P/S1

Most humans can feel one drop of perfume in what kind of house?

a three room house

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

What is ascribed status?

- Ascribed status is a position in society based on a social construct such as age, gender, or race/ethnicity. - born with it, except age

internal validity vs external validity

- Internal Validity: The ability of your research design to test your hypothesis. Does it test what it's designed to? - External Validity: The degree to which a study's results can be extended beyond the limited research setting and sample (generalizability).

Most humans can feel a bee's wing falling from what distance onto cheek?

1cm

Most humans can taste one teaspoon of sugar dissoved in how many gallons of water?

2 gallons of water

Most humans can hear a watch ticking what distance away?

20 feet

Most humans can see a flame on a clear night what distance away?

30 miles

What is a correlation coefficient? Graph the spectrum

A correlation coefficient (r value) describes the linear relationship between two variables; r values range from −1 to 1 and describe the direction (sign) and strength of an association. The sign of the r value indicates a positive or negative association, and the closer r is to −1 or 1, the stronger the relationship. Correlations describe relationships between variables, but it is not possible to determine if one variable caused the change in the other.

What is cognitive dissonance theory?

Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that contradictory or incompatible beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors cause a state of mental discomfort (cognitive dissonance) that results in motivation to reduce the conflict by aligning thoughts and/or behaviors.

Acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning

Acquisition refers to the learning that takes place as an association is formed between the unconditioned stimulus (eg, food) and the neutral stimulus (eg, bell). Extinction occurs when a conditioned response gradually stops occurring in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. For example, a dog that has been conditioned to salivate in response to the sound of a bell will gradually stop salivating if the bell is repeatedly presented without food. Spontaneous recovery occurs when an extinct response reappears after a period of time (eg, a dog will salivate again upon hearing a bell a few days after extinction has occurred).

What is appraisal theory?

Appraisal theory states that one's appraisal (evaluation) of a stimulus determines one's emotional response. In a primary appraisal, an individual classifies a stimulus as threatening, positive, or irrelevant. For stimuli deemed threatening, a secondary appraisal takes place in which the individual evaluates whether their resources/abilities are sufficient to cope with the stressor.

What are attributional biases? Attributions can fall under two categories, which are?

Attributional biases are cognitive biases (common errors in thinking) that occur when people attempt to explain their own behavior or the behavior of someone else. Attributions can be dispositional, based on internal characteristics (eg, personality), or situational, based on external factors (eg, environment).

What is confirmation bias

Confirmation bias is a type of cognitive bias (common error in thinking) in which individuals tend to embrace evidence supporting their beliefs, dismiss or ignore evidence refuting their beliefs, and interpret ambiguous evidence as support

What is cultural capital?

Cultural capital describes the nonfinancial and nonsocial network assets that confer advantage in society (eg, a degree from a well-respected university).

Dopamine targets which areas of the brain?

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter with widespread targets throughout the brain, specifically in the basal ganglia (motor function), mesolimbic pathway (pleasure, reward), and prefrontal cortex (motivation, emotion regulation).

When does escape learning occur? When does avoidance learning occur?

Escape learning occurs when an individual learns how to terminate a current unpleasant stimulus. Avoidance learning occurs when an individual figures out how to prevent experiencing the unpleasant stimulus in the future.

What is ethnography

Ethnography is a qualitative method for the scientific study of human social phenomena. Using observation and interviews, ethnographies study people in their natural environments (within their own communities) and provide descriptive information about the cultures, behaviors, norms, and values in a given geographic location.

What is experimenter bias?

Experimenter bias occurs when researchers deliberately or inadvertently influence their study, often leading to results that confirm what the researcher was expecting.

What are flashbulb memories? Their characteristics?

Flashbulb memories are vivid, detailed autobiographical memories of an event that was extremely emotional or distinct or personally significant. Flashbulb memories may be best defined by the degree to which individuals feel confident about their recollections, even when the recollections are not completely accurate or consistent over time.

Theory of the social self: George Herbert Mead

George Herbert Mead, who is most associated with the sociological theory of symbolic interactionism, argued that social (rather than biological) factors influence identity formation. Mead suggested that the experience of "self" emerges through social interaction with others who play important and formative roles in one's life (eg, family). The two aspects of the self are the "I" and "me," which develop in stages: Preparatory (or imitation): Babies/toddlers imitate others (eg, a parent's hand gesture) and begin using symbols and language (eg, repeating a phrase used by a parent) without meaning comprehension. At this stage, children have no sense of "self" as separate from the world around them. Play: Through play (eg, pretending to be a doctor), preschool-age children begin role-taking (ie, understanding the perspectives of others). When children understand themselves as individuals separate from others, the "I" component of the self has developed. Children then begin to imagine how others perceive them, which is the beginning of the development of the "me." Game: School-age children become aware of their position/role in relation to others. They begin to see themselves from the perspective of the more abstract generalized other, further developing the "me" to incorporate the values and rules of the society in which they live.

When does group polarization occur?

Group polarization occurs when the views of individuals within a group become more extreme after discussion with like-minded members. Opinions can be polarized in either direction (extremely positive or extremely negative).

When does groupthink occur?

Groupthink occurs when a group arrives at an incorrect or irrational decision because group members value getting along and reaching a consensus more than they value critical evaluation of alternatives. Groupthink is more likely to occur in groups that have strong, well-liked leaders.

Humanistic Psychology focuses on? What kind of view of human nature does it take?

Humanistic psychology emphasizes the higher aspects of human nature, including the drive toward self-actualization (ie, achieving one's full potential) and personal growth. Humanistic psychologists take an optimistic view of human nature, believing that people have an innate drive toward self-improvement. Humanistic psychotherapy utilizes a person- or client-centered approach (the word "patient" is not used), so the intervention is unique to the individual.

Immigration vs. Emigration Pull vs push factors Immigration rate vs fertility rate vs mortality rates

Immigration is the relocation of individuals into an area, whereas emigration is relocation out of an area. People tend to emigrate from less developed/poorer countries, immigrating to more developed/wealthier ones. Push factors (eg, unemployment, war) in the country of origin drive emigration, whereas pull factors (eg, job opportunities) in the receiving country attract people to immigrate. The size and demographic makeup of a population is determined by immigration/emigration rates, fertility (birth) rates, and mortality (death) rates. Fertility rates measure population increases due to births, whereas mortality rates measure population declines due to deaths.

McDonaldization

McDonaldization is the process whereby efficiency reduces individuality, calculability reduces quality, predictability reduces uniqueness, and control reduces the need for a skilled workforce.

Power vs. Authority

In sociology, power refers to the ability to control and influence others. Authority refers to whether others believe that the power is legitimate. There are three types of authority: Traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal authority

Difference between religiosity and religious affiliation

In sociology, there is a distinction between religiosity and religious affiliation. Religiosity refers to the extent to which a religious doctrine is internalized and incorporated into an individual's life (eg, behaviors, beliefs). For example, Jewish individuals with a high degree of religiosity demonstrate many beliefs and behaviors that align with Judaism, vs "being Jewish" is an important part of how they define themselves.

Social groups, social ties, and group sizes

Individuals who interact and identify with each other form social groups. The relationships between individual group members are social ties. Dyads (groups of two) have one social tie and are more intimate but less stable than triads. Triads (groups of three) have three potential social ties and are less intimate but more stable than dyads.

What is institutional discrimination?

Institutional discrimination describes patterns of unequal treatment of individuals based on their group membership. Institutional discrimination occurs at the organizational level due to differential treatment built into laws and policies.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

Intersectionality and racialization

Intersectionality describes how individuals hold multiple, interconnected, marginalized social identities (eg, gender, race, age) that impact their lives, perspectives, and treatment in society. In other words, the experience of more than one type of discrimination (eg, sexism, racism, ageism) has a cumulative effect on many individuals. Racialization is the process by which one group designates another group with a racial identity, often based on shared group qualities, such as physical attributes (eg, skin pigmentation) or behaviors (eg, religious practices). The designating group has more social power (dominant group) and exerts social control over the designated group, which has less social power (subordinate group).

What is the labeling theory of deviance?

Labeling theory suggests that deviance lies not in the act but in the social response of applying a label to individuals. Labeling individuals as deviant has consequences, such as stigmatization, that lead to further deviance.

What drugs are likely to be dopamine antagonists? What do they do?

Many antipsychotic drugs are dopamine antagonists that work in part by blocking the action of dopamine, an excess of which in certain areas of the brain has been linked to psychotic symptoms (eg, hallucinations), such as those seen in schizophrenia. These medications can have side effects that resemble the motor symptoms of Parkinson disease (eg, tremors, muscle rigidity). -block or reduce effects of dopamine

What is nonverbal communication?

Nonverbal communication includes all the wordless cues meant to convey meaning to another individual, such as body language, hand gestures, facial expressions, and vocal inflections. Research suggests that nonverbal communication has an important impact on social interactions.

Norms vs. Deviance

Norms exist in every culture and serve to disseminate information about appropriate conduct in a variety of situations. Deviance is any behavior that violates culturally established norms. Deviant behavior can be viewed as simply odd or off-putting (eg, nose-picking in public) or can be viewed as egregious or criminal (eg, murder).

Ascribed status vs Achieved Status vs Master Status

Note: master status may be an ascribed or achieved status

Observational Studies vs Experiemental studies

Observational studies are conducted when it is unethical or unfeasible to manipulate a variable of interest. For example, it would not be feasible (or ethical) to manipulate the degree to which religion is internalized.

What do overlapping confidence intervals indicate?

Overlapping confidence intervals indicate that the difference between groups may or may not be statistically significant.

Parkison's disease associated with? Symptoms?

Parkinson disease is associated with the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (a structure in the basal ganglia that inhibits excess movement). A dopamine deficit in the basal ganglia causes motor symptoms such as resting tremors (eg, shaky hands), muscle rigidity, and shuffling gait.

personality disorders characterized by? Give examples of pathological personal traits and maladaptive patterns of relating to others.

Personality disorders are characterized by inflexible and enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that differ markedly from social norms and cause functional impairment. Individuals with personality disorders have pathological personal traits (eg, rigidity, greediness) and maladaptive patterns of relating to others (eg, hostility, superficiality) that are stable over time and across situations.

Reliability (research)

Reliability refers to the ability of an experiment or measure to produce similar results every time (eg, two IQ tests taken months apart by the same person should yield a similar result).

Which of the following is more in line with the feminist theory: Removing barriers to entry in all occupations for females Balancing the percentage of females and males within each occupation

Removing barriers because balancing the percentage of females and males would seem to remove career choice, which is antithetical to the feminist theory

What is social loafing? Give an example.

Social loafing occurs when an individual expends less effort when working as part of a group than when working alone (eg, people tend to clap less loudly as part of a group than when no one else is clapping).

Social networks (types of ties, social capital, social mobility)

Social networks are informal, nonhierarchical webs of nodes (eg, individuals) connected by ties, which can be weak (eg, acquaintances) or strong (eg, family). Social networks confer social capital through connections that can be converted into economic gain (eg, new job), which can improve one's social status, resulting in social mobility.

When does stereotype boost occur?

Stereotype boost (also known as stereotype lift) occurs when positive stereotypes about social groups cause improved performance. For example, Asians reminded of the stereotype "Asians are good at math" before completing a math test tend to outperform Asians who are not first reminded of this stereotype.

When does stereotype threat occur?

Stereotype threat occurs when an individual is made aware of a negative stereotype regarding a group with which that individual identifies, and this awareness causes the individual's performance to suffer.

Stereotypes vs. Prejudice vs. Discrimination

Stereotypes are overgeneralized beliefs about groups and can be positive or negative. Prejudice involves negative beliefs and feelings about members of a group. Discrimination involves actions based on stereotypes and prejudice that negatively impact a group.

Structural Functionalism. What are the types?

Structural functionalism is a macro-sociological perspective that compares modern society to a biological organism. This theory proposes that, just as the various organ systems cooperate to maintain an organism's homeostasis, social institutions work together in the interest of societal balance, known as dynamic equilibrium. From the structural functionalist perspective, social institutions have manifest functions, which are expected, and latent functions, which are unintended. For example, social media allows people to keep in touch with friends and family (ie, manifest function), but police departments have used suspect's social media profiles to gather information (ie, latent function).

What is taste aversion

Taste aversion is a specific and powerful type of classical conditioning that occurs after just one instance of becoming ill following food/beverage consumption. Taste aversions are long lasting and can develop despite many hours passing between consumption and illness.

What are the independent and dependent variables in an absolute threshold experiment?

The absolute threshold, or the intensity needed to detect a stimulus half the time, can be determined by varying the stimulus intensity (independent variable) and measuring the percentage of time the stimulus is correctly detected (dependent variable).

What is the actor-observer bias?

The actor-observer bias is an attributional bias that describes the tendency to attribute one's own actions to external factors but the actions of others to internal factors.

Describe the alarm, resistance, and exhaustion stages of General Adaptation syndrome

The alarm stage occurs during the first few minutes of the stress response, in which the sympathetic nervous system prepares the body to act (ie, fight-or-flight response). The resistance stage can last for hours (eg, exercise), days (eg, final exams), or months (eg, preparing for the MCAT). During this stage, the body attempts to resist the stressor and establish a new equilibrium. The exhaustion stage occurs when prolonged stress produces arousal with depleted energy, making the body more vulnerable to negative health effects (eg, depression, hypertension).

Division of labor: what is it, and what are the pros and cons?

The division of labor refers to the specialization of employment into interdependent jobs. The division of labor has positive consequences (eg, increased specialization, efficiency, reduced costs) and negative consequences (eg, labor exploitation, increased boredom, reduced quality).

dominant culture vs subculture vs counterculture

The dominant culture establishes the norms, values, and rituals of a society. A subculture is distinct from the dominant culture in some way but is still aligned with the norms and values of the dominant culture. A counterculture opposes the norms and values of the dominant culture.

Fertility rate vs age-specific fertility rate

The fertility rate is a measure of the number of people being added to a given population through birth, as opposed to immigration. Of the multiple ways to express fertility rates, the age-specific fertility rate (ASFR) describes the number of live births per year per 1,000 women in a certain age group in a population.

What is the fundamental attribution error?

The fundamental attribution error, an attributional bias, is the tendency to blame others' behavior on internal (eg, "they are lazy") instead of external factors.

What is a null hypothesis?

The inverse of the alternative hypothesis, the null hypothesis, states that there is no significant difference or relationship between the variables measured.

What is the life course approach to illness

The life course approach is a holistic, multidisciplinary framework for understanding how psychological, biological, and sociocultural factors across a lifetime have a cumulative effect on health outcomes. This perspective considers how personal life events (eg, illness in infancy), individual choices/behaviors (eg, having unprotected sex), and sociocultural and historical context (eg, being born during wartime) impact health and illness.

What is the role of cognition in prejudice? Which psychometric technique can you use to test for it?

The role of cognition in prejudice results from the quick, unconscious categorization of people using schemas based on age, race/ethnicity, and gender. The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is a psychometric technique designed to measure unconscious attitudes, including prejudice (negative feelings and beliefs).

Threshold vs Absolute Threshold

Threshold refers to the strength of a stimulus required to detect its presence or a change in its intensity. The absolute threshold is the smallest value of a stimulus intensity at which the stimulus will be just detectable 50% of the time.

Describe the three types of authority: traditional, charismatic, rational-legal

Traditional authority comes from longstanding patterns in society (eg, a queen is seen as having legitimate power in a monarchy). Charismatic authority stems from the personal appeal and/or extraordinary claims of an individual (eg, Gandhi was seen as having legitimate power due to his ability to inspire people). Rational-legal authority arises from the professional position a person holds (eg, a physician is seen as having legitimate power due to extensive training).

When do unconditioned responses occur? When do conditioned responses occur?

Unconditioned responses occur naturally, without learning. Conditioned responses occur when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Classical conditioning paramters

Unconditioned stimuli (eg, food) are biologically arousing, causing an innate (untrained) reaction called an unconditioned response (eg, salivation). Neutral stimuli (eg, bell) do not produce a meaningful response. After being paired with the unconditioned stimulus, the previously neutral stimulus, now termed the conditioned stimulus, causes the organism to react with a learned, or conditioned, response (eg, salivation in response to a bell).

Validity vs. Reliability

Validity: - does it do what it's supposed to do? does it work? Reliability - the degree to which the tool produces consistent/stable results *Tools can be valid and not reliable (and vice versa)

Types of Norms (e.g?): - their degrees of deviance - social repercussions (e.g.)

folkways, mores, taboos

What are schemas?

mental frameworks that organize old information and allow quick processing of new information.

primary group vs secondary group

primary group is composed of members who have frequent contact and are emotionally connected (eg, close friends, family members). Secondary groups are composed of members who interact for a common goal (eg, colleagues).

Medicalization and its societal impact

the process of defining human behaviors or characteristics as medical conditions, often results from shifting attitudes, new scientific evidence, or new treatments. For example, menopause, a natural condition, is now viewed by some as a deficiency in hormones that can be treated with pharmaceuticals. Medicalization leads individuals to look to medical professionals as the experts in diagnosing, preventing, or treating such conditions.

Spatial Inequality? How is it studied?

the unequal geographical distribution of wealth resulting in the concentration of health-compromising factors (eg, pollution, crime) in lower-income neighborhoods. Researchers systematically observing and interviewing individuals in their communities to assess the relationship between chronic disease and spatial inequality are using ethnographic methods to study this complex social phenomenon.

Give examples of intersectional statuses of a person

young black male, while heterosexual female, or a working-class Hispanic female