64 AD had destroyed a large part of the city, The fire destroyed almost 2/3 of the city. The Roman author Tacitus wrote that some ancient accounts described the fire as an accident, while others had claimed that it was a plot of Nero's. Nero infamously blamed the fire on the Jewish population. Other Roman writers and historians consider the fire was started by Nero, specifically in order to clear land for his palace. The Golden House was designed as a place of entertainment, as shown by the presence of 300 rooms without any sleeping quarters. Surviving elements (now underground) show that the Domus was lavishly decorated with colorful fresco paintings, tall vaulted ceilings, and extravagant colored marble panels. Frescoes covered every surface that was not more richly finished. It was an early use of Roman concrete construction - An innovation that will revolutionize Roman architecture, The Domus Aurea left an important precedent for architecture. It's concrete vaulted octagonal room at the center was one of the first times a true Dome had been used to cover an interior space. The dome over the octagonal room was open to the sky at the top. This opening is called an "oculus" Through the use of a clever double-shell construction, the dome also worked to bring light into rooms adjacent the octagonal room. Natural light streams into side rooms from the opening at the top. The Golden House was a severe embarrassment to Nero's successors. It presented the emperors and the ruling class as the enemy of the people. After Nero's suicide in 68 AD, the Domus Aurea was stripped of its marble, jewels and ivory within a decade.[ Soon after Nero's death, the palace and grounds, encompassing 2.6 km² (c. 1 mi²), were filled with earth and built over. Nero's portraits on coins, public sculpture, and other paintings were similarly damaged - Nero, in essence, was sentenced to one of the most damning punishments a Roman can receive called "Damnatio Memoriae" (damnation of memory.) Over 40 years, Nero's Golden House was slowly but surely destroyed, buried, or converted into structures with entirely different functions.

Polykleitos, The Doryphoros "Spear-Bearer", Marble, 450-440 BCE - Greek Classical Period

Nude young male, Polykleitos was a famous Greek sculptor, marble copy of a bronze original, Contrapposto, was holding a spear, now lost, stood in city outside of Pompeii, Rome in a gym, model figure, "athlete" talked about by Pliny, used as a demonstration piece for Polykleitos' treatise on sculpture, embodiment of the "ideal nude male figure" athlete, warrior, called "the canon" by Polykleitos as in "the model"the highest standard, shoulders and hips slant different ways, system of cross-balance - contrapposto, casual, natural, relaxed, applying concept of symmetry, hanging arm echoes weight bearing leg = stability, dynamic tension of flexed other sider, could be stepping forward, left arm and right arm = tense, right arm and left leg = relaxed, diagonal crossbalance, combination of rest and movement = harmony, applying abstract principles to work of art, harmony, liveliness, breathing life into it!

Saint Matthew the Evangelist Page, Lindisfarne Gospels, 715-725 - Early Medieval - Hiberno Saxon Art

One of the earliest, well-preserved illuminated manuscripts. Produced in the Lindisfarne monastery of Northumbria Evangelist Matthew is shown in the midst of writing his Gospel, and his symbol, a winged man, is shown above him. This composition is based on the classical images of seated philosophers that were widespread in the Mediterranean tradition and ultimately derived from pagan antecedents. The drawn curtain (a man behind a curtain is an unidentified character) sets the scene indoors. Matthew is depicted at an angle with his seat is drawn in quasi-perspective-both typical Classical tropes. Two words, Greek hagios and Latin Mattheus, identify the figure as Matthew. The combination of the two languages increases the status of the book.

Laocoon and his Sons, marble, 99-1 BCE - Hellenistic Period

One of the most iconic sculptural groups from antiquity, studied by Michelangelo, Laocoon was a priest in the city of Troy, warned his compatriots to not bring within their city walls a large wooden horse that the Greeks left behind, gods who supported the Greeks retaliated by sending serpents from the sea to destroy Laocoon and his sons, famous for their expressions of fear and pain, contorted bodies, dynamic composition, struggling figures, anguished faces, expression of excruciating pain and fear, realism of emotion, obsession with pathos (evocation of pity or sadness), twisting snakes heighten the drama, Comparison to Polykleitos' Doryphoros / Spearbearer - the Laocoon's dramatic emotional realism is clear, contortions of the body imply emotional instability.

Augustus of Primaporta, marble, 14-29 AD - Early Empire Rome

Pax Romana, Roman Peace under Octavian, Augustus, meaning 'Sacred,' Caesar, nephew of Julius, after Julius was assassinated in 44 BCE, 27 BCE the Roman senate honored him with the title, This is a portrait of the emperor Augustus Caesar as he wanted to be seen and remembered. The figure stands in a standard pose of a Roman orator (public speaker). The figure stands in a classic Contrapposto, but with a raised hand to address an audience. The sculptor consciously used the old-fashioned 1:7 proportions of Classical Greek sculpture, especially that of the the Spear-Bearer by Polycleitus. Augustus is shown to be in the physical prime of his youth, even though he would have been in his 40s in the time of this commission. "Primaporta" is the name of the location where this statue was rediscovered by modern archaeologists. Like most ancient Greek and Roman marble statues, this work too would have been painted originally in vibrant colors. Stylistically, Augustus of Primaporta is a type of portraiture that is very different from the Veristic busts from the Republican period. The figure's face does not show signs of age or imperfections. The emperor preferred to be remembered as a youthful man, And yet the face is still highly recognizable and individualized. Early imperial portraits tended to strike this balance between classical Greek idealism and Republican realism, The sculptor of Augustus of Primaporta added mythological and historical imagery to celebrate the emperor's accomplishments. The cuirass (torso armor) is covered with imagery that celebrates Augustus' military victory over the Parthians. In the center, a Parthian returns a Roman military flag standard to a Roman soldier. Above these figures, the god of the heavens Caelus holds a canopy over them, implying peace. God of the earth, Tellus at the bottom holds a cornucopia, representing the prosperity brought about the empire by Augustus' peace. Cupid astride a dolphin at his leg - dolphin was a symbol of Augustus' great military victory over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, made Augustus the sole rule of the empire, cupid - message that Caesar is descended from the gods, Julius claimed to be descended from Venus, and therefore Augustus inherits this connections from his adoptive father.

The "Tetrarchs" of the Roman Empire, c. 300 AD, Porphyry (Now in Venice) - Late Empire Rome

Period of Anarchy: Following the Severan dynasty, Rome plunged into a period of chaos. A series of soldier emperors tried to restore order, but a continuous civil war lasted for about 50 years. Unstable times. Real order was only restored by Diocletian in 284 AD. Diocletian was a brilliant military commander, administrator and politician. To divide up the task of defending and administrating the Roman world, he decided to share power with his potential rivals. In 293 CE, he established what's called a "Tetrarchy." Tetrarchy means "the rule of 4," (meaning the government was ruled by 4 people). Diocletian adopted the title of Augustus of the East, and named Maximian Augustus of the West. The two Co-emperors each shared power with someone holding the title of "Caesar," intended as their successors. The System worked for a while, until Diocletian retired in 305 AD. The Tetrarchs divided the Roman empire into two (East and West). The two co-emperors (Diocletian and Maximian) called themselves "Augustus," and they each had a subordinate, whose title was "Caesar." This new form of government is famously represented by a sculpture group called The Tetrarchs, now at St. Mark's Cathedral, Venice.probably from about 300AD. Underscores their partnerships. The 4 figures are nearly identical, wearing the same military garb - except for the fact that the senior Augusti have beards while the junior Caesars are clean shaven. Each of the four have the same face - the figures have lost their individual identities - this is a group portrait of "the office." The figures also have their arms around each others' shoulders in a sign of solidarity. The material they are made out of is also very important. Porphyry - an extremely hard purple stone from Egypt, was reserved only for the use by the imperial families. To anyone viewing this work, just from the material of porphyry alone, the imperial patronage would have been obvious.

Head of a Roman Patrician, 75-50 BCE, Marble - Roman Republic

Portrait sculptors of the Republican period created life-like images seemingly based on close observation of nature. Roman patrician (noble) families displayed portrait masks of their ancestors in their homes * A powerful representation of a male aristocrat with a hooked nose and strong cheekbones. * The figure is frontal without any hint of dynamism or emotion—this sets the portrait apart from some of its near contemporaries. * The portrait head is characterized by deep wrinkles, a furrowed brow, and an appearance of sagging, sunken skin. Unk man, c. 50 bc, Roman Republican, 300 BC - 27 BC, Verism / "Veristic style" A form of realism. An interest in the faithful reproduction of the immediate visual and tactile appearance of subjects A preference for contemporary everyday subject matter instead of the heroic or legendary in art. The word comes from the Latin word verus (true). "Truthful" art (warts and all!) Instead of generalizing a human face, smoothed of its imperfections, this style of Roman art EMPHASIZED the hallmarks of age and distinguishing aspects of individual likenesses. Prominent in portraits of patricians (the ruling class). Comparison to the HEad of Alexander the Great, marble, 3rd century BCE, Hellenistic Period Greece which was more Apollo-like, idealistic, not specific features, not individualistic, no wrinkles, no frown, placid expression, etc.

Domus of the Vettii, 79 AD, Pompeii - Early Empire Rome

Roman cities were typically focused on the forum (a large open plaza, surrounded by important buildings), which was the civic, religious and economic heart of the city. It was in the city's forum that major temples were located, as well as other important shrines. Also useful in the forum plan were the basilica (a law court), and other official meeting places for the town council, such as a curia building. Quite often the city's meat, fish and vegetable markets sprang up around the bustling forum. Surrounding the forum, lining the city's streets, framing gateways, and marking crossings stood the connective architecture of the city: the porticoes, colonnades, arches and fountains that beautified a Roman city and welcomed weary travelers to town. On August 24th, 79 AD mount Vesuvius outside of Naples in South-central Italy erupted. Surrounding cities like Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried in more than 20 ft of volcanic ash, killing its residents, but also preserving the urban landscape for posterity. Authors like Pliny the Elder witnessed the event from Misenum, where he was in charge of the fleet. He immediately set out for Herculaneum to render aid, but he could not land, so he then sailed to Stabiae to his friend's house, and when they could not escape the next morning on the 25th, he and many others died on the beach there. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote about the event. Roman cities were typically laid out on a grid, like most Greek and Etruscan cities. Pompeii was an affluent city with 10,000 to 20,000 inhabitants. Temples and government buildings surrounded the main square, shops and houses lined the paved streets, and entertainment facilities like theaters were located on the periphery. A protective wall enclosed the city. Street in Pompeii, 79 AD (note mixed stone & brick wall technique and water worn street pavement) Side walks, trenches (gutters), and wheel-marks. Romans were master-engineers and great builders of roads. Romans had a wide range of housing. The wealthy could own a house (domus) in the city as well as a country farmhouse (villa), while the less fortunate lived in multi-story apartment buildings called insulae. the house was an important part of the dynamics of daily life and the socio-economy of the Roman world. The house type referred to as the domus (Latin for "house") is taken to mean a structure designed for either a nuclear or extended family and located in a city or town. The domus as a general architectural type is long-lived in the Roman world. Primary features: The main room of the domus that was known as the atrium. In the classic layout of the Roman domus, the atrium served as the focus of the entire house plan. As the main room in the public part of the house (pars urbana), the atrium was the center of the house's social and political life. The male head-of-household (paterfamilias) would receive his clients on business days in the atrium, in which case it functioned as a sort of waiting room for business appointments. A central aperture in the roof (compluvium) and a corresponding pool (impluvium—no. 3 in the diagram above) set in the floor. The impluvium allowed light, fresh air, and rain to enter the atrium; the impluvium was necessary to capture any rainwater and channel it to an underground cistern. The water could then be used for household purposes. It was also the room on which the house owner would lavish attention and funds in order to make sure the room was well appointed with decorations. The corner of the room might sport the household shrine (lararium) and the funeral masks of the family's dead ancestors might be kept in small cabinets in the atrium. In the classic layout of the Roman domus, the atrium served as the focus of the entire house plan. As the main room in the public part of the house (pars urbana), the atrium was the center of the house's social and political life. The male head-of-household (paterfamilias) would receive his clients on business days in the atrium, in which case it functioned as a sort of waiting room for business appointments. Beyond the atrium and tablinum lay the more private part (pars rustica) of the house that was often centered around an open-air courtyard known as the peristyle (no. 11 in the diagram above). The pars rustica would generally be off limits to business clients and served as the focus of the family life of the house. The central portion of the peristyle would be open to the sky and could be the site of a decorative garden, fountains, artwork, or a functional kitchen garden (or a combination of these elements). The size and arrangement of the peristyle varies quite a bit depending on the size of the house itself. Communicating with the peristyle would be functional rooms like the kitchen (culina—no. 9 in the diagram above), bedrooms (cubicula—no. 8 in the diagram above), slave quarters, latrines and baths in some cases, and the all important dining room (triclinium—no. 6 in the diagram above). The triclinium would be the room used for elaborate dinner parties to which guests would be invited. The dinner party involved much more than drinking and eating, however, as entertainment, discussion, and philosophical dialogues were frequently on the menu for the evening. Those invited to the dinner party would be the close friends, family, and associates of the paterfamilias. The triclinium would often be elaborately decorated with wall paintings and portable artworks. The guests at the dinner party were arranged according to a specific formula that gave privileged places to those of higher rank. The Atrium was also the room on which the house owner would lavish attention and funds in order to make sure the room was well appointed with decorations. The corner of the room might sport the household shrine (lararium) and the funeral masks of the family's dead ancestors might be kept in small cabinets in the atrium. "Peristyle" gardens were usually linked by a direct axis through the entrance Atrium courtyard. At the house of the Vettii family, the garden is surrounded by an open-air porch on all four sides. Lemon trees, fig trees, cherry, pear and ivy often could be found in these spaces. Fountains were sometimes placed in the center, too. Walls in Roman houses tended to be smoothly plastered and bare, but some had elaborate paintings. At the House of the Vettii, we see colorful fresco paintings, especially in the so-called "Ixion Room." On the lower level, we see imitation marble, painted using tromp-l'oeil technique to fool the eye. In the upper most level, we see paintings that are made to look like open windows. Through the "openings" we glimpse architectural structures - rooflines of neighboring buildings. At the center are panels with figure scenes - here myths from the story of Ixion, who was punished by Zeus for trying to seduce the goddess Hera.

Church of San Vitale, Ravenna, ca. 525-545 AD - Byzantine

San Vitale was unlike any other church in Italy. It followed a central plan as a martyrium dedicated to Ravenna's first bishop, St. Vitalis. (Where Saint Vitalis was buried). But the form of the structure was OCTAGONAL. Eight sides - central sections is also an octagon that rises higher, massive piers held support the building, piers move in and out, forming undulating apse spaces, Apse, reached beyond a "triumphal arch" the sanctuary within the church Every surface decorated with rich colors, mosaics. San Vitale is one of the most important surviving examples of Byzantine architecture and mosaic work. Sacrificial Lamb of God right above the high altar, large apse mosaic just above the three central windows, Christ is sitting on an orb, hovering above the four rivers of paradise. He's holding the seven books of the apocalypse. Saint Vitalis (the local saint) is at the far left, the primary martyr of the city Saint Eclesius - on far right - sponsored the building of this church Lush green garden space stretches below the figures. One of the most famous images of political authority from the Middle Ages Emperor Justinian and his court. Justinian leading a procession in the sacrament of the Eucharist. two major ambitions of Justinian's reign: As heir to the tradition of Roman Emperors, Justinian sought to restore the territorial boundaries of the Empire. As the Christian Emperor, he saw himself as the defender of the faith. As such it was his duty to establish religious uniformity or Orthodoxy throughout the Empire. He is flanked by members of the clergy on his left with the most prominent figure the Bishop Maximianus of Ravenna being labelled with an inscription. To Justinian's right members of the imperial administration, identified by the purple stripe, and at the very far left side of the mosaic appears a group of soldiers. This mosaic thus establishes the central position of the Emperor between the power of the church and the power of the imperial administration and military. Like the Roman Emperors of the past, Justinian has religious, administrative, and military authority. Closer examination of the Justinian mosaic reveals an ambiguity in the positioning of the figures of Justinian and the Bishop Maximianus. Overlapping suggests that Justinian is the closest figure to the viewer, but when the positioning of the figures on the picture plane is considered, it is evident that Maximianus' feet are lower on the picture plane which suggests that he is closer to the viewer. This can perhaps be seen as an indication of the tension between the authority of the Emperor and the church. Empress Theodora and her attendants (mosaic) Mirrors the panel of Justinian. Richness of the Constantinople court brought here to Ravenna. Emeralds, pearls, Halos - indicates not their divinity but their authority as emperor and empress. Not Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian - a completely new kind of column capital, designed specifically for early Christian spaces New iconography This is what is called "impost blocks!" Cushion between column capital and arches - a transitional element. We see these all the time in Byzantine architecture, too.

Tomb of the Reliefs, Cerveteri, c. 300-300 BCE - Etruscan Art

Some tombs were carved out of the rock to resemble rooms in a house. At the Tomb of the Reliefs, several generations of the same family were buried together, as was the case with most Etruscan Tumuli. Square stone posts support a flat ceiling. Walls were plastered and painted Hanging from the walls and posts are every-day objects that the dead would need in their afterlife. Rope, jugs, furniture, knives, axe, helmet, plates, even the family pet cat! The remains of the deceased were placed in urns or coffins (sarcophagus / sarcophagi) made of clay and placed around the tomb.

Patrician Carrying Portrait Busts of Two Ancestors, c. 50 BCE, Marble - Roman Republic

The Ancestor Cult - Behind Republican Roman verism was a deep-seated respect for family, tradition, and ancestry. Patricians kept death-masks of their notable ancestors and displayed them in their homes in shrines. A life-size marble statue of a Roman with portrait busts of his father and grandfather. The figure wears a Toga - a distinctly Roman garment that signifies his respectability as a citizen and social standing. The portrait group shows a family's distinguished lineage The work proclaims the man's adherence to family traditions - like filial piety. The three faces show a family resemblance. Comparison to Sarcophagus of Reclining Couple, Cerveteri, terracotta, c. 520 BCE, Etruscan Art - which is more general.

Apollodorus of Damascus - Trajan's Column, Forum of Trajan, 113 AD, Rome - High Empire Rome

The Column of Trajan was essentially a war memorial made entirely of marble, commemorating the victories of Trajan's military campaigns against the Dacians (101-102, 105-106 C.E.). Expansion of the Roman territories and the protection of the Roman people were major themes in the arts of this era. The height of the column (125' [38m]) may have recorded the depth of earth excavated from the hillside into which the Trajanic complex was built. The Column glorified military expansion, and Trajan's consolidation of the empire. Two campaigns against the Dacians are recounted. Told in more than 150 scenes, including 2500 figures in a relief that winds around the entire column like scroll or a comic strip. Scenes begin at the bottom of the spiral, and move up. Action-packed scenes, seamlessly transitions from one scene to the next in a spiral, like a comic strip. Switching between horizontal view and birds' eye view from above. Here we see the Roman army at work: Gathering stores, preparing for a march, foraging for food, building camps, engaging with enemies - with supreme attention to detail. At the bottom, we see the troops crossing the river Danube (personified as a giant river god) into Dacian territories. Building a fort Soldiers at the frontiers preparing for combat This is spectacular piece of imperial propaganda, where the emperor is presented as a strong leader and a stable commander of a well-run army Trajan appears multiple times in the relief cycle - receiving envoys, consulting his generals, performing sacrifices, etc. Here Trajan is addressing his troops - the artist was concerned to fill the whole height of the frieze, which spiraled up the column's shaft. Note the distribution of figures at different levels. Battle scenes are interspersed throughout the spiral. Here on the upper level, you see the army gathering their shields together as they charge against the enemy. The narrative bands expand in height at the upper levels to make them more legible from the ground. In this detail, Trajan (far left) is presented with the enemies' heads - Battle of the Romans and the Dacians take place immediately in front of him. The Dacians are depicted as worthy foes. Likely colored vibrantly when first finished to enhance legibility of the scenes, Trajan's ashes were buried in a chamber at the base of the Column. The war memorial was also a tomb. Inside of the column was hollow - one could climb up the structure using a staircase constructed on the interior, all the way to the top. The Column sat between the Latin and Greek libraries at the far end of the forum complex. The scenes on the upper parts of the column could be seen from the balconies of these libraries.

Islamic Art

The Dome of the Rock, the Taj Mahal, a Mina'i ware bowl, a silk carpet, a Qur'an—all of these are examples of Islamic art. Islamic art is a modern concept created by art historians in the 19th century to facilitate categorization and study of the material first produced under the Islamic peoples that emerged from Arabia in the seventh century. Today, the term "Islamic art" describes all of the arts that were produced in the lands where Islam was the dominant religion or the religion of those who ruled. Unlike the terms Christian art, Jewish art, and Buddhist art—which refer only to religious art of these faiths—the term Islamic art is not used merely to describe religious art or architecture but applies to all secular art forms produced in the Islamic world. Thus, the term Islamic art refers not only to works created by Muslim artists, artisans, and architects or for Muslim patrons. It encompasses works created by Muslim artists for patrons of any faith, including—Christians, Jews, or Hindus—and the works created by Jews, Christians, and others, living in Islamic lands, for patrons, Muslim and otherwise.

The Great Mosque of Cordoba, begun 786 AD, Cordoba, Spain - Early Islamic Period

The Great Mosque of Córdoba held a place of importance amongst the Islamic community of Al-Andalus for three centuries. In Córdoba, the capital, the Mosque was seen as the heart and central focus of the city. Architecturally, the Great Mosque of Córdoba looks to examples of local building practices, materials, and forms while also making references to early Umayyad monuments of the far-flung cities of Damascus, Jerusalem, and Medina. Very complex history, undergoing numerous alterations and additions over five centuries. Expansion and redecoration carried out by Al-Hakam II (r. 961-976) in 962. He wanted to enhance the relationship of this building to the Syrian ancestral lands of the Umayyads and construct a specific vision of the Umayyads from Syria. The Great Mosque is located in proximity to the caliphal palace. The pairing of mosque and palace in the cities of Damascus and Jerusalem was repeated in Córdoba. The mosque was constructed on the site of a former Christian church, previously a temple to the Roman god Janus. This sharing arrangement of the site between Christians and Muslims lasted until 784, when the Christian half was purchased by the Emir Abd al-Rahman I, who then proceeded to demolish the original structure and build the grand mosque of Córdoba on its ground. The complex includes a large hypostyle prayer hall (hypostyle meaning filled with columns), a courtyard with a fountain in the middle, an orange grove, a covered walkway circling the courtyard, and a minaret that is now encased in a squared, tapered bell tower. The large patio, marble columns, and capitals in the hypostyle prayer hall are all recycled both from the Christian church that formerly occupied the space, as well as from classical buildings in the region. The horseshoe arches were known from Roman times and later came to be associated with Islamic architecture in the West. In addition, the alternation of white and red brick was adopted from Roman and Byzantine precedents. The Great Mosque of Córdoba is an excellent example of how this architectural style is based on pre-existing regional traditions. Perfect square in plan divide into covered and uncovered sections, 10 arcades, 12 arches each, red colored material for central two arcades - differentiating the importance of the central axis! spatial hierarchy, On the inside, we encounter a forest of columns. Notice the interlacing of Forms! (Column after column, arches above arches) The two-tiers of arches supported by the columns expand into a labyrinth kind of form. Each unit is composed of two columns that support capitals in the Corinthian style. Piers are built from impost blocks. Between each one of the piers there is an arch each one composed of alternating voussoirs. The voussoirs alternate between brick and stone. Repetitive geometry magnifies, The building and the city of Córdoba were reclaimed by the Christians in 1236 under King Ferdinand III. The mosque was then re-consecrated as the Cathedral of Santa Maria. The original building is oriented to the south with the qibla wall and mihrab at its center. The Christian worship space was formed within the space but reoriented according to the conventional East-West axis. A series of altars and funerary chapels were added to the building in the centuries following the reconsecration process. The style known as mudéjar was established by generations of Muslim craftsmen who specialized in the materials and techniques that were associated with the interior of the building. This Muslim art form was adopted later by both Christian and Jewish patrons. After the reconquest of 1236, the Great Mosque was preserved as a symbol of victory. It marked the Christian reconquest. The largest physical interventions occurred at a much later period and caused some controversy among Chrisitans. Between 1486 and 1496 a Gothic cathedral was transplanted in the center, marking the most radical and transformative intervention into the historical building. A Christian bell tower which dates to 1618 transformed the preexisting minaret. The upper sections of the minaret were adapted to convert the minaret to a bell tower. The continuous adaptation and the building's complicated history have resulted in a jumble of spaces and series of juxtapositions that speaks to the history of the Iberian peninsula.

The Kaaba at the Great Mosque (Date Unknown), Mecca, Saudi Arabia - Early Islamic Period

The Kaaba was a sanctuary in pre-Islamic times. Muslims believe that Abraham—known as Ibrahim in the Islamic tradition—and his son, Ismail, constructed the Kaaba. Tradition holds that it was originally a simple unroofed rectangular structure. The Quraysh tribe, who ruled Mecca, rebuilt the pre-Islamic Kaaba in c. 608 CE with alternating courses of masonry and wood. A door was raised above ground level to protect the shrine from intruders and flood waters. The Kaaba, located in Mecca, in Saudi Arabia, is a cubical structure approximately 15 meters tall and 10 meters on each size. Sacred site believed to have been built by Abraham. It was a pre-Islamic cult site. Known as the first house of worship, it is the holiest shrine in Islam. In Islam, Muslims pray five times a day and after 624 CE, these prayers were directed towards Mecca and the Kaaba rather than Jerusalem; this direction—or qibla in Arabic—is marked in all mosques and enables the faithful to know in which direction they should pray. The Qur'an established the direction of prayer. All Muslims aspire to undertake the hajj, or the annual pilgrimage, to the Kaaba once in their lives if they are able. Prayer five times a day and the hajj are two of the five pillars of Islam, the most fundamental principles of the faith. Upon arriving in Mecca, pilgrims gather in the courtyard of the Masjid al-Haram around the Kaaba. They then circumambulate—or walk around the Kaaba, during which they hope to kiss and touch the Black Stone—al-Hajar al-Aswad in arabic—embedded in the eastern corner of the Kaaba. Walking seven times around the Kaaba in a counterclockwise direction (tawaf), emulating the actions of Muhammad. The prophet Mohammad found the structure filled with statues of pagan gods, which he disposed of, symbolically returning the shrine to the monotheism of Abraham. Additionally, the black cloth, or kiswa, was first used in the seventh century and is replaced annually during the hajj. The removal of the figurative statues of pagan gods, as well as the use of the black cloth, has been interpreted by Muslims to mean that the prophet Mohammad did not approve of figuration. Therefore, the decoration seen on Muslim religious sites is aniconistic. Interior: has three columns and a table altar There are lanterns like lamps attached to the ceiling in line with the ceiling. There is nothing else. A small space - can only accommodate about 50 people at a time - this is one of the reasons why it is closed to the public usually. A rock set into the eastern corner of the Kaaba. - The Black Stone is believed to have been given to Abraham by the angel Gabriel and is revered by Muslims as a holy relic. Islamic tradition holds that it fell from heaven as a guide for Adam and Eve to build an altar. It has often been described as a meteorite. The Kaaba has been modified extensively throughout its history. The area around the Kaaba was expanded in order to accommodate the growing number of pilgrims by the second caliph, 'Umar, who ruled 634-44 CE. The Caliph 'Uthman, who ruled 644-56 CE, built the colonnades around the open plaza where the Kaaba stands and incorporated other important monuments into the sanctuary. The last major modifications were carried out in the 1950s by the government of Saudi Arabia to accommodate the increasingly large number of pilgrims who come on the hajj. Today the mosque covers almost 40 acres. The numerous changes to the Kaaba and its associated mosque serve as good reminder of how often buildings, even sacred ones, are renovated and remodeled either due to damage or to the changing needs of the community. Only Muslims may visit the holy cities of Mecca and Medina today.

Cross Carpet Page, Lindisfarne Gospels, 715-725 - Early Medieval - Hiberno Saxon Art

The Lindisfarne Gospels is one of the most elaborate of the Hiberno-Saxon manuscripts and has one of the largest amounts of illuminations without narrative text. Its size required at least three-hundred calfskins to produce enough vellum (parchment made of calf-skin) and its luxurious pigments had to be imported as far as from Himalayas. The Cross Carpet Page is the second, so called "carpet page," of the introductory Gospel sequence. This type of illustration was an invention of Hiberno-Saxon artists. The entire page is a fusion of native pagan and Christian traditions: an interlacing carpet-like pattern of lines and knots that fill a color-coded Christian image of a cross and the space around it. Similar to the belt buckle from Sutton Hoo, this manuscript adopts animal Style II: the symmetric patterning of loops and undulating lines form serpent-like dogs and birds that repeat in self-contained units. The development of this elaborate ornamentation is unclear. It is possible that missionaries arriving from the south, amazed by the complexities of local metalwork patterning, created this new style together with local converts. The use of metalwork designs and expensive colors on manuscripts was probably meant to increase the status of the books as well.

The Baths of Caracalla, 212-216 AD, Rome - Late Empire Rome

The Severans were active builders in the city. The Baths of Caracalla was a magnificent new public bath complex on the southeast side of Rome, built as a new recreational and educational center. It was the greatest in a long line of recreational complexes in Rome. The impressive brick and concrete structure hidden under richly colored marble decorations could accommodate 1600 bathers. An aqueduct line was built specifically to carry water to the Baths of Caracalla from springs miles away. The structure resembled a modern day spa, or a resort The complex included Libraries, Lecture Halls, Exercise Courts, shops, gardens, a painting gallery, auditoriums, and a stadium in addition to the bathing rooms, sauna and swimming pool. The design was symmetrical along a central axis. The bathing facilities were groups in the center of the main building to make efficient use of below-ground furnaces. This also allowed the bathers to move more freely from hot to cold pools, and then finish with a swim. Roman custom of taking sequential plunges. Bathing rooms had heated floors, that used furnaces to circulate hot air using terracotta ducts. All the rooms had thick brick-faced concrete walls, upto 140 feet high, covered by enormous vaults for ceilings. What we see now is only the structure walls - almost all of the surface decorations have now been lost or removed. The water was supplied by one of the major aqueducts of the city. The interior was lavishly decorated with polychrome marble, mosaic, ceiling painting, and statues.

Church of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France, 1070-1120 CE - Romanesque

The church of Saint Sernin in Toulouse was along one of the major pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela from France. There was a small church here dating as early as the 4th century. Emperor Charlemagne had given the church the relics of Saint Sernin in the 9th century, Local officials decided to enlarge the church around 1080 AD. Made of BRICK It was not unusual for churches to be built of brick, but this one makes no attempt to disguise that fact, even on the inside. Because of its construction material, and the multiple nested semi-circular shapes surrounding the apse, Saint Sernin is the largest known Romanesque structure still in existence. The tall bell tower sits at the center of the Latin-cross-plan, where the nave and the transept meets. This was also common in earlier Carolingian churches in France. Made of brick - The arches are all rounded Romanesque, impressively high barrel vault. The brickwork of the supporting columns is lime-washed, but not clad in stone or marble to disguise its bricky origins, sturdy columns and thick walls, and its arcade, The semi-circular domed apse is highly decorated in the Byzantine manner, and many of the details, like the column capitals, are ornate and carved with a variety of scenes and fantastic creatures,

Reims Cathedral, 1211-1430, Reims, France - Gothic

The coronation church of the kings of France - A cultural and educational center since the time of Charlemagne. Almost every square inch of the surface is encrusted with sculpture. Compare to Chartres Cathedral - Reims has two Rose windows - Similar in plan to Chartres Cathedral, but priority is given to an extended nave, perhaps in order to accommodate the procession on occasions of the coronation. 3 story elevation like Chartres. Flying buttresses nestled in between the radiating ambulatory chapels on the ground floor.

Muirdach Cross, sandstone, 923, Monasterboice, County Louth, Ireland - Early Medieval Art - Hiberno Saxon Art

The period from the 8th to 10th century marks the reappearance of a large-scale stone sculpture. The Irish large-scale stone crosses, like the Muiredach Cross shown here, represent the largest body of freestanding sculpture produced between late antiquity and the Renaissance. Monumental crosses served a variety of purposes. •To mark boundaries of monastic lands. •As mnemonic and devotional signs at a crossroads. •To commemorate miraculous events or sacred spots. •As votives or penitential objects. The Muiredach Cross is one of the largest and best-preserved examples of such Irish crosses. According to its inscription, it was built as a grave-marker for Muiredach, an influential Irish abbot, who died in 923 (hence we have a specific date for the cross). The cross is typical for the ninth and early tenth century; it combines extensive narrative cycles and devotional programs with Celtic decorative traditions. Scenes include: Last Judgement, Christ in Majesty, St. Michael weighing souls, Adoration of Magi, Doubting of St. Thomas, etc. Celtic influence, for example, can be seen in the circle intersecting the arms of the cross. Originally, the cross would have been painted, but the weathering precludes any possibility of original color reconstruction. The central scenes are Christ's Crucifixion (on the west side) and the Last Judgment (on the east side)—both themes well suited for its function as a grave-marker. The use of decorative, interlace patterns, especially visible on the base, indicate, just like with the manuscripts, the assimilation of pagan with Christian visual imagery.

Sarcophagus of Reclining Couple, Cerveteri, Terracotta, c. 520 BCE - Etruscan Art

The remains of the deceased were placed in urns or coffins (sarcophagus / sarcophagi) made of clay and placed around the tomb. Husband and wife reclining comfortably on a dining couch. - this is their coffin, presumably, holding their ashes. Lifelike forms, smooth upperbodies are vertical, but hips and legs are horizontal and flat. Rather than a somber memorial to the dead, these are lively individuals with alert eyes, warm smiles, and a loving embrace. The man once raised a drinking glass, addressing the viewers, with a gesture of an engaging host at a dinner party. The woman also probably held a cup or food items (like fruit) in her hands. She too makes an offering gesture. This type of "portrait sarcophagi" were common in Etruscan tombs.

The Prophet's Mosque, Begun 622 AD, Medina, Saudi Arabia - Early Islamic Period

The so-called "Prophet's Mosque" is a mosque established and built by the Muhammad in the city of Medina in Saudi Arabia. It was one of the first mosques built by Muhammad, and is now one of the largest mosques in the world. It is the second-holiest site in Islam, after Mecca. The site was originally adjacent to Muhammad's house; He settled there after his forced migration from Mecca to Medina in 622. The Prophet shared in the work of construction. The original mosque was an open-air building. The mosque served as a community center, a court, and a religious school. There was a raised platform for the people who taught the Quran. Subsequent Islamic rulers greatly expanded and decorated it. Qibla wall: The direction of Mecca, to which Muslims turn at prayer. Mihrab: A niche in the wall of each mosque at the point nearest to Mecca, the congregation faces the mihrab to pray. (later development) Minbar: A pulpit originally used by the Prophet Muhammad for giving sermons and administering justice during communal prayers. It developed from the pre-Islamic "judge's seat," but has an obvious utilitarian function as well. The original mosque was an open-air building. The mosque served as a community center, a court, and a religious school. There was a raised platform for the people who taught the Quran. Subsequent Islamic rulers greatly expanded and decorated it. Early Islamic mosques tend to follow this basic format - Open Courtyard + Covered Prayer Hall. Other standard features include... Qibla wall: Faces the direction of Mecca, to which Muslims turn at prayer. Mihrab: A niche in the Qibla wall of each mosque at the point nearest to Mecca, the congregation faces the mihrab to pray. (later development). Minaret: A tall slender tower, typically part of a mosque, a minaret contains a balcony from which a muezzin (defined below) calls Muslims to prayer.

Romanesque

The term "Romanesque," means "in the manner of the Romans." Romanesque art is a new style of art that was reminiscent of classical Roman art. The Romanesque is the first international style in Western Europe since antiquity —extending across the Mediterranean and as far north as Scandinavia. How were ideas, styles and techniques of art transmitted? Romanesque art was facilitated by increased travel along the pilgrimage routes to shrines such as Santiago de Compostela in Spain (a pilgrimage is a journey to a sacred place). Another important source for the international spread of the Romanesque was the crusades, devised to take the Holy Lands from Muslims. (European crusaders passed through the territories of the Byzantine empire.) There are, however, distinctive regional variants—Tuscan Romanesque art (in Italy) for example is very different from that produced in northern Europe. The most representative works of this movement were religious buildings. Many Christians believed the Second Coming of Christ was happening in the year 1000, and the end of the world was approaching. When the apocalypse failed to materialize in 1000, it was decided that the correct year must be 1033, a thousand years from the death of Jesus Christ, but then that year also passed without any cataclysmic event. Just how extreme the millennial panic was, remains debated. It is certain that from the year 950 onwards, there was a significant increase in building activity, particularly of religious structures. There were many reasons for this construction boom beside millennial panic, and the building of monumental religious structures continued even as fears of the immediate end of time faded. Building for the International Pilgrimage Industry Around the year 1000, pilgrimages to the three holiest places in the Christian world (Rome, Jerusalem, and Santiago de Compostella in Portugal) increased. Cities along the paths to these sites commissioned spectacular churches to house the relics of their local Saints, in the hopes of attracting the attention of pilgrims. Although the goal of visiting holy sites was spiritual, for many, pilgrimages were once-in-a-life-time opportunity to travel and see the world. Journeys could last a year or more. Romanesque churches used the traditional basilica plan like the Romans, but instead of concrete which facilitated Roman construction, Romanesque churches used stone masonry. Romanesque churches were built with the seamless circulation of crowds of pilgrims in mind - side aisles used to control foot traffic. Characteristic of this style is the USE OF ROUND ARCHES.

Golden Buckle, Sutton Hoo, England, 600-650 - Early Medieval Anglo-Saxon Art

This belt buckle was found in mound I at Sutton Hoo, an un-plundered tumulus with remarkable goods, leading archaeologists to believe that the individual buried here was very wealthy and prestigious. Some suggest that he was even a king, as the belt buckle was found together with royal regalia. Although a buckle is a utilitarian object, this is extremely luxurious and is entirely made of gold (hollow inside). Sutton Hoo covers over fifty-six burials dating from the late sixth to early seventh centuries. Burial customs varied, some as inhumation and some cremation, indicating that this period was a moment of a cultural flux and transition between the old pagan and new Christian beliefs, Uniquely shaped, the buckle is decorated with two serpents inside a circle from which emerge large eagle's heads with curved beaks. The large plate is covered with crouching quadrupeds entwined with more serpents. This type of pattern is called animal Style II and it became popular after c. 560-70. In Style II, animal bodies are elongated into ribbons, which form intertwined and undulating, symmetrical shapes-eschewing naturalism. They rarely have legs, and are therefore most commonly described as serpents, even though the heads often have characteristics of other types of animal such as eagles or dogs. In animal Style II, the animal becomes secondary to the ornamental interlace patterns. The material itself is of utmost importance since, in the medieval period, material was one of the major means of communicating power, status, and holiness. Gold was extremely precious and this large shiny buckle would certainly catch the attention of every onlooker.

Apollodorus of Damascus - Basilica Ulpia, Forum of Trajan, 107-117 AD, Rome - High Empire Rome

Under the "5 Good Emperors," Rome was at its height of prosperity and stability, system for appointing emperors changed from nepotism, to the current emperor choosing new ones according to merit and suitability for the job, after Emperor Domitian was assassinated, the Senate elected the elderly Nerva, Nerva institutes this new law on the process of emperors choosing their successors by adoption, most of them raised with this role in mind from their youth, Nerva - Trajan - Hadrian - Antoninus Pius - Marcus Aurelius breaks the tradition of adoptions and appoints his son Commodus to inherit the throne, within 12 years Commodus has destroyed the stable government, Trajan was a general born in Spain, commanded Roman troops in Germany, easily identifiable by heavy bangs, pointed nose, thin lips, adopted by Nerva as emperor-in-waiting, known best as successful "soldier emperor" unusual combination of civic vision and military wisdom, empire reached greatest territorial expanse under his rule, best known for extensive public building program - reshaped city of Rome, left numerous enduring landmarks, "Forum of Trajan" series of public buildings constructed in the administrative heart of Roman capital, the Roman Forum area, public market, two libraries, war memorial, basilica building where law courts were located, constructed with proceeds of Trajan's successful military campaigns against the Dacians, The city of Rome - nerve center of the empire. The "5 Good Emperors" continued the efforts of Augustus and others founders the country to transform the capital into a magnificent monument to imperial rule. The Forum area was where all roads of the empire lead to - it was where the senate house was located, and other important political spaces. Every emperor who could afford it wished to leave their permanent mark in the Forum by sponsoring a construction project. Trajan placed his forum strategically next to the forum complexes built by Julius Caesar and Augustus Caesar - the founders of the Roman empire. Trajan's complex Looks to the past - echoes the layout of the Forum of Augustus. A straight central axis leads from the Forum of Augustus through the triple arched gate, into a large, colonnaded square with a statue of Trajan on a horseback. Apollodorus was experienced military engineer, all structures made of expensive stone, exotic, imported marble, statues sometimes gilded, Basilica Ulpia - court of law, named after Trajan's family name - "gens Ulpia" Ulpian family, served various civic and juridical purposes, not much survives today, stone pavements and marble slabs covering walls recycled over time to use for other constructions in the city, A large rectangular central space, surrounded by colonnades on all 4 sides, usually terminating in a semi-circular area called an apse on the shorter ends. Light is brought in from above, using a clerestory. The ceiling would be flat and made of wood, often with square coffers as ornaments.

Nike (Winged Victory) of Samothrace, marble, c. 190 BCE - Hellenistic Period

Wind whipped winged goddess of Victory, strides forward dramatically, great momentum and force, wings catch the winds behind her, backward thrust, contrast of light and dark enhances drama, deep cuts in the stone create that color differential, discovered in dramatic setting, a hillside niche above the sanctuary of the gods on the island of Samothrace in Greece, perhaps a part of a fountain sculpture commemorating a naval victory, in Greek plays, Nike appears from above, descending onto the stage during battle, in Louvre atop a large base resembling a ship, contrapposto implying forward motion also, garment is concealing and revealing, clings to her torso, showing her stomach and abdomen, like Laocoon she twists and turns, dynamically.

Barberini Faun, marble, c. 220 BCE - Hellenistic Period

Young faun lies outstretched, legs open, posture is provocative, head sunk to shoulder, arms hanging, intoxicated by wine and exhausted from the revel, he is dozing, fitfully, debauchery and sexual craving are associated with fauns, they demonstrate the powers of the god Dionysus in whose honor the statue was presumably dedicated, a faun is a mythological creature, half man, half animal (goat), in the entourage of Dionysus, god of wine, fauns participate in D's revels, this faun is almost fully human in form except for his tail, on left side of body, ivy and grapes entangled in his hair, eroticism, exposed genitals, animal nature, free from human social conventions and restrictions, shown as sexual aggressors frequently, but here he is vulnerable and passive, relaxation and tension! contrasting, simultaneously, restlessness and repose both expressed.

Artemesion Zeus, Bronze, 460-450 BCE - Greek Classical Period

Zeus - King of the gods, god of the sky, divers discovered in Cape Artemesion underwater, probably sight of an ancient shipwreck on the way to a collector in Rome, male human form in motion, Poseidon? holds weapon? hurls thunderbolt? arms extended, right heel raised, impression of lightness though he is over lifesize, extension of contrapposto pose, more dynamism, more action, eyes are gone.