princi pe ch 5

since the 1970s researchers have investigated

the effectiveness of various types of practice, the impact of different types of feedback on motor performance, the use of cognitive strategies to improve performance, reaction time, and transfer of learning

Thorndike

Law of Effect is when responses were rewarded, the behavior was strengthened.

guidelines for physical activity instruction

1. Use models of motor learning to assist in the planning of learning experiences. 2. Match the type of instruction to the individual's stage of learning. 3. Consider the individual's level of readiness when teaching new skills and information. 4. Plan instructional experiences that take into account the individual's level of development in all three domains—cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. 5. Use the powerful influence of motivation to facilitate learning. 6. Provide positive reinforcement to strengthen desirable responses. 7. Take individual differences into account when teaching by selecting approaches that accommodate a diversity of abilities and needs. 8. Structure practice sessions to promote optimal conditions for learning. 9. help individuals gain an understanding of the task to be learned and its requirements. 10. Consider the nature of the skill or task when designing practice sessions. 11. evaluate the task demands and assess the learner's background in deciding whether to use the whole or part method to teach a skill. 12. Study the requirements of the skill to determine whether speed or accuracy should be emphasized in teaching. 13.Facilitate learning by using positive transfer. 14. Incorporate appropriate meaningful feedback to help individuals correct their performance, motivate them, and reinforce their efforts. 15. Be prepared to deal with plateaus in performance. 16. Assist individuals in developing self-analysis skills. 17. Provide strong leadership that contributes to the attainment of the desired objectives.

Importance of Motor Competence

According to Spessato, Gabbard, and Valentini, motor competence influences children's activity during elementary physical education class. Developing motor competency, especially for children with high BMI, can influence their participation and further skill development. Failure to acquire the proficient form of the skill adversely impacts the development of more specialized skills in the later years. Specialization versus diversification is a concern. According to Clark, poorly developed motor skills serve as a "proficiency barrier" to the development of more sport-specific skills.

hourglass model ages 7 to 10 and older

Acquisition of specialized movement skills, is influenced by the attainment of mature, fundamental skills. Specialized motor skills are developed, refined, and combined; these skills are used for activities of daily living, recreational activities, and sports. These skills have improved form, greater accuracy, and better control than the fundamental motor skills.

In 1971

Adams's closed loop theory explained how feedback, following the performance of slow and discrete movements, is used to update the cognitive representation of the movement and improve subsequent performances of the motor skill.

Individual Differences.

Background, physical abilities, skills, learning styles, and personalities of learners.

cognitive Learner's focus

Cognitive understanding of the goal of the skill

associative Learner's focus

Concentration on temporal aspects or timing of movements

autonomous Learner's focus

Concentration on use of the skill in performance situations, use of strategies

Motivation.

Condition within an individual that initiates activity directed toward a goal. Concerned with initiation, maintenance, and intensity of behavior.

Middle Period, 1940 to 1970.

Craik focused research on how the brain processes and uses information to influence the motor response.

Process Approach.

Focus: Describes how the movement was performed. Example: Whether or not the child performing the overhand throw steps toward the target with the foot opposite the throwing arm.

Product Approach.

Focuses on the outcome of the movement. Example: How far was the ball kicked, whether or not a target was hit, or was the basket made or not.

Normative/ Descriptive Period, 1946 through the 1970s.

Description of the motor performances of children. Research on how growth and maturation affect performance and the impact of perceptual-motor development.

Developmental Sequences Approach

Descriptions of common movement patterns placed along a continuum, ranging from inefficient and ineffective to efficient and effective. Stages identify where each child is in relation to developing the proficient form of the skill. Stages: Initial. Emerging elementary. Proficient.

associative teacher's focus

Direct learner's attention to critical cues and feedback available; provide numerous practice opportunities; accommodate individual differences

hourglass model ages 2-7

During the fundamental movement phase children begin to develop the fundamental movement skills, such as running, jumping, throwing, catching, and kicking.

Present Period, 1970 to present.

Emergence of motor learning and motor control within physical education programs. Adams's closed loop theory. Schmidt's schema theory. Kelso's dynamic systems theory.

sample research questions

How do the type and frequency of feedback impact skill acquisition? How does the structure of practice influence the retention of skills? How does skill performance change as beginners move from novice to advanced levels of performance? How does the aging process affect motor control? How do specific diseases, such as Parkinson's disease, affect an individual's ability to perform motor skills? When teaching a skill such as serving in tennis or pitching, should you first emphasize speed or accuracy? How do differences in individuals' learning styles influence their ability to learn motor skills?

performance characteristics and skill learning

Improvement. Consistency. Stability. Persistence. Adaptability. Reduction in Attention Demands.

swinging

In the context of fundamental motor skills, all of the following are manipulative skills except _____.

intrinsic feedback

Information received by the athlete as a direct result of producing a movement through the kinesthetic senses- e.g. feeling from muscles, joints, and balance.

developmental sequence of throwing

Initial Stage. Stage 1. "Chop." Vertical windup. "Chop" throw. Feet stationary. No spinal rotation. Emerging Elementary Stages. Stage 2. "Sling shot." Horizontal windup. "Sling shot throw." Block rotation. Follow-through across body. Stage 3. "Ipsilateral Step." High windup. Ipsilateral step. Little spinal rotation. Follow-through across body. Stage 4. "Contralateral Step." High windup. Contralateral step. Little spinal rotation. Follow-through across body. Proficient Stage. Stage 5. "Windup." Downward arc windup. Contralateral step. Segmented body rotation. Arm-leg follow-through.

cognitive performance characteristics

Lacking smoothness, inefficient, variable, large number of gross errors

Henry

Memory drum theory discussed the role of cognitive activity in motor learning.

Dynamical Systems Approach

Movements are influenced by the interaction of the individual, task, and environment. These factors influence the movement pattern exhibited.

readiness

Physiological and psychological factors influencing an individual's ability and willingness to learn.

cognitive performance teacher's focus

Provide overview of nature of skill and goal, feedback on intent of skill, information and demonstration of skill, cognitive understanding

knowledge of performance

Provides information about the quality of the movement

Phases of Motor Development

Reflexive movement phase. Rudimentary movement phase. Fundamental movement phase. specialized movement phase

Early Period, 1880 to 1940.

Research focused on how the mind worked, not the production of skills.

Process-Oriented Period, 1980s to present.

Research on how cognitive factors influence motor skill acquisition and motor development based on dynamical systems theory.

Maturational Period, 1928 to 1946.

Research on underlying biological processes governing maturation. Focus on rate and the sequence of normal development, moving from the acquisition of early rudimentary movements to the attainment of mature movement patterns.

In 1975

Schmidt's schema theory proposed the idea of a generalized motor program, that is, the idea that movement patterns such as kicking or throwing could be generalized to a variety of sports and settings.

autonomous characteristics

Smooth, efficient, highly refined and well organized spatially and temporally, adaptable to environmental demands

associative performance characteristics

Smoother, less variable, more efficient, reduction of extraneous movements, fewer and reduced range of errors

closed skills

Stable, predictable; self-paced Diving 2 ½ somersault Bowling Driving golf ball off a tee

Motor Learning Concepts

Structure practice sessions to promote optimal conditions for learning. Help learners understand the skill or task. Consider the nature of the skill or task to be learned when designing practice. Whether to teach by the whole or the part method depends on the skill and the learner. Whether speed or accuracy is emphasized in teaching a skill depends on the requirements of the skill. Transfer of learning can facilitate the acquisition of motor skills. Feedback can play an important role in learning. Learners may experience plateaus in performance. Promote development of self-analysis, including the use of technology. Influence of leadership on how much learning will take place.

fitts and posner 3 stage theory suggests that processes and cognitive demands of performing movements

are influenced by amount of pressure, skill level, and task complexity

fitts and posners stages of learning

cognitive, associative, autonomous

Reinforcement.

Using events, actions, and behaviors to increase the likelihood of a certain response recurring. May be positive or negative.

Specialists in motor development may investigate questions such as these:

What are the hereditary and environmental factors most significantly associated with obesity? At what age can children safely engage in resistance training? How does socioeconomic status affect the development of motor skills? What are the developmental stages individuals go through as they acquire fundamental motor skills? What factors affect the rate of development? How does early sensory stimulation affect the development of motor skills? How does the wearing of shoes or different types of shoes influence the development of walking? What are the changes in motor skill development experienced across the lifespan?

middle period 1940-1970

World War II had stimulated an interest in pilot selection and training. Motor learning research focused more on application, investigating such areas as transfer of training (e.g., what factors would enable a pilot to easily and successfully switch from flying one type of aircraft to another aircraft that was of a different size, with controls positioned differently?) .In the late 1940s, Craik advanced his ideas about the similarities between the human brain and the computer, which gave new insight into how the brain processes and uses information to influence the motor response. In the 1960s, Franklin henry published his landmark paper on the memory drum theory "which discussed the role of cognitive activity in motor learning. Often considered the father of motor behavior, henry—with his contemporaries, Fitz hubbard, Jack Adams, Arthur Slater-hammel, and John Lawther—helped set the stage for the emergence of the subdiscipline in the 1970s

Pitching a ball or performing a tennis serve requires

a high degree of both speed and accuracy

The start of the middle period was marked by

a surge of interest in motor learning.

task constraint

accomplishing any given task

in the tennis drop shot

accuracy in terms of court placement is more important than speed.

motor learning

acquisition of motor skills as a result of practice and experience

decision making

after information is processed a decision is made on what move to make

Fundamental motor skills

are the foundation for successful participation in games, sports, dance, and fitness activities. Classification.: Locomotor. Nonlocomotor. Manipulative.

adaptability

as a skill is learned, the individual becomes more adept at modifying the skill to changing conditions whether they are internal or external

reduction in attentive demands

as an individual becomes more skilled, there is less need to concentrate on how to perform the skill, freeing up the individuals attention to focus on other events in the environment

thomas and thomas information processing view of motor behavior

based on the role of cognition and a central processing mechanism, has dominated the research literature in motor behavior for many years

adams reports during the early period

basis for the research in five major areas of motor learning was laid: knowledge of results, distribution of practice, transfer of training, retention, and individual differences

When both speed and accuracy are desired

both qualities will decrease

emerging elementary stage

can encompass multiple stages, reflect time needed to develop different aspects of the skill being learned

dynamic systems theory

change in motor behavior due to constraints complex, nonlinear, self-organizing, emergent

sports vision training

combines vision science, motor learning, biomechanics, sport psychology, and neuroanatomy to help individuals improve their performance

cognitive stage

conscious control movement broken into sequences movements completed step by step Understanding of the nature and goal of the activity Initial attempts at the skill are characterized by a large number of gross errors

progressive part method

consists of initially teaching the first two parts of the skill, combining these two parts into a whole, teaching a third part, then connecting this to the first two parts, and so on.

environmental constraint

constraints related to the world around us

David Gallahue and Kathleen Hayward

contributed much to our understanding of lifespan motor development.

lifestyle filter

controllable factors

Fundamental motor skills can be combined to

create a specialized movement necessary in many activities.

performance

defined as observable behavior

gallahue, ozman, and goodway

describe the history of motor development as moving through three periods of growth, based on the explanations used to describe the developmental process: the maturational period, the normative/descriptive period, and the process oriented period

hourgass model

developed by Gallahue, illustrates how development is a continuous process, beginning at conception and continuing throughout the lifespan, ceasing at death sand enters from two containers, hereditary, and environmental contributions

the dynamical systems theory

developed by Scott Kelso and other researchers, suggests that the neuromuscular system plays a prominent role in the selection of movements.

Esther Thelen, Scott Kelso, and Jane Clark

developed theoretical frameworks to study motor development based on dynamical systems theory.

hourglass model in the first two years

during the early reflexive and rudimentary movement phases of motor development sand pours in primarily from the hereditary side,

Locomotor.

enable individuals to move themselves from one point to another point Examples: walking, running, jumping, hopping, leaping, sliding, skipping, galloping, and dodging.

individual characteristics

encompass the anatomical and physiological systems, heredity, height, weight, previous experiences, fitness status, motivation, and a host of other characteristics such as perceptual skills and attention

In the dynamical systems view

environmental constraints play a dominant role

Rate of progress

in developing these skills varies with each individual.

Normative/Descriptive Period (1946-1970)

focused on describing the motor performance of children, rather than the motor development of infants. Much of the work was undertaken by physical educators; Anna espenschade, ruth glassow, and g. Lawrence rarick were leading contributors These leaders were interested in children's acquisition of skills and how growth and maturation affect performance. Their research efforts and leadership in the establishment of doctoral programs in motor development during the 1950s and 1960s contributed to the emergence of motor development as a field of study within physical education. Another area of research during this time was perceptual-motor development. When performing motor skills, sensory information, especially visual information, often guides performance. Incoming sensory information is integrated with past information in memory to guide the movement response.

Lolas halverson, Mary Ann roberton, vern Seefeldt, and John haubenstricker

focused their efforts on understanding the development of fundamental motor skills, that is, the levels or stages that children passed through as they acquired skills.

diversification

focusing on a variety of experiences in games and sports, helps children and youth develop competency in many of the fundamental motor skills that serve as the foundation for future activities in sports

Beliefs about growth and development as well as physical activity vary

from culture to culture. As professionals, it's important we understand how these cultural beliefs influence the acquisition of motor skills and participation in physical activity by people of all ages

individual constraint

functional and structional movement patterns

Nonlocomotor.

generally performed using a stable base of support Examples: bending and stretching, pushing and pulling, twisting and turning, and swinging.

motor control researchers

have focused their efforts on understanding motor problems in special populations—such as postural and coordination control in the aging

More sophisticated technology will play an increasing role in

helping us understand the neurophysiological processes of how people learn and control their movements.

Lack of development of fundamental skills may

hinder future participation in activities.

Four of the key principles of stage theory

hold that children proceed through the stages of development in the same order, without skipping a stage or changing the order, and there is no regression

skipping

hop and land on 1 foot switch feet

hopping

hop and land on your toes on 1 foot

hourglass model some point in late teens early twenties

hourglass begins to pour out, time for turnover is quite variable and influenced more by social and cultural factors than physical factors

researchers in motor learning and motor control may address questions such as these:

how do the type and frequency of feedback impact skill acquisition?• how does the structure of practice influence the retention of skills? how does skill performance change as beginners move from novice to advanced levels of per for ma nce? how does the aging process affect motor control? how do specific diseases, such as Parkinson's disease, affect an individual's ability to perform motor skills? When teaching a skill such as serving in tennis or pitching, should you first emphasize speed or accuracy? how do differences in individuals' learning styles influence their ability to learn motor skills?

transfer of learning

how skills learned in one setting can enhance or hinder learning in another setting

improvement

improved performance of a skill over a period of time indicates that learning has occured

Magill and Andersons six performance characteristics of skill learning

improvement, consistency, stability, persistence, adaptability, and reduction of attention demand

dynamic systems model

individual, task, environment

augmented feedback

information about a performance that supplements sensory feedback and comes from a source external to the performer

feedback

information about the performance of the movement and its quality, appropriateness, or outcome can be used to provide input for making ongoing adjustments in their performance or to modify the next skill attempt

associative stage

information reliance on working memory movement becomes fluent requires deliberate practice Practice on mastering the timing of the skill Fewer and more consistent errors

Manipulative

involves the propulsion and control of objects Examples: throwing, catching, striking, kicking, dribbling, and volleying.

Sport specialization

is the focusing on a single sport at an early age to the exclusion of participation in other sports or activities typically involves year round training, includes playing on multiple teams in the selected sport, and usually involves engaging in high-level competitions throughout the year

leaping

jump off of 1 foot land on the other foot

jumping

keep knees and feet close together

Maturational Period (1928-1946)

marked the beginning of the growth of motor development as an area of study within physical education, researchers were interested in studying the underlying biological processes governing maturation early researchers such as Arnold gesell (1928), Mary Shirley (1931), Myrtle Mcgraw (1935), and Nancy Bayley (1935) studied the sequences of motor development in young children, beginning in infancy. Their work led to a better understanding about the sequence of normal development, moving from the acquisition of early rudimentary movements to the attainment of mature movement patterns.

lesser skilled learners or individuals with short attention span

may find it easier to learn if taught by part method

autonomous stage

minimal cognitive effort required improved anticipation and decision making greater ability to detect errors in skill Skill is well coordinated and appears effortless. Few errors. Automatic performance lets attention be directed to other aspects of performance.

initial stage

most inefficient and marks the beginning efforts of performance of the fundamental skill characterized by poor spatial and temporal integration of movements comprising the skill

information processing model

motor learning contains four components: input, decision making, output, and feedback

Motor behavior includes three subdisciplines.

motor learning motor control motor development

The 1970s marked the emergence of

motor learning and motor control within physical education programs. During this time, motor behavior scholars began to move from the application of theories from psychology to the development and use of their own theories and models to explain motor skill acquisition.

side-stepping

move left and right while facing forward stay low with bent knees

teacher

must give learners appropriate input through the careful selection of teaching methods, materials, and procedures must help learners understand the goal of the movement and then distinguish between relevant and irrelevant information or cues with respect to that goal, drawing the learners' attention to cues essential for the decision making process and teaching the learners to disregard the irrelevant ones must help learners become wise decision makers. This can be accomplished by helping learners evaluate their past experiences, by explaining the "why" of underlying skills and strategies, by instructing learners on how to use the available feedback, and by making sure that the learners are attending to the right cues and interpreting the information correctly. can help learners by pro-viding feedback about the learners' performance and communicating this information to learners in an understandable way.

motor control is the study of

neurophysiological and behavioral processes affecting the control of skilled movements

motor control

neurophysiological and behavioral processess affecting the control of skilled movements

A strong motor skills foundation provides for

new movement opportunities later in life, whether sport or recreational in nature, such as skiing, rock climbing, and tennis

galloping

one leg out in front one leg behind straight legs

We will learn more about the

physiological, neurological, psychological, and sociological changes associated with aging, enabling us to better help the older population remain physical activity throughout their lifespan.

knowledge of results

provides information about the effects of a movement on the environment, information that tells the learner whether or not the goal of the movement was achieved

running

pump your arms high knees

factors influencing learning

readiness, motivation, reinforcement, individual differences

tangible reinforcement

refers to material items such as a medal or money

drive

refers to the concept of the stimulus for action

intangible reinforcement

refers to verbal praise, a pat on the back, a nod of approval, and things of that nature

in the autonomous stage the teacher should focus on

refining the response, focusing on consistency for closed skills and flexibility for open skills

characteristics of the task

reflect the demands of the task-does the skill place a premium on speed, accuracy, or both, task difficulty, nature of the task- does the require making adjustments to individuals in the environment, or is the environment stable

environment characteristics

reflects the context in which the learning or performing is taking place, including physical characteristics such as weather or space, or sociocultural characteristics such as competition or peer pressure teacher skills and behavior

proficient or final stage

reflects the mechanically efficient performance of the skill marked by increased mechanic efficiency, enhanced coordination, and improved control of the movements

learning

relatively permanent change in behavior or performance as a result of practice or experiment

hereditary filter

represents predispositioned diseases

early period 1880-1940

research focused on trying to understand how the mind worked rather than seeking to understand how skilled movements were produced one significant development was thorndike's research on learning in 1927 which became known as the law of effect motor control researchers were interested in the qualities of muscle The discovery that the brain produces electrical activity stimulated interest in the relationship between brain electrical activity and movement, which helped further researchers' understanding of how the nervous system controls muscles and movement

In the 1970s

researchers became increasingly interested in exploring the processes underlying the development of motor skills across the lifespan

As sport specialization increases,

school physical education becomes an important venue to help ensure that youths who specialize in one sport achieve proficiency in all the fundamental motor skills, not just those required by their sport.

Kevin Connolly's edited book Mechanisms of Motor Skill Development

set the foundation for further research into the cognitive processes associated with motor skill development

highly complex motor skills

should not be taught as a whole

Although many today view engagement in physical activity by older adults as positive and contributing to good health,

some older adults face discrimination and lack of opportunity to participate as a result of ageism.

In throwing the javelin

speed is more important than accuracy

Spessato, gabbard, and valentini

studied the relationship of motor competence and body mass index (BMI) on elementary school children's physical activity during physical education classes. They found that motor competence was related to the amount of physical activity engaged in by students, but there was no significant relationship between BMI and physical activity. The researchers suggested that children who are competent in motor skills are more active during class.

motor learning focuses on

studying the cognitive aspects of motor skill acquisition

Researchers during the 1960s through the 1980s

such as rarick and robert Malina, concentrated their efforts on understanding the influence of growth and maturation on motor performance

skills that are highly interrelated

such as the jump shot in basketball, should be taught as a whole

when teaching high jump by part method

the learners would be taught the approach (run to the bar); then they would be taught the jump; next, they would be taught the landing. After all components had been taught, the learners would practice the total skill.

input

the process of obtaining information from the environment visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and other sensory information is transmitted through the nervous system and to the brain

researchers in motor control are interested in

the processes underlying the learning and performance of motor skills, such as how the nervous system works with the muscular system to produce and coordinate movement and how cognitive processes are involved in the learning and execution of motor skills

output

the response and its execution

motor development

the study of origins of and changes in movement behavior throughout the lifespan

motor development traces its roots

to developmental psychology

According to Payne and Isaacs,

to fully understand motor development we must understand the ongoing interaction between the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains throughout our lifespan.

Thomas and Thomas identify three goals of motor behavior

to understand how motor skills are learned to understand how motor skills are controlled to understand how learning and control of motor skills changes across the lifespan

thomas and thomas goals of motor control

understanding how the muscles and joints are coordinated during movement, how a sequence of movements is controlled, and how to use environmental information to plan and adjust movements

thomas and thomas goal of motor learning

understanding the influence of feedback, practice, and individual differences, especially how they relate to the retention and transfer of motor skill

open skills

variable, unpredictable, externally paced hitting tennis forehand in a match defending a player during a soccer game

Jerry Thomas

was one of the leaders in researching how cognitive factors influence children's motor skill acquisition.

positive transfer

when a previous experience or skill aids in the learning of a new skill

negative transfer

when a previously learned skill interferes with the learning of a new skill

thorndike found that

when responses to a situation were rewarded, they were strengthened and used more frequently and hence became learned behavior

Ralph Wickstrom's

work on fundamental movement abilities helped us more fully understand these critical motor skills.