PSC 151 Exam 2, PSC 151 midterm 2, PSC 151 EXAM 2, PSC 151 M2 Practice Questions

cultural differences in defining the self

- in many western cultures, ppl have an independent view of self >> define themselves as quite separate from other people & >> value independence & uniqueness - incontrast, many east asaian & other non-western cultures have an interdependent view of self >> connectedness & interdependence btw ppl is valued whereas independence & uniqueness are frowned on

some behaviors associated with relationship satisfaction

- positive attitude and less negative attribution for partners behavior - feeling and expressing gratitude - participate in novel and exciting activities together

berglas & Jones---> who picked what

-"impossible" Ss pick impairing drug > built in excuse for expected failure > any success makes them look really smart -"easy" Ss more likely to pick enhancing to pick enhancing drug

The Ubiquitous Social Phenomenon

-S& P are ubiquitous --- in one form or another, they affect us all -S&P are a two-way street ---often flows from minority group to majority group as well as in other direction -anygroup can be target S & P

Zanna & Cooper= must attribute arousal to behavior

-Ss given placebo > 1/3 told "will arouse" > 1/3 told "will calm" > 1/3 told "no effect" -counter-attitudinal essays w/ choice -attitude change= calm > control> arouse - "arouse" Ss misattribute arousal to pill ---> not attitude change - like schachter & singer= 2-factor theory of emotion

did subjects help their friends or hurt them

-depended on: > own performance ---manipulate success or failure >percieved relevance of game --- it assesses verbal skills & leadership - if subject performed poorly herself AND percieved game to be relevant > gave friends HARDER clues than strangers!

responsibility?

-diallo? > are we sure those cops are racist, like in the comic? > if asked, they will likely would have said "no"! - controlled behaviors can be controlled! > price-waterhouse/ fiske - automatic biases can maybe be trained

Why Does the OHE occur?

-different interaction contexts for in-groups and out-groups -know more in-groups members -self-differentiation from in-group > distinguish self from others -considerations of future interactions > motivation to individuate

what works? changing yourself= monteith

-discrepancy reduction > notice discrepancy btw personal beliefs & behavior > feel lousy > focus attention inwards---> look for causes of behavior > learn to avoid similar behaviors

crocker & major implications

-disidentification again > attributional ambiguity is stressful > avoid those situations - damned if you fail, damned if you succeed > either way, can't make firm attribution

where does self come from (2)

-group identities > tajfel > groups we belong to help to define who we are > often define ourselves as members of groups > also, infer our traits from our knowledge or stereotypes about our groups -comparisons to other people - how are we relative to others? - identify ways to which we are unique > unique features become important parts of our identities

crocker & major: non-obese subjects

-happy when feedback is positive -unhappy when feedback is negative -whether they can be seen or not doesn't matter

self-handicapping: doing bad to feel good

-help us feel good AND look good to others

petty & cacioppo: motivation via personal relevance -high relevance condition

-high relevance= systematic processing -heuristic use diminshed

components of attitudes: Examle---> choosing a new car -behaviors

-how do I behave toward attitude object > do you go to a dealership & test-drive car & actully buy one? > self-perception theory/ dissonance theory---> behavior is importat component

components of attitudes: Examle---> choosing a new car -cognitions

-how do I evaluate properties of different cars? -logical > what beliefs do you hold about the car's attributes? > perhaps you admire its hybrid engine that make it one of the most evironment-friendly cars you can buy

components of attitudes: Example---> choosing a new car - affect

-how do we feel about it? -emotional reactions > perhaps you have feelings of excitement > if you are US autoworker examining a new foreign-made model, a new foreign-made model, maybe you feel anger & resentment

know ourselves by comparing ourselves to others

-how do we use others to define ourselves? -one way is to measure our own abilities & attitudes by seein how we stack up against other people > if you don' $50 to charity & find out your friend Sue donates $10, you ca feel generous > if you find out Sue donated $100, you might not feel like you'vev been generous

results---> both arousal & context are necessary

-how happy are you? > control---> 4---> no arousal; no explanation > informed---> 3---> arousal is explained by the drug---> rate less euphoric than control > uniformed---> 7---> arousal w/ no explanation --- rely on situational cues

social comparison theory

-idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people - theory revolves around 2 important questions: (1) when do you engage in social comparisons (2) with whom do you choose to compare yourself?

what kinds of rewards and punishments

-if you want someone to do something or not do something only once, most effective strategy would be to promise a large reward or threaten severe punishment - but if you want someone to become commited to an attitude or behavior, SMALLER the reward or punishment that will lead to momentary compliance, the GREATER eventual change will be and therefore more permanent -large rewards & severe punishments, as strong external justifications, encourage compliance but prevent real attitude change

exceptions in very close relations

-in romantic relationships & marriages > ppl better able to BIRG > even if the domain is self-relevant > doesn't feel so great to outperform a romantic partner in a domain relevant to both partners

Role Theory (Eagly)

-infer group attributes from roles the groups play -males: > sex only= aggressive > communal > homemaker= communal > aggressive > employee= aggressive > communal -females: > sex only= communal> aggressive > homemaker= communal > aggressive > employee= aggressive > communal

reducing prejudice/ stereotyping

-inhibition not only way to avoid stereotyping -not only "don't use stereotypes" -can train yourself to replace stereotypic thoughts -also, pay attention to behavior

maranon

-injected subjects w/ epinephrine---> induces arousal -asks subjects what they are feeling > 71% say nothing > 28 % say they feel as though they are having an emotion, but arent > 1% claim real emotioin

schematic effects

-interpretation > sagar & schofield (1980) - push is percieved very differently > darley & gross (1983) - manipulate socio-economic status - interpret test performance differently

multiple categories interact

-intersectionalism > black= male > asian= female - stereotyped phenotypes

3 approaches

-intrapsychic motivations -socialcultural -cognitive

intrapsychic motivations

-intrapsychic needs of individuals; psychodynamic approaches -vs more modern motivational theories

how do we know our emotions? self-perception plays a role

-james-lange theory > emotional experiences are direct result of physiological changes due to perception of event > certain patterns of physiological changes lead to different emotions---> the emotions are bodily changes --- fast heart beat, rise in body temp= anger --- sweating, trembling= fear

stereotype threat: steele

-know about other's stereotypes -worry that others will apply the stereotype to you > especially if you fail -failure reflects on whole group---> not just individual -this is threatening---> produces anxiety -inhibits performance -disidentification ---> protects self-esteem > even if you manage to perform well, it is not fun to work in a field where you assume everyone thinks you're no good

extended contact effect: wright et al (1997)

-knowledge of an ingroup-out-group friendship is associated w/ less prejudice -greater number of ingroup-outgroup friendships known, the lower the prejudice - imagined contact even works (Crisp)

dual procress models

-look at interaction of multiple factors > importance of different depended on: ---motivation to process carefully ---ability to process carefully --- motivated tactician --- not too smart, not too dumb ---active processors---> but not all true

How to avoid effects of extrinsic reward

-offer rewards as surprises - make rewards similar to task > e.g. give a book for reading a book - emphasize choice in doing task - immunize people---> warn them

stereotyping and Prejudice

-one of the most important kinds of schemas or expectancies -generally interested in process not content

where do you come from? affective precursors -operant conditioning

-operant conditioning > behavior is directly rewarded or punished -how does this apply to attitudes > imagine --- a 4 yr old white girl goes to playground and begins to play w/ african american girl --- her father expresses strong disapproval, telling her "we don't play w/ that kind of child" ---it wont take long before child associates interacting w/ african americans w/ disapproval, thereby adopting her father's racist attitudes

where does self come from (1)

-other people > symbol interactionism---> william james; meade; cooley > self can't be understand in isolation---> must be studied in interaction / others > self is not an inherent property of human nature-> it is constructed through experience

necessary conditions

-percieved choice - choice must have permanent consequences- no going back -ask bettors how much they would sell their ticket for before they make the bet or don't ask them until after they make they bet > want more money after the bet has been made > immediate increase in value of chosen option

sleeper effect

-persuasion may increase over time w/ weak source -forget source, but remember message - not if source is learned prior to message > will ignore or bias processing of message -commercials, political ads

mood & persuasion= Mackie & worth (1990) -positive mood condition

-positive moods can diminsh systematic processing -enhances heurtistic effects

nature & origin of attitudes

-ppl are not neutral observers of the world -evaluate what they encounter - they form attitudes -ATTITUDES---> evaluation of ppl, objects, & ideas

Explicit vs. Implicit Attitudes

-ppl can have explicit & implicit attitudes toward virtually anything, not just other races > for example, students can believe explicitly that they hate math but hav a more positive attitue at an implicit level

social categorization

-precedes stereotype application -has effect independent of stereotypes > Us vs them

stone et al (1999)

-racial stereotypes exist about athletic performance > black athletes= " natural athletic ability, but more intelligent and harder working - these stereotypes are known not only by sports spectators and coaches, but also by the athletes themselves -evidence that sports commentators will actually describe and attribute the performance of Black and white athletes differently based on stereotypes

classical conditioning of attitudes

-razan (1940): like slogans better when paired w/ positive events > "workers of world unite" > good vs bad odors > free lunch -advertising > sex sells

what is stereotype threat?

-realizing that a stereotyping exists about your group -does NOT mean that you believe the stereotype is true about you or your group - BUT, you still feel the burden of the stereotype because you worry that other people may apply the stereotype to you and that you may somehow confirm the stereotype

What if Social Identity is Low? Leave Group or Elevate It!

-redefine important features of comparison > artistic ability matters! - change group's rating on features >"Black is beautiful" -change reference group to lower status group -make within-group comparisons---> not btw group -Fight!

too close & too relevant is threatening

-reduce the closeness of the other peson > she's been doing this longer---> no wonder she's so good > things are different at a large public university -reduce percieved relevance of domain (sour grapes effect) > grades aren't only factor in getting a good job! - attempt to change performance outcome (e.g. work hard to be better than the other person) > this can be motivating

in-group/ out-group categorization

-resource allocation= Tajfel -attribution biases > "ultimate attribution bias" > ingroup positive= internal; outgroup negative= internal > ingroup negative= external; outgroup positive= external -linguistic biases > breadth of language (hit, hurt, hates, hateful) -memory biases > remember positive in-group and negative out-group - even in minimal group settings

payne study 2

-response deadline: > must respond in >500 ms - results > more false alarms for black/ tool & white/gun

where does self-concept come form?

-role of internal reflection - roles of other people > reflection ---> looking glass self > identification w/ groups > comparison to others

self-persuasion: cognitive dissonance theory

-role of reinforcement challenged > do things for which we are most rewarded -catharsis challenged > acting out reduces likelihood of similar subsequent behavior - change attitudes by first changing behavior

out-group homogeneity effect

-seek out-group as more homogenous than in-group -the tendency to see the out-group as relatively more homogenous and less diverse than the in-group > "they're all the same, but we're different ---even in minimal groups!

what is the self? william James: Duality of self

-self as object than can be observed > I have property X > "Me" - self as agent doing the observing > self is both the percieved & the percieved > "I" > relate to consciousness---> something must do the percieving, defining, feeling , etc

schematic effects: behavior

-self-fulfilling hypothesis > early classroom studies > pygamaloin effects - snyder, Tanke, & Berscheid > males see attractive or unattractive picture > talk on the phone to randomly assigned female > naive judges listen to tapes of conversations

self-perception

-self-perception following behavior -$1 vs $20= festinger > talk more about this next time

avoiding stereotyping through individuation

-sherman et al > hi & low prejudice against gays > stereotypical or counter-ster. target --- feminine or masculine > 8 consistent, 4 inconsistent behaviors > 4 consistent, 8 inconsistent behaviors > trait judgments > attributions

Tajfel---> Minimal group paradigm

-simple perception studies w/ lines > see greater similarity within groups > see greater differences btw groups > real differences are exaggerated to differentiate the categories -arbitrary categorization > like ingroup members better > allocate resources to in-group > based on simple fact of categorization + need for self-esteem

schematic effects: memory

-snyder & uranowitz (1978) > after reading about "betty k" vary stated sexual preference --- falsely remember stereotypical info --- fail to correctly remember counter-ster. info

Change? Contact Hypothesis

-social contact btw members of majority and minority groups will reduce prejudice (allport, 1954) -not all contact works equally well > interdependence/ common goal > equal status among individuals > informal, interpersonal contact (friends) > multiple contacts are important > endorsement of integration by authorities

social percursors

-socializaition > operant conditioning from parents, etc ---conformity ---fear of rejection -modeling > follow examples of others > family, friends, rock stars

stereotyping/prejudice maybe more than efficient: automatic

-some facts: > a large majority (85%) of white americans show a pro-white bias; asian americans & latinos too > about 1/3 black americans show pro-white, 1/3 show no bias, and 1/3 show pro-black bias > scores on IAT & other implicit measures do not correlate w/ scores on explicit measures (e.g. rating scale, questionnaires) > solution to "unwilling & unable" problems

reactance

-sometimes the hard sell backfires -ppl dont like to feel like their freedom is being threatened > we use this psychology w/ kids all the time > reverse psycholgy > do not write on these walls! > please do not write on these walls

Cognitive Approach

-stereotype: a cognitive schema that contains a person's knowledge, beliefs, & expectancies about a human group -schemas fill in the blanks

"Kernel of Truth"

-stereotypes from observing actual group differences in behaviors - distribution of people into roles > women & child care > south Asian taxi drivers > mexican garderners > historically, jews & money lending -but society places constraints on the behavior of members of different groups

when does self-perception theory work

-when internal cues are weak -chaiken & baldwin (1981) > test ppl w/ strong & weak attitudes about environmentalism > manipulate them to either endorse evironmental or non-environmenal behaviors --- "occasionally" vs "frequently" - then measure attitudes about environmentalism

thought suppression cont'd: application

-white bear - diets - smoking - insomnia - romantic partners - simple physical tasks - stereotyping

word, Zanna, copper (1974)

-white interviewees perform "better" - white interviewees behave differently towards white and black interviewees -train interviewers to use "white" or "black" style -white interviewees who get "white" style do better

other cases

-white men when in presence of asian men -margaret smith > asain women --- activate "asaian or "female" identity by writing essay --- math performance on SAT

problems w/ measuring attitudes

-willing & able problems > may be unwilling to report true attitudes > may be unaware of attitudes ---implicit attitudes

persuasive communications & attitude change

-yale attitude change approach > "who says what to whom with what effect/ > source, message, recipient, persistence of change

How does subtyping influence stereotyping?

. It serves to prevent stereotypes from changing & It decreases the extent to which people rely on stereotypes

adult attachment - avoidant

I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others I find it difficult to trust them completely and allow myself to depend on them. often love partners want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being

adult attachment - secure

I find it relatively easy to get close to others and I am comfortable depending on them and them depending on me. I don't often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting to close to me

adult attachment - anxious-ambivalent

I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I worry that my partner doesn't love me, or doesn't want to stay. I wat to completely merge with another person and this often cares people away

Insufficient justification

If perceive little or no justification for voluntary behavior, you feel pressure to change your attitude. Contradicted the accepted belief that big rewards produce greater change.

Sunk- cost fallacy

If we've invested resources in something, we don't want to "waste" them. Have gone past the point of no return.

Complementary stereotyping

Members of high and low status groups perceived with complementary sets of positive and negative characteristics.

Dissonance

An unpleasant arousal state that people are motivated to reduce. Feeling inconsistent/hypocritical. Not feeling positive about oneself

self-persuasion

Attitude change from attempts at self-justification

implicit attitudes

Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious

source factors

Attractiveness, credibility, power

Motivated reasoning

Cognitive processes that minimize negative & maximize positive emotional states

True or False. Even when presented with the same research article, participants found that the article that affirmed meritocratic beliefs was a better-quality study than the study that discounted meritocratic beliefs.

True

True or False. Males and females are equally likely to partake in indirect aggression, such as spreading rumors to damage someone's reputation.

True Reason: Prior research suggested that females are more likely to engage in indirect aggression, but recent findings have suggested that there is no clear gender difference.

True or False. Obedience, compliance, and conformity all exist on a spectrum of social influence. They are not necessarily separate categories.

True.

System justification theory

We are motivated to accept and perpetuate features of existing social arrangements, even if they are accidental, arbitrary, or unjust. People defend, bolster, and rationalize the status quo simply because it exists.

instrumental agression

aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain

hostile aggression

agression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain or injury

basic emotion perspective

allows us to quickly and wordlessly communicate - group cohesion

implicit measures

alternatives to self-report measures, such as priming measures or the IAT, which are based on difficult-to-control aspects of people's performance, such as their response speed or accuracy

culture and fundamental attribution error - study

american reporters made internal attributions chinese reporters made external attributions

culture of honor study

american south and southwest and the Middle East men are raised to respond aggressively to perceptions of threat and disrespect

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation of ones own or another persons behavior that comes true because of the tendency of the person holding it to act in ways that bring it about

attribution

an inference about the cause of a person's behavior

passionate love

an intense longing we feel for a person, accompanied by physiological arousal

two step attribution process

analyzing another persons behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situations reasons for the behavior, after which one may adjust the original internal attribution

six basic emotions

anger surprise happiness sadness disgust fear

prosocial

any act that is preformed with the goal of benefiting another person

correspondence bias

apparent in the castro study individuals assume behavior and beliefs match

sexual jealousy - men

are most afraid of raising someone else's kid - physical infidelity

the ben Franklin effect

asking someone, who does not like you, to do you a favor. this way after the favor is done they will maybe like you more

anxiety and avoidance are both

associated w/ less sexual satisfaction and less marital satisfaction

two continuous dimensions

attachment anxiety attachment avoidance

insufficient justification effect

attitude change that occurs to reduce dissonance caused by attitude-discrepant to external reward or punishment

effort justification effect

attitude change that occurs to reduce the dissonance caused by freely choosing to exert considerable effort or suffering to achieve goal

You are reading a blog by someone whose point of view is really making you angry. Which of her arguments are you MOST likely to focus on and remember? a. Her silliest claims, because she is a silly person. b Her silliest claims, because they are consistent with your opinion that she is a silly person. c. Her smartest claims, so that you can contradict them in a post. d. Her smartest claims, because they are so unlikely to have come from a silly person.

b Her silliest claims, because they are consistent with your opinion that she is a silly person. Reason: We tend to remember weak claims that support opposing point of view and remember strong claims that support our point of view best.

You are eager to persuade your fellow classmates to vote in an important upcoming election. Which of these ways of persuasion is mostly likely to work? a. "Please vote; it's really important." b. "You're a voter; don't forget the election is Tuesday." c. "You're an unpatriotic citizen if you don't vote." d. "Don't bother voting; your vote won't matter anyway.

b. "You're a voter; don't forget the election is Tuesday." Reason: We are more likely to do something when it applies to our self-concept and how we define ourselves.

Bella is struggling to decide whether she should choose Edward, the charming vampire, or Jacob, the dashing werewolf, to be her boyfriend. After much debate, she decides to date Edward. Which of the following will likely happen? a. Bella will regret her choice, as she begins to notice more positive traits about Jacob. b. Bella will notice more positive traits about Edward, such as his ability to stay young forever, and notice more negative traits about Jacob, such as his constant howling, and feel affirmed in her decision. c. Bella will grow to hate both Edward and Jacob for forcing her to make such a difficult decision. d. Bella will go with a third option (Harry, the adorable wizard) because she cannot make up her mind.

b. Bella will notice more positive traits about Edward, such as his ability to stay young forever, and notice more negative traits about Jacob, such as his constant howling, and feel affirmed in her decision. Reason: After making a difficult decision between two equally liked options, we exaggerate the positives in the chosen option and exaggerate the negatives in the discarded option.

Jackie is an extremely aggressive person who is constantly hitting people. Which of the following may be increasing her aggressive behavior? a. Her low level of testosterone. b. Her low level of serotonin. c. Her low level of frustration. d. Her low level of arousal.

b. Her low level of serotonin. Reason: Low levels of serotonin lead to more aggressive behavior.

physical attractiveness and liking

both women and men value attractiveness, except men are more willing to say it. both have similar behavior

communication and marital satisfaction - softened startup

bring up the issue thats non-confrontational - state the issue as own personal need

Troy is the captain of the basketball team, and beloved by all of his teammates. Although the team largely values sports and athletics, they all enthusiastically agree when Troy suggests they support their high school musical and buy tickets for opening night. Troy was able to influence the majority by using: a. group polarization b. group cohesiveness c. idiosyncrasy credits d. leadership points

c idiosyncrasy credits Reason: Troy gained influence by first conforming to his group's norm (e.g. playing basketball, being athletic). However, once he was accepted, he was able to influence the majority without dissent.

Which fear appeal will be the MOST effective in changing individuals attitudes towards smoking? a. Showing graphic images of lung disease, ending with the phrase "You're next..." b. Telling smokers that smoking "isn't cool anymore" c. Informing smokers of the dangers of smoking, such as lung cancer, and then providing a website/phone number for people to contact to receive support in quitting d. Showing a clip of people enjoying smoking and listening to smooth jazz

c. Informing smokers of the dangers of smoking, such as lung cancer, and then providing a website/phone number for people to contact to receive support in quitting Reason: Fear appeals work best when the audience is provided with strong arguments AND a solution.

What does the research on cultures of honor suggest about the relationship between testosterone and aggression? a. It explains why men are more aggressive than women across cultures. b. It shows that testosterone and aggression are unrelated. c. It shows that culture affects when and why men can be provoked to become aggressive.

c. It shows that culture affects when and why men can be provoked to become aggressive.

upward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

downward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

if we want to know the top level to which we can aspire, we engage in upward social comparison=

comparing ourselves to people- who are better that we are on a particular ability

stereotype lift

consistent evidence that positive stereotypes about groups improves task performance

the four horsemen of the apocalypse

criticism *contempt* defensiveness stone walling

You know you're eating too much junk food and that it's bad for your energy and health. Which of the following will NOT reduce your dissonance? a. Cutting out your favorite afternoon sweets. b. Deciding that all those health warnings are stupid exaggerations. c. Admitting you are eating too many sweets but claim that they boost your energy for studying. d. Accepting the fact that your attitudes and behavior simply conflict.

d. Accepting the fact that your attitudes and behavior simply conflict. Reason: Cognitive dissonance will always create discomfort.

adult attachment - avoidant [view of self and relationships]

doubtful of existence or durability of romantic love don't need a partner to be happy self as independent and self reliant

Jan believes that eating healthy is important, but she just binged on an entire box of Oreo cookies. Which of the following ways would Jan NOT use to reduce her cognitive dissonance? a. "Eating healthy is way too unrealistic anyway." b. "I didn't eat THAT many cookies. I could have had a second box!" c. "I did have a salad for lunch today." d. "I could die tomorrow; might as well live for today!" e. "I should really start my diet now." f. "I HAD to eat these cookies; they were going stale!"

e. "I should really start my diet now." Reason: (a) = change your attitude; (b) = change your perception; (c) add consonant cognitions; (d) minimize importance of conflict; (f) = reduce perceived choice (e) indicates that Jan did not experience much psychological tension and readily admitted her fault.

Why are self-report measures unreliable in measuring attitudes in people? a. self-presentation concerns b. distorted memory c. lack of introspective awareness d. context effects e. all of the above

e. all of the above

Post-decision dissonance has been observed: a. in monkeys b. in shoppers c. in people who've cheated d. in people who just bought a car e. all of the above f. a and d

e. all of the above Reason: Every time we make a decision, we experience dissonance. Research has also found that monkeys experience this too.

why does proximity promote attraction?

easier to interact suggest similarity *research shows that similarity not complementarity promotes liking and relationship satisfaction*

the four horsemen of the apocalypse - stone walling

emotional withdrawal form interaction

high arousal positive [hap]

enthusiastic excited elated - euro american

All of the following concepts explain why participants obeyed in Milgram's study EXCEPT: a. informative influence b. normative influence c. authority d. cognitive dissonance e. lack of personal responsibility f. all of the above

f. all of the above

adult attachment - anxious-ambivalent [view of self and relationships]

fall in love frequency have difficulty finding true love have self doubts and worry about abandonment

adult attachment - avoidant [experience of love]

fear of closeness lack of trust tend to withdraw when distressed

fomo

fear of missing out - people maybe unhappy with their decision of they are high in fomo

advantages to self-handicapping

feel better about yourself because you can make external attribution

females and aggression

females are more likely to commit relational aggression - manipulation of the relationship

adult attachment - secure [experience of love]

friendship trust positive emotions

anxious/ambivalent attachment style - react in strange situation

frightened of novel situation cling to parent panics when the parent leaves unable to be soothed by parent upon return

frustration-agression theory

frustrations can increase the probablity of an aggressive response

jigsaw classroom

a classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice and raise the self-esteem of children by placing them in small multiethnic groups and making each child dependent on theater children in the group to learn the course material

the four horsemen of the apocalypse - defensiveness

a form of self-protection righteous indignation innocent victimhood

stereotype

a generalization about a group of people in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members

prejudice

a hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group based solely on their membership in that group it often contains cognitive emotional and behavioral components

cog dissonance - sex and religion

a longitudinal study results: rated religion less important and attended church less in the 12 months after first intercourse

stereotype

a mental representation or impression of a social group that people form by associating particular characterisitcs and emotions with the group

subtype definition

a narrower and more specific social group, such as housewife or feminist, that is included within a broad social group, like women

illusory correlation

a percieved association between two characterisitcs that are not actually related

external attribution

a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation they are in, the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that same situation

internal attribution

a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as an attitude, character, or personality

external justification

a reason or an explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual

micro-agressions

a statement, action, or incident that could be regarded as an instance of indirect, subtle, unintentional discrimination against marginalized group members

BIRG (bask in reflected glory)

a way of boosting self-esteem by identifying oneself with the accomplishments or good qualities of fellow in-group members

independent view of self

a way of defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people

interdependent view of the self

a way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people, recognizing that one's behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others

Which of the following reasons is the WEAKEST and LEAST likely to result in one individual complying with another individual's request? a. "Can I borrow a pencil?" b. "Can I use your charger? I left mine at home." c. "Can I have your last french fry? I'm so hungry." d. "Can I have $5? I need $5."

a. "Can I borrow a pencil?" Reason: In a study, researchers found that participants were more likely to comply with an individual's request if they had a reason, whether it was relevant or not.

Hamiltion: Distinctiveness- Based Illusory Correlation

group A x desirable = 16 group A x undesirable= 8 = 24 group B x desirable = 8 group B x undesirable = 4 = 12 -for both groups more desirable than behaviors were reported than undesirable ones: ratio= 2:1 -overall, participants saw more sentences about Group A than about Group B - participants like less Group B because they had formed an illusory correlation -they didn't like them because they read less about them

Schaller - 3rd variable problem

group A x5 letters= 5/5 group A x 7 letters= 5/20= 10/25 group B x 5 letters= 15/20 group B x 7 letters= 0/5=15/25 -cant take situational constraint into account = like FAE

social rewards

helping increases when followed by social approval or public recognition

terror management theory

holds that self-esteem serves as a buffer that protects people from terrifying thoughts about their own mortality

behavior

how do i behave toward the attitude object

cognition

how do i evaluate -logical

affect

how do we feel about it -emotional reactions

attribution theory

how we infer the causes of our own and others behavior

two continuous dimensions - attachment anxiety [under attack]

hyper activation of the attachment system

heuristics-systematic / central-peripheral= chaiken; Petty/ Cacioppo

if processing systematically---> > strong message is persuasive; weak message is not > persuasion baed on central features of message - if processing heuristically---> > message strength not so important > persuasion based on peropheral features of message > rely on heuristic cues---> like cognitive miser models of stereotyping

study involving black teens and either being liked or not

if they were given a negative evaluation ir seed not affect their self-esteem - provides a buffer against some of the negative consequences of being stigmatized

justification of kindness

if we have done someone a personal favor we are likely to feel more positively toward that person that if we don't do the favor or do the favor because of an impersonal request

avoidant attachment style - react in strange situation

ignores parent when playing little or no distress when parent leaves ignores parent when they return

mere exposure effect

in the classroom, even without uttering a word the longer a person is present or in visual field the more likely we are to like them

self-affirmation

in the context of dissonance theory, a way of reducing dissonance by reminding oneself of one or more of one's positive attributes

culture and the self -interdependent view of the self [life tasks]

include fitting in and preserving interpersonal harmony

culture and the self -independent view of the self [life task]

includes expressing ones self and seeking uniqueness

levels of the self

individual: isolation relational: specific relationships collective: within a member of a group

cognitive

information processing, cognitive systems

aggression

intentional behavior aimed at causing physical harm or psychological pain to another person

secure attachment style - react in strange situation

interacts w/ parent plays is distressed when parent leaves soothed when parent returns

hypocrisy induction

make people aware of their own hypocrisy *the purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior*

males and agression

males are more likely to commit physical aggression in provocative situations, to pick fights with strangers an to commit crimes of violence

gender differences in the self

males: collective interdependence females: relational interdependence

implicit association test [iat]

measure the speed of peoples positive and negative associations to a target group - a series of faces - speed differences is said to meter their implicit attitudes toward African americans

differential parental investment

men and women invest different amounts at least biologically

who helps? men or women?

men are more likely to be heroic women are more likely help in long-term caregiving relationships

critiques of theory when it come to mate preferences

men have historically had more access to resources so women but use them to acquire them it maybe cultural, changes over time

mate preferences

men: physically attractive: fertility women: status and money: resources both men and women: kind and understanding partners

adult attachment - anxious-ambivalent [memories of caregiver]

mixture of positive and negative experiences

sexual jealousy - women

most afraid of mens resources going elsewhere - emotional infidelity

socialcultural

norms, roles, culture

research methodology issues involving couple relationships

not a diverse set of data often small samples

discrimination

often behavioral, unjustified negative action toward an individual based on their group membership

communication - withdraw

one partner avoids discussion of problem often very defensive

communication - demand

one partner criticizing or blaming the other, often requesting change

functions of the self

organizational function executive function

what affects altruism?

our mood: if we see someone in distress we feel it vicariously and have to help in order to resume our own stress

fundamental attribution error - the castro study [what is it?]

p's read essays 'written by other students' half are pro or against castro

fundamental attribution error - the castro study [results]

p's so not adequately take into account the 'assigned' aspect still making internal attributions

festinger and carlsmith - lying about study to get money

p's were tasked with boring tasks then where either given 1 or 20 bucks to lie to the next participant and tell them that the experiment was fun

social exchange theory - simplified

people are rational - they will weigh the costs and benefits

self-handicapping

people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so if they do poorly they can then avoid blaming themselves

the matching hypothesis - online dating

people sent messages to people who were more physically attractive than they were people received more responses from people similar in level of attractiveness

the matching hypothesis

people would like and pursue dates who were similar to them in terms of physical attractiveness - these results were not supported by online dating

investment model

peoples commitment to a relationship depends not only on their satisfaction with the relationship but also on how much they have invested in the relationship and that would be lost by ending it

self-esteem

peoples evaluations of their own self-worth, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent

comparison level

peoples expectations about the level of rewards and costs they are likely to receive in a particular relationship

comparison level for alternatives

peoples expectations about the level of rewards and costs they would receive in an alternative relationship

communal relationships

peoples primary concern is being responsive to the other persons needs

Discrimination

positive or negative behavior directed toward a social group and its members

prejudice

positive or negative evaluation of social group and its members

testosterone

possible survival value

culture and the self -interdependent view of the self

predominant in mex/s.a/e.e/e.asia the self is defined by ones relationship w/others, their behavior determined by thoughts and desires of close others

culture and the self - independent view of self

predominant in n.a/w.e/australia driven by internal factors such as thoughts and feelings

adult attachment - anxious-ambivalent [experience of love]

preoccupying, almost painfully exciting to merge with someone else they tend to feel misunderstood unappreciated

natural selection

process via which adaptive traits or behaviors become more prevalent over a long period of time

what determines attraction

propinquity effect mere exposure reciprocal liking similarity physical attractiveness

attachment theory - Mary Ainsworth

proximity maintenance: we want to be close when in distress exploration: interacting with novel aspects of the environment to gain competence and mastery

External justification

reason/explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual

parenting the facilities secure attachment

responsive - not absent - not overbearing - not inconsistent

performance-contingent rewards

rewards that are based on how well we perform a task

task-contingent rewards

rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task was done

functions of the caregiver

safe haven: caregiver as a source of safety and consolidation secure base: availability of the caregiver allows the ability of exploration and learning

culturally specific emotions

schadenfreude amae

executive function

self as a agent or in control: super ego self-regulation

self-concept - interpersonal aspect

self as inherently social and constructed in part from social situations

adult attachment - secure [view of self and relationships]

self is likable believe in enduring love trust others

organizational function

self schemas seld reference effect

the self

self-concept independent view of the self interdependent view of the self self-regulation self-control self-handicapping self-affirmation self-verification self-esteem

communication patterns that are positively correlated with marital satisfaction

softened startup positive affect

implicit association test [iat] - not always measuring what it is supposed to

some psychologist think it only captures a cultural association or stereotype, same as butter and bread

diffusion of responsibility

someone else will help the sense of personal responsibility decreases *the Genovese case consistent with this phenomena*

why people help

spending prosaically makes us feel good [corr w/happiness] empathy: we can take on their perspective

the four horsemen of the apocalypse - contempt

statements that imply superiority (can be non-verbal)

counter attitudinal advocacy

stating an opinion or attitude that runs counter to ones private belief or attitude

Counter-attitudinal advocacy

stating an opinion/belief that runs counter to one's private belief or attitude. Saying is believing: can lead to change

the four horsemen of the apocalypse - criticism

stating complaints as a defect in partners personality

self-serving attributions

stem from the need to feel good about ourselves people tend to take credit for successes by making internal attributions people tend to blame the situation or others for their failures by making external attributions

culture and fundamental attribution error - East Asian cultures

stress group or collectivist autonomy

culture and fundamental attribution error - North American cultures

stress individulaistic automony

airport study

supports all of the adult attachment strange situation hypothesis

altruistic personality

tendency to help others in a variety of situations - little evidence to support this since this is based on self-reports

extrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures not because we enjoy that task or find it interesting

intrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or dine it interesting not because of an external reward or pressures

cognitive dissonance

the discomfort people feel when two cognitions conflict or when they behave in ways that are inconsistent with their conception of themselves

insufficient punishment

the dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity of object, usually resulting in individuals devaluing the forbidden objector activity

stereotype threat

the fear of confirming other's negative stereotype of your group

compassionate love

the feeling of intimacy and affection we have for someone that are not accompanied by passion or physiological arousal

hypocrisy induction - shower study

the goal was to reduce the water usage - had p's simply answer a questionnaire and or, sign publicly to using less water -doing both caused dissonance which resulted in shorter showers

growth mindset

the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow

social exchange theory

the idea that people's feelings about a relationship depend on their perceptions of its rewards and costs, the kind of relationship they deserve and their chances for having a better relationship with someone else

fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

social comparison theory

the idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people

the bystander effect

the larger the amount of people witnessing or around a scene the less likely they are to help

harry harlow and the wire monkey study

the monkeys stayed with the cloth mother, only left to the wire one when they needed food - if they were left with only the wire mother it would have negative consequences for the monkey

justification of effort - frats - sex dialogue

the more you do the likelier you are to say it was worth it - those that had a severe initiation where more likely to rate that they liked the boring discussion

the contact hypothesis

the most important way to reduce prejudice between racial and ethnic groups is through contact bringing in-group and out-group members together - mere contact is not always enough - it may even exacerbate existing negative attitudes

catharsis

the notion that 'blowing off steam' by behaving aggressively or watching others do so- relives built up anger and aggressive energy and hence reduces the likelihood of further aggressive behavior

critiques of methodology when it comes to sexual jealousy

they are forced choice format questions that means that both of these options really suck, but which sucks more

critiques of methodology when it comes to mate preferences

they are often measures of self report and people aren't always honest people may exaggerate sex differences because of preconceived ideals of gender roles

why are attributions important?

they help us determine responses to events they help us predict and control the environment, unexpected events they also influence expectations for the future

how to avoid engaging in micro aggressions

think individual or group member listen to friends and their experiences w/ microagg be open to the idea that people have different experiences

self criticism

this allows for self-improvement

what is evolutionary psychology?

trait, behaviors, preferences that humans have today that are a result of adaptations - meaning they maximized reproductive fitness - remained via natural selection

contents of the self-concept

traits dis/likes wishes/hopes/wants social identities/roles emotional states physical descriptions evaluations

secure attachment style

trust, lack of concern w/ being abandoned, view that one is worthy and well-liked

attribution ambiguity

uncertain as to the cause of an event - did this occur because of me or my group/race/ethnic group

propinquity effect

we are more likely to become friend with people who are often close in proximity to us *people we see and interact with more*

post-decision dissonance

we don't like feeling like we made the wrong decision *reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative* and *devaluing the rejected alternatives*

social categorization

we have a tendency to group similar objects together

reciprocal altruism

we help others, assuming that they will help us in the future

reciprocal liking

we like people who like us - people who engage in eye contact, lean in, engage in attentive listening

self verification theory

we need others, specifically significant others, to see us as we see ourselves

where do stereotypes come from?

we tend to like our group better - in-group out-group

why does similarity promote liking?

we think that people who are similar to us will also like us they provide social validation for out characteristics and beliefs

self verification theory - why?

we want conformation that we are seeing ourselves accurately and we want people to have realistic expectations

self-affirmation theory

when people are threatened by an experience that causes negative implications for the self, they make themselves feel better by focusing on their competence in another domain that is unrelated to the threat

(1) when do you engage in social comparison?

when there is no objective standard to measure themselves against and when they experience some uncertainty about themselves in a particular area -ex. if office donation program is new you are not sure what amount would be generous, you are especially likely to compare yourself to others

when do we make attributions?

when we encounter events with uncertain causes when we encounter unexpected events when we encounter negative events

job-application study

white college undergrads were asked to interview white and black job applicants - tldr: their behavior reflected the interviewers expectations

stereotype threat

worry about confirming a negative stereotype about ones group - this often leads to diminished task performance

when you study communication in couple relationships

your studying existing couples at one point in time: intervention studies longitudinal studies

ABC model

-A is for Affect---> prejudice (feeling) -B is for behavior---> discrimination (action) -C is for cognition---> stereotyping (thinking)

stone et al (1999), Study 1

- 40 white & 40 black students -conditions: > natural ability > sports intelligence > control -task= minature golf in the lab

psychodynamic approach: The SICK person

- Frustration- Aggression theory > inhibit aggression against actual source > displace onto outgroup -realistic conflict theory > when there is economic competition, there is stereotyping & prej. --- jobs, land, political disagreement > difficult economy= frustration= aggression= prejudice - Authoritarian personality (ADORNO) > prejudice rooted in personality >rigidity, power orientation, conservatism > based on how child was raised

study

- afterwards give them an opportunity to rate the extent to which they possess traits that are stereotypic of OSU students - people rate themselves as more like stereotypical group member when they're been made to feel distinct - people rate themselves as less like stereotypical group member when they're been made to feel indistinct

effort justification

- if effort is expended, then we are motivated to percieve effort as worthhwhile > hazing of new group members > aronson & mills (1959): "psychology of sex" group > severe initiation= liked group more > attitude change justifies effort

resisting persuasion

-consistency bias help to ward off persuasion when we already have strong attitudes

S & S Experiment

-"study" to examine new drug "suproxin" > supposedly enhances vision > told it would take 20 minutes to take effect > wait in room w/ confederate > really given epinphrine ---causes arousal, rapid heartbeat, etc -subjects were told about varying side effects (A) control --- given no drugs & told nothing (B) informed--- causes arousal (C) uninformed--- no side effects -confederate in waiting room acts euphorically--> provides context for subject interpret arousal - after 20 min, subjects rate how happy they feel

gallup (1977): The tarzan question

-2 groups of chimps > one in isolation, one in social enviroment > place chimps in cages w/ mirrors > collect baseline measure of touching forehead > anethetize chimps & put red dot on forehead > return to cages and count forehead touches

identity Pursuit at the individual level

-BIRGing (Basking In Reflected Glory) - CORFing (Culting Off Reflected Failure)

where does it come from? affective precursors -classical conditioning

-Classical conditioning > pair neutral object (CS) w/ emotional object (UCS) > neutral object takes on affective properties of emotional object

insufficient punishment

-Flip side of insufficient reward -aronson & carlsmith (1963) > warn kids not to play w/ toy > differing grades of punishment > when punishment was weak, attitude changed > kids didn't like toy as much > insuffient justification for not playing w/ toy > w/ strong punishment, assume that they are only avoiding toy to avoid punishment

operant conditioning

-Insko > pros and cons of "aloha week" > told "good" after favorable or unfavorable responses > one week later, attitudes are exhibited

biased attributions

-Lau & Russel (1980)---> sports & attribution > newspaper quotes from winners & losers (footbal, baseball) > coded players' & managers' explanations for outcome --- winners= internal 80% ---losers= internal 53% --- effect might be greater if we could look at private explanations ---these were public statements---> ppl don't want to look like bad sports

Is Self-Perception Necessary?

-NO! > Tulving (1993) > H.M---> amnesic --- no autobiographical memory > klein et al (1997) --- temporary amnesic ---consistent & reliable self judgments ------ self-schemas

Optimal Distinctiveness Theory (Brewer)

-we want to be like other people & belong to groups - we also want to be unique -seek to balance these needs

stereotype suppression: macre, Milne & bodenhausen

-Study 1 > first skinhead= suppress stype or not > second skinhead---> no instructions > suppressors write more stereotypical stories -study 2 > go wait to meet skinhead > suppressors sit farther away > evidence of stype activation

Causes of disidentification with an identity include:

-The need to protect one's self-esteem -Chronic exposure to stereotype threat - Ambiguity about the causes of one's successes and failures

According to self perception theory, we are likely to infer our attitudes and feelings from our actions when

-We are unsure of our attitudes and feelings. -When we have no clear situational influence on our behavior - We chose the behavior freely.

classical conditioning

-a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is accompanied by a neutral stimulus that does not until eventually neutral stimulus elicits emotional response by iteself > suppose that when you were a child, you experienced feelings of warmth & love when you visited your grandmother > suppose also that her house always smelled faintly of mothballs >eventually the smell of mothball alone will trigger the emotions you experience during your visits, through process of classical conditioning

self-perception motives

-accuracy > social comparison theory -enhancement -vertification

activation & Inhibition

-activating one category may inhibit others > asian women study >chopstick vs lipstick > lexical decision task - activates prime-congruent concepts - inhibits *below baseline* prime- irrelevant concepts > reduces interference > increases "signal" of chosen category

heuristic cues

-attractiveness -credibilty/ expertise -pseudo-expertise---> TV or movie roles - message length -talking speed - use of statistics -ability & motivation are key factors

stereotype application: schematic effects

-attributions > stereotypical behaviors= expected --- bodenhausen= criminal acts ---internal attributions ---accept at face value= behavior reflects actor > counter-ster. behaviors= unexpected --- external attributions ---do extra work

attributional ambiguity= cost to members of stigmatized groups (crocker & major)

-attributions for success and failure > what happens when causes aren't clear? > disidentification -obese/ non-obese subjects -"friendship development" study - evaluator can see them or not (blinds) - favorable vs unfavorable feedback

self-handicapping

-avoid negative internal attributions > simply don't try > don't sleep/ drink alcohol - also increases glory of success

how to change attitudes? consisteny biases make it difficult

-baised attention > avoid threatening info - biased processing > lord, lepper, & ross (1979) > dismiss source---> "biased media" -biased memory - all usual suspects > like expectancies, but w/ a motivational component > we care about attitudes; often want to defend them

gallup results

-baseline--> social & asocial chimps touch foreheads same amount - red dot---> social chimps touch foreheads more -evidence that they "know" that reflection in mirror is them---> socialization is important -apes, dolphins, elephants? cows?---> no other animals show this -humans show this by about age 2

berglas & Jones

-bogus intelligence test---> analogies > analogies are easy or impossible -subjects all told they did well > Ss w/ impossible analogies don't believe it --- make it external attribution for success (luck) > Ss w/ easy analogies believe it --- make internal attributions (i'm smart) -given second test - can choose one of two experimental drugs > one impairs/ one enhances performance

solutions? measuring problems

-bogus pipleline -implicit measures > like IAT >physiological Measures > facial EMG, electrophysiological

stereotype change?

-bookkeeping > many targets slightly disconfirm---> gradual -conversion > few extreme disconfirmers---> rapid - subtyping > protects stereotype in short term > start using more narrow categories---> long term > stop using broad stereotype

socialcultural approach : The SICK Society

-child's socialization > informational components --- learns culture & its value --- prejudice results from learning culturally accepted attitudes ---parents, peers, schools, mass media ---can be very subtle > motivational compontents ---conformity/ reinforcement --- desire to be accepted

(2) with whom do you choose to compare yourself?

-compare to others roughly comparable to ourselves -because we are interested in accurate self perception

you'll feel better about yourself if you engage in downward social comparison

-comparing yourself to people who are worse than you on a particular trait or ability

self-enhanncement vs self-vertification

-conditions of vertification > certainly= strong self-schemas > anticipate future interaction

Self-vertification (swann)

-dont always want to be accurate or self-hance -sometimes we want our self-views vertified > even negative ones - given choice= attend more to consistent info > read why person A thinks you're extraverted or why person B thinks you're introverted -memory biased toward confirming info - like people better who reaffirm self-concept > stick w/ college roomates > even people w/ negative self-concepts/ low self-esteem -behavioral strategies to affirm self-concept > if they see you as nice, act mean > if they see you are mean, act nice

dissonance

-drive to reduce dissonance > change behavior --- quit smoking > change cognitions --- decide smoking isnt bad for you > add a new cognition --- think about your 95 yr old uncle who smokes --- self-affirmation- but i've got great job >>> makes you feel better w/o directly addressing source of dissonance -often produces attitude change > cant undo behavior, so chnag cognitions

automatic stereotyping/ prejudice

-due to implicit or unconscious positive & negitive associations btw Black & White americans > A "cultural virus" that almost everyday has (devine) > like reading habit in stroop task -responses reflect what is automatically activated, & cannot be controlled > people may be unaware of what is being measured > people don't know how to fake it even if you ask them > people generally can't fake it even if you tell them how > predicts behavior better than questionnaires

james-lange implications

-each emotion must have unique physiology -people w/ certain spinal injuries have no emotions - physiological changes in the absence of emotional stimuli will still experience emotions > not so

subtype

-easier to subtype extreme deviants > ironically, extremely counterstereotypic individuals may be less likely than moderately counterstereotypoc individuals to change the stereotype of the group > dismissed as exceptions - barack obama - janet reno

Psychodynamic approach

-ego protection and enhancement motive --- if ego is weak, produce negative reactions to others to make self feel better

schachter & singer (1962): Two-factor theory of emotion

-emotional experience requires: > physiological arousal > cognitive context to interpret arousal > self-perception processes

self-perception theory cont'd

-examine our behavior and the circumstances in which it is occuring - is situation sufficient to explain behavior > if yes, then our behavior is due to external factors > if no, then assume behavior is due to internal reasons---> reflects on our traits --- like correspondent inference theory

recipient effects

-expert vs nonexpert >experts question one-sided messages > don't like you to draw conclusions for them -agrees vs disagrees w/ argument > disagreers need two-sided arguments

message characteristics

-fear appeals > must be strong > outcome must seem likely > must be seen as avoidable > if people are too scared, they will not pay careful attention to message, especially if it is not obvious how to avoid the outcome -message order > primacy effect

Fein & Spencer, continued

-feedback on test > neutral or negative - they read about Greg > described as gay or not - ratings of Greg: - stereotyping target increased self-esteem

motivated Application: Judgements

-fein & spencer (1997) > we apply stereotypes when motivated > motive to regain self-worth= derogating others > apply negative stereotypes when ourself-worth has been threatened

Evidence of Self Perception Theory

-festinger & carlsmith > like experiment more when paid $1 than $20 > when paid $1---> assume we enjoyed experiment - lepper et al (1973)---> rewards & motivation > rewards decrease intrinsic motivation > kids like pen less when they are rewardes to play with it

forced compliance/ insuffient justifiication

-festinger & carlsmith > paid $1 vs $20 to say they liked study > $20 ---> no dissoance ---- sufficient justification > $1 ---> dissonance --- insuffienct justification---> percieved choice > atttude choice justifies discrepant behavior -extrinstic motivation > paying kids to read books provides sufficient justification

measurement problems: scales & questionnaires

-framing effects > pro-life vs pro-choice -order effects > ask about women's rights vs traditional values > then ask about abortion - response options > poor fair good > poor fair good very good excellent

stone hypothesis

-framing task as indicative of "sport intelligence"--> stereotype threat for Blacks -framing task as indicative of "natural ability"---> stereotype threat for whites - stereotype threat---> poorer athletic performance

rothbart & lewis

-frat member > typical or atypical (major, extraverted?, dates a lot?) > votes for mondale > who did other frat members vote for? > if target is typical---> more generalization > if atypical, provides explanation for behavior - even neutral features can be used this way > Kunda= small firm vs large firm lawyers > either can be used to explain introverted lawyer > doesn't mean we are motivated to uphold stereotype > just how we deal w/ category members

where does it come from? attitudes

-genetic influences -identical twins vs fraternal twins -genetic predispositions in temperament make certain attitudes more/ less likely

stereotypes as Heuristics: use when resources are low

-gilbert & hixon > form impression & do visual search or not >two tasks= greater stereotyping -wilder > anxiety at the dentists office - baron > after exercise - bodenhausen > circadian rhyms > use stereotypes when off peak -macre, milne, & bodenhausen (1994) > impression task & geography lesson at same time > some suubjects given stype to help w/ impression task > those subjects have better memory for info about target, and do better on geography test > capacity preserved by stype used for geography lesson

study by pickett

-give people bogus personality questionnaire -give some bogus feedback > control = no feedback > highly unusual > very typical

Symbolic Interactionism

-goal of children is to anticipate environment - look at others to accomplish this---> take their perspective - when we look through their eyes, we see ourselves---> "looking glass self" - this reflection forms the basis for self-concept

problems w/ yale approach

-when are different factors important? -often focused on one factor at a time

Monteith cont'd...

-low & high prejudice subjects evaluate law school applicants - one applicant is shown to belong to gay rights organizations -feedback to subjects: > some led to believe they discriminated -subjects given opportunity to read essay about prejudice against gays -low prejudice: > read longer & remember more when think they discriminated -high prejudice: > discrimination doesn't matter -can even generalize eventually to implicit measures > like anything, practice makes perfect - DEVINE: 12 week training reduced bias

petty & cacioppo: motivation via personal relevance -low relevance condition

-low motivation can diminish systematic processing -enhances heuristic effects

Dutton and Aron Capilano Bridge Study: two-factor theory & attractions

-male subjects fillout questionaire for female experiementer > either bridge or just left bridge - she leave phone # w/ subjects > more calls when they were tested on the bridge > attribute bridge arousal to attraction

Snyder et al, continued...

-males? > more friendly to females they thought were attractive -females? > more friendly when talking to males who thought they were attractive - stereotype that attractive= nice confirmed

Chaiken & Baldwin (1981)

-manipulating behavioral endorsement only influence those with weak attitudes to begin with

problems w/ self-reflection

-many biases > often see what we want, not what is true - don't always know what we are feelings or why > nisbett & wilson (1977)---> pick items on the right > wilson et al (1982)---> diary study --- what we think causes our mood doesn;t

Steele's experiment

-matched males & females on math skills > take math subject GRE---> HARD! >males do better > other condition; got rid of gender effect > simply told subjects that test was unbiases > poor performance can't be attributed to gender -black/ whites & verbal test > diagnostic of ability or not > failure doesn't imply racial disparity

we may not like when our friends do well

-may actually try to sabotage our friends' performance - "password" game= Tesser & Smith (1980) > password=olympics > easy clues: --- sports --- international ---competition ---medals > difficult --- greek --- pride --- los angeles

"inoculation"

-medical model---> a taste of poison > give weakened version of argument > recipient counter-argues > like fighting off an inoculation >generates support of your position - McGuire's tooth-brushing study > should brush your teeth after every meal > counter-persuaded > inoculated at time 1--> least persuaded at time 2 -forwarded is forearmed > used frequently in politics > good for peer pressure, too > product placement/ "viral" advertising try to prevent inoculation > don't counter-argue if you don't know its a commercial

where do they come from? Familiarity

-mere exposure effect: Zajonc > repeated exposure enhances positive evaluation > only if object is at least neutral initially

effects of contact

-meta-analysis of over 200 studies > contact does reduce prejudice > less prejudice in desegregated than segregated public housing > more outgroup friends= < prejudice

implications of percieved similarity

-more likely to apply stereotypes -generalize from one group member to whole group -generalize from one group member to others -sub-typing---> exclude atypical group members > more for homogenous groups > doesn't take much to be extreme in a homogenous group

why study the self in social psychology

-much of self-knowledge is based on our thoughts about and relations w/ others -how we think about ourselves influences virtually every aspect of social psychology

necessary conditions...

-must produce physiological arousal -croyle & cooper > Ss write counter-attitudinal esays > percieved choice or not > measured arousal > only Ss who percieved they had choice experienced arousal > argue that arousal is necessary

many aspects of your identity can cause you to be labeled & discriminated against

-nationality -racial & ethnic identity -gender -sexual orientation -religion -appearance -physical state -weight -disabilities -hair color -professions -hobbies ---the point is that none of us emerge completely unsacthed by prejudice; it is a problem common to all humankind ---extreme cases, can lead to hate crimes & even genocide, but there are subtle everyday consequenes that can be quite significant

crocker& major= results-obese subjects

-negative feedback attributed to prejudice if blinds are open > higher self-esteem -positive feedback mistrusted if blinds are open >lower esteem -costs & benefits of attributional ambiguity

motivation & activation/ inhibition? KUNDA

-negative feedback from black guy -word fragment completion > PO__; LA__ > stereotype activation compared to negative white guy -positive feeback > no activation compared to white feedback -praised or criticized by black doctor > believed he was evaluating performance on measure of "interpersonal skills" - praised > doctor activated; black inhibited -criticized > black activated; doctor inhibited

mood & persuasion= Mackie & worth (1990) -neutral mood condition

-neutral mood: systematic processing -neutral use diminished

Bem's attack= Self-perception

-no need for "drives" or "motives > simple observation--> I did it, so I beleive it >not so simple though - which is right > make very similar predictions > high dissonance= arousal & dissonance reduction > low dissonance= self-perception theory

Payne (2001) study 1

-no response deadline > identify gun faster following black than white > identify tool faster following white than black > no effects on errors

cognitive approch

-no sick individual -no sick society -no kernal of truth needed -no real conflict needed -prejudice & stereotyping arise out of normal mental processes

steele's experiment conclusions

-observed effect sizes suggest that: > SAT Math test underestimates math ability of women by 19 to 21 points > SAT math & SAT reading tests underestimate the intellectual ability of African & hispanic americans by 39 to 41 points > psychological context of common testing enviornments significantly undermines real-world performance

system justification theory

-stereotypes justify role distribution > not only reflections of roles > protect status quo > minority group members may also believe stereotype > fairness: --- more threatening to believe that your political system is corrupt > stability --- won't fall apart -ex. > poor but happy vs rich but miserable >exposure to stories increases belief that US system is just & working > related to belief in just world > want to believe people get what they deserve & want to believe your society also provides that

weber & croker

-stereotypes of lawyers > info about group lawyers > dispersed vs concentrated information > rate lawyers -change when dispersed > otherwise subtype

Effects of Categorization

-stereotyping effects -mere categorization effects > independent of stereotyping > tajfel revisted --- line studies; minimal group studies ---enhances intra-group similarity & inter-group differences

Tajfel's model

-strive to maintain self-esteem -our social identities have pos/ neg connotations > consensually defined -value of social IDs is determined via comparison to other groups -strive to maintain positive social identity -positively differentiate in-groups from out-groups -even in minimal groups

steele implications

-students must trust the situation > not subject to being stereotyped - "remedial" classes may not help > must frame as challenge -avoid "pluralistic ignorance" > students must know that members of all groups have trouble > integrated study groups are important

use sub-groups to optimize needs for distinctness & belonging

-sub-groups within larger groups -similar to small group of people who are dissimilar to most others

Davis & Jones= How much do you dislike the person you insulted

-subjects are coaxed to be mean toward confederate -choice or not -easy or hard to undo > get to meet person later & correct feedback > consequences matter -festinger revisted > $1 vs $20 > if they can go back & tell person, there is no dissonance reduction

results= # of strokes

-subjects do worse when they feel threatened

correll (2002)

-subjects paid for accurate performance -response window= 850 vs 650 ms -overall, more errors w/ shorter window -racial bias increases -no time for control, bias drives response

does attitude change last? Does it predict behavior

-systematic > based on careful analysis --- long-lasting --- predicts behavior --- resistant to counter-persuasion -heuristic > not based on careful analysis ---less stable --- less likely predict behavior --- less resistant to counter-persuasion

importance of social identity

-tajfel > why is there bias in minimal group? > back to intrapsychic motives > not "sick" individual= everyone does it -no real conflict needed -conflict over social identity > aspects of self-image derived from our social categories

sources of categorization

-temporary accessibility -individual differences in chronic accessibility -salience in context > solo status; in-group members present -deviation from percieved norm > black males categorized faster as "black" than "male" > white females= "female" beats "white" > effect is context-dependent= Zarate

maintaining self-esteem via comparisons to others

-tesser= self-evaluation maintenance -how do people respond to the superior performance of others? -this can be threatening -it depends: > closeness= --- similarity, friends, family, anything else that leads one to see a bond btw self & other person ---if person not too close, no-problem---> can even BIRG > self-relevance: ----how relevant the performance domain is to oneself ---if domain not too self-relevant, no problem-can even BIRG

self-perception theory

-the theory that we make inferences about our personal characteristics on the basis of our overt behaviors when internal cues are weak or ambiguous -basic idea= do not know what we think or feel until we see ( or remember) what we do > same as how we com to know other people - began as behaviorist response to other self-theories > symbolic interactionism > social comparison theory - ended up incorporating elaborate cognitive processes

post-decisional dissonance

-there are always good things about option we didn;t choose and bad things abou option we did choose > thoughts about these features produce dissonance after the fact - avoid post-decisional dissonance by re-evaluating options in a biased way > chosen alternatives are elevated, unchosed alternatives are derogated -attitude change justiifies choices -brehem > toaster vs coffee maker

if we can't change stereotypes, maybe we can suppress them?

-though suppression is hard (wegner) > irony of thought suppression > focus more on unwanted thoughts > in order to suppress, must hold in mind what is it you are suppressing > ironically, primes the unwanted thought more so than if no suppression

dissonance theory

-want a stable, positive self-image -two inconsistent cognitions are unpleasant -inconsistent cognitions & behaviors are unpleasant -two inconsistent behaviors are unpleasant -negative arousal--- physiological response

not always motivated by accuracy: Self-enhancement

-we are above average -our traits are most valuable (alloy) -good things happen to us -we have control -make favorable comparisons -seek out areas of strength -inflate our contributions -memory bias -self-serving attributions

problem predicting behavior

-we care about attitudes because we think they tell us about how people behave - don't always do such a good job= Lapiere (1934) > in early 1930s, Richard LaPiere embarked on cross-country sightseeing trip w/ young chinese couple > prejudice against Asians was common in the US at this time, so at each hotel, campground, & restuarant they entered, LaPiere worried that his friends would be refused service > to his surprise, of 251 establishments he and his friends visited, only one refused to serve them > and yet when surveyed, only one replied that it would serve a chinese visitor. more than 90 percent said they definitely would not, rest were undecided

dissonance affects how we feel about others

-we like those we help -after doing someone a favor, like them more - justify our behavior -favor must be percieved as freely chosen -volunteering to help others will change your attitudes about those in need -want someone to like you, ask them to do you a favor -we hate who we hurt -after hurting someone, we like them less > no catharsis - justify our behavior - behavior must be percieved as freely chosen

stereotype threat theory (as applied to academic achievement)

1. in order to sustain school success one must be identified w/ school achievement. one must see achievement as important and as part of one's self-image 2. two barriers to academic identification: -(1) socio-structural variables (lack of resources, discrimination, limits on educational oppurtunities) -(2) stereotype threat- even if one survives structural obstacles, one may still be affected by the negative stereotypes that exist about one's group in a particular domain

propinquity effect - west gate apartment study

41% of neighbors were close friends 22% if 2 doors down were close friends 10% who lived on app hallways are close friends *functional distance is important*

Hypocrisy induction

Creating dissonance by having people make statements that run counter to their behavior, then reminding them of inconsistency between what they said and what they do. Leading people to practice what they preach

dehumanization

Denial of "humanness" equating groups of people to animals. can be verbal, symbolic, or physical.

Post-decision dissonance

Dissonance aroused after making a difficult decision. "difficult" alternative courses of action are similarly desirable

insufficient punishment

Dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for resisting a desired activity or object; often leads to devaluing the activity or object.

Rationalization

Distorting reality can lead to irrational or maladaptive behavior. Confirmation bias.

True or False. Attitudes always predict behavior.

False. Reason: Attitudes only predict behavior when they are specific.

True or False. The bigger the group size, the more conformity increases.

False. Reason: Conformity increases until the group size has reached around 4 members; after that, conformity does not necessarily become more intense.

True or False. We will only break conformity if our dissenting ally is competent and well-informed about the situation.

False. Reason: Even if the dissenter is incompetent and gives an alternative wrong answer, we still feel compelled to break the norm.

True or False. Systematic thinking is always objective.

False. Reason: Even when we deliberately think about something, we may still be influenced by our biases (e.g. confirmation bias).

True or False. Only people of high socioeconomic status endorse meritocratic beliefs.

False. Reason: People across the social class spectrum endorse meritocratic beliefs.

True or False. Mild punishment is effective in subduing aggression in children.

False. Reason: Spanking actually increases aggression and antisocial behaviors later in life.

True or False. Hank was forced through a very severe form of hazing in order to join his fraternity. As a result, he will likely grow to hate his fraternity and its members.

False. Reason: We justify effort by changing our attitudes. The more we "pay" for something, the more we come to like it.

True or False. Americans are more likely to conform because they value harmony and interdependence.

False. Reason: Western cultures dislike the idea of conformity, and instead value autonomy and independence. Collectivistic cultures are more likely to conform.

True or False. High cohesiveness improves performance on all tasks.

False. Reason: High cohesiveness can actually hurt performance on creative tasks because the group is suppressing individual ideas.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Inconsistent cognition produce a psychological tension that people that people are motivated to reduce. Want to perceive ourselves as rational and consistent

Inoculation

Injecting a person with a small dose of a virus to help him or her build up defenses to a disease

Just world hypothesis

People get what they deserve, and deserve what they get. Want to perceive the world as rational, consistent and fair.

Victim blaming

Person somehow caused their misfortune/didn't take steps to prevent it.

Disidentification

Redefining one's self-concept so that a domain is no longer an area of self-identification

self-affirmation

Reducing dissonance by reminding oneself of one or more positive attributions.

lowballing

Sales strategy wherein a customer agrees to purchase a product at a low cost, which is later raised; customer often still buys product. Illusion or irrevocability. Anticipated emotion over purchase. New price is too high.

categorical accentuation

Tajfel & Wilkes (1963)

Justification of effort

Tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard for. The more we "pay" the more we like

Impact bias

Tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of one's emotional reactions to future negative events. Problems with affective forecasting apply to dissonance reduction too. Dissonance reduction is primarily unconscious

meritocratic beliefs

The idea that hard work and determination lead to success

Internal justification

The reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself. Will seek out if no obvious external justification.

Who is likely to feel the greatest dissonance after making a colossal blunder? a. A person with high self-esteem b. A person with low self-esteem c. A psychopath d. A narcissist

a. A person with high self-esteem Reason: People with high self-esteem will feel dissonance because their actions are not aligning with their highly positive self-concept.

Why are attitudes not necessarily enduring and stable? a. Because we tend to align our attitudes with those of an expected conversation partner b. Because during adolescence, we often have "bad attitudes", which become more even-tempered as we age c. Because we don't treat issues as seriously when we're younger, so we don't care as much

a. Because we tend to align our attitudes with those of an expected conversation partner

Four psychology students working on a group project together are trying to figure out how they should avoid groupthink when making decisions about their project. Which of these ideas would be the least helpful? a. Bonding by going to see a movie together before starting the project. b. Assigning each group member to be responsible for a different chapter in their textbook so that they cover all the details. c. Having a student who is not in their group review the project d. Designating a leader to oversee the project, one who is nondirective and encourages people to be honest.

a. Bonding by going to see a movie together before starting the project. Reason: Highly cohesive groups are more likely to engage in groupthink.

Why are groups often homogeneous? a. People who are already similar to each tend to be drawn to joining the same groups. b. Evolutionary pressures caused people with similar genes to join groups and people with dissimilar genes to avoid each other. c. Groups are more productive when they are homogeneous. d. Social loafing prevents us from seeking out new people and experiences.

a. People who are already similar to each tend to be drawn to joining the same groups.

Which of the following individuals is most likely to become aggressive if insulted? a. Ray, who is from Texas b. Austin, who is from Maine c. John, who is from southern California d. Eddy, who is from Illinois

a. Ray, who is from Texas Reason: Males from southern USA are more likely to respond with aggression if they feel that their reputation is being challenged.

A public speaker is invited to speak at a college about why the tuition prices at this particular college should be lower. Which of the following individuals is most likely to use a systematic way of thinking when evaluating the speaker's argument? a. Velma, who has accumulated a large amount of student debt and is struggling to pay for next semester b. Daphne, whose parents are well-off and fully pay for her college tuition c. Shaggy, who plans to drop out of college by the end of the week d. Fred, who is transferring to a community college next quarter.

a. Velma, who has accumulated a large amount of student debt and is struggling to pay for her next semester Reason: People are more likely to use systematic thinking when an issue is personally relevant to them. Since Velma is struggling financially to pay for her tuition, she would be the most likely to pay close attention to the speaker's argument. The other students either aren't struggling financially or are planning to leave this college.

Why do positive moods lead to heuristic processing? a. We use positive moods as a signal that "all is well" b. They don't; they lead to systematic processing c. Mood maintenance d. Positive moods lead to a higher need for cognition e. a and c f. all of the above

a. We use positive moods as a signal that "all is well" c. Mood maintenance

When does "saying become believing"? a. When you claim to have an opinion that differs from your true beliefs for no strong reason. b. When what you say is what you believe. c. When someone forces you to say something you don't believe. d. When you're paid a lot of money to lie.

a. When you claim to have an opinion that differs from your true beliefs for no strong reason. Reason: When we have no strong reason, we seek internal justification for this opinion and thus creates a bigger attitude change.

A public speaker argues that families living in poverty is the result of the parents refusing to obtain a higher education, but he notes that their living situation makes impoverished people more humble. This is an example of: a. complementary stereotyping b. self-awareness theory c. discrimination d. prejudice

a. complementary stereotyping Reason: We compensate "losers" by enhancing traits that are unrelated to their social status.

Ying just purchased a rather expensive phone. She had debated for weeks about the merits of two different options between making her final decision. It is now likely that Ying will: a. emphasize all the positive aspects of the chosen phone. b. dwell on all the positive aspects of the phone she did not choose. c. realize the chosen phone has several drawbacks. d. finally be able to objectively perceive the merits and drawbacks of both phones.

a. emphasize all the positive aspects of the chosen phone.

___________ aggression stems from feelings of anger and is aimed at inflicting pain, whereas ____________ aggression serves as means to some goal other than pain. a. hostile; instrumental b. direct; passive c. instrumental; hostile d. passive; direct

a. hostile; instrumental Reason: Aggression is used as an "instrument" or "tool" in instrumental aggression.

According to the Cyberball hot sauce study, socially rejected individuals may be able to reduce aggression by: a. increasing perceived control b. decreasing perceived control c. taking out their anger on an inanimate object d. yelling at the person who caused them to feel socially rejected

a. increasing perceived control Reason: Participants who were in the "excluded" condition of the Cyberball game showed less aggression when they had control over hearing aversive sounds.

You finally decide you want to buy the latest iPhone. The employee tells you that it will only cost $600. You readily agree, and the employee leaves to double-check the price with his manager. He comes back later, disappointed, and informs you that the price is actually $700. You still decide to buy the phone anyway. The employee used which sequential request strategy? a. low-balling b. door-in-the-face c. foot-in-the-door d. that's-not-all-folks

a. low-balling Reason: Low-balling involves securing an agreement, then increasing the size of the request by revealing hidden costs. We feel compelled to stick with our decision because of post-decision justification.

When people experience social exclusion, which technique are they most likely to use to help them feel connected to other people? a. mimicry b. laughing c. crying d. withdrawn behavior

a. mimicry Reason: Mimicry is an automatic response to social exclusion. We mimic other people's gestures and posture to make interactions smoother and more enjoyable.

Operant conditioning finds that aggressive behavior can lead to rewards. A robber hits a woman across the face to steal her purse. This is an example of _______________ reinforcement. a. positive b. negative c. zero d. neutral

a. positive Reason: Aggression produces desirable outcomes.

Which type of conformity is more likely to occur with informational social influence? a. private conformity b. public conformity c. group conformity d. individual confirmity

a. private conformity Reason: We use others as sources of info when we are unsure of a situation; therefore, we are more likely to internalize what other people believe/say, and more likely to truly believe it.

Annie wants to try out for the lead in her high school's musical production. Her attitude towards the behavior is high ("I really want to try out!"), her friends all encourage her to try out, and she has plenty of free time in her schedule for rehearsals. Annie's intent to act on this behavior is high according to which theory? a. theory of planned behavior b. self-perception theory c. self-awareness theory d. cognitive dissonance

a. theory of planned behavior Reason: Theory of planned behavior = attitude (e.g. Annie wants to try out) + subjective norms (e.g. her friends encourage her) + perceived behavior control (e.g. nothing is preventing Annie from trying out)

When they are being observed, _________ are more likely to conform to their gender norm than _______. a. women; men b. men; women c. both genders conform equally when being observed d. neither gender conforms when being observed

a. women; men Reason: Women's gender norm is essentially conformity. They are expected to be agreeable and amenable to others in conversation, whereas men are expected to speak up and be confident in their own unique ideas.

communication and marital satisfaction - positive affect

acknowledge positive characteristics about partner

pluralistic ignorance

act on an incorrect interpretation of others thoughts and beliefs

explicit attitudes

attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report

social perception

attribution theory internal attribution external attribution fundamental attribution error correspondence bias

authoritaritan personalities

based on freudian ideas, people who are prejudice because they cannot accept their own hostility, believe uncritically in the legitimacy of authority, and see their own inadequacies in others -psychodynamic approach ----intrapsychic

Jake goes out to dinner with a group of 10 soccer teammates, who all get very drunk. Based on research, which of the following would make Jake LESS likely to conform to his friends' drinking behavior? a. If Jake notices that many other people in the restaurant are drinking. b. If the dumbest teammate refuses to drink a drop. c. If Jake were from a collectivistic (rather than individualistic) culture. d. If Jake is a teenager.

b. If the dumbest teammate refuses to drink a drop. Reason: Having a dissenting ally (whether they are competent or not) decreases the likelihood that one will conform.

You read in the newspaper that nutritionists have discovered green tea makes people happier, based on a study of randomly selected people in the U.S. showing that the more green tea people report drinking, the happier they say they are about their life. All of the following are good critiques of this study, EXCEPT: a. Correlation does not imply causation. b. The results of the study can't be generalized to the U.S. population at large. c. The measure of green tea consumption may have been biased by distorted memory. d. The measure of happiness may have been biased by framing issues (how the question was asked).

b. The results of the study can't be generalized to the U.S. population at large. Reason: Random selection increases the external validity (or generalizability) of a study.

You hear that there is going to be a large protest in downtown tomorrow. You fear that your friend, who plans to participate, will experience deindividuation and engage in deviant behavior. Which of the following things can you do to prevent that from occurring? a. encourage her to wear a mask so she feels closer to the group b. ask her to refrain from drinking or taking any other substances c. tell her to play loud music at the protest d. tell her to leave her student ID at home so no one can identify who she is

b. ask her to refrain from drinking or taking any other substances Reason: Substance use can decrease one's self-awareness, which can lead to deindividuation. Wearing a mask, listening to loud music, and hiding one's identity all contribute to deindividuation.

Your little brother asks if he can borrow your most expensive shoes for his upcoming date night. You immediately reject the idea. Later, he asks if he can borrow one of your shirts (which costs less than your shoes), and you agree. Which sequential request strategies did he use? a. low-balling b. door-in-the-face c. foot-in-the-door d. that's-not-all-folks

b. door-in-the-face Reason: Door-in-the-face involves asking for a large request, expecting it to be rejected, and following it up with a smaller request. We tend to comply because we feel some sort of reciprocity. Your little brother was willing to give up the idea of wearing your nice shoes in exchange for a shirt of lower value.

Deciding on which candidate to vote for in a political election is an example of a(n) _____________ attitude, whereas deciding on where to sit on a bus is an example of a(n) ________________ attitude. a. implicit; explicit b. explicit; implicit

b. explicit; implicit Reason: Explicit attitudes predict deliberate behavior, whereas implicit attitudes predict spontaneous behavior.

Hannah skims over an article assigned for her environmental sciences class. The author argues that climate change does not exist. Hannah notices that the author of the article is an esteemed professor at his college, and that the article is extremely long. Hannah concludes that the author must be right, and agrees with his position. Which route of persuasion did Hannah choose to take? a. systematic thinking b. heuristic thinking c. fear appeal thinking d. cognitive dissonance thinking

b. heuristic thinking Reason: Hannah didn't thoroughly read the paper and think deliberately about the argument being made, and what evidence supports the argument. She relied on the author's "expertise" and argument length in order to conclude whether she was persuaded or not.

Jack and Mark both took part in a very boring study. After the study is over, the experimenter offers the two participants money to lie to other participants and tell them it was a fun experience. Jack was paid $1, whereas Mark was paid $20 to do the same task. According to ___________ ___________, ________ will later report higher satisfaction with the study. a. insufficient justification; Mark b. insufficient justification; Jack c. insufficient deterrence; Mark d. insufficient deterrence; Jack

b. insufficient justification; Jack Reason: Because Jack was paid so little to lie, he experienced some cognitive dissonance. In order to reduce this discomfort, he convinced himself that he must have genuinely enjoyed the study. Mark understood that he lied because he was paid so much; he had no reason to look internally for justification.

Operant conditioning finds that aggressive behavior can lead to rewards. A woman punches a robber in the face and knocks him unconscious, preventing him from stealing her purse. This is an example of ____________ reinforcement. a. positive b. negative c. zero d. neutral

b. negative Reason: Aggression prevents undesirable outcomes.

You are asked to take a survey about college students and their use of Hydroflasks, a very expensive (yet trendy) reusable water bottle. The survey asks you to estimate how many students own a Hydroflask, and you write down "80%". A week later, you receive an email from the experimenter, who informs you that in reality, only 20% of students own a Hydroflask. This example of overperceiving the norm is called: a. groupthink b. pluralistic ignorance c. majority influence d. informational social influence

b. pluralistic ignorance

Group cohesiveness is best defined as: a. shared expectations in a group about how people are supposed to behave b. qualities that bind members together and promote liking between members c. expectations about the roles and behaviors of men and women d. the tendency for people to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks in the presence of others.

b. qualities that bind members together and promote liking between members

The director of the new film "Avengers: Endgame" recently made a tweet, asking movie-goers to not spoil the film for others. You have just seen the movie, and you are dying to talk to your friends about the fantastic plot twists and unexpected deaths. However, you know that spoiling the movie for others would ruin their own experience. Basically, your self-interest is not in the best interest of everyone else. This is called a: a. cognitive dissonance situation b. social dilemma c. groupthink scenario d. foot-in-the-door technique

b. social dilemma Reason: A social dilemma occurs when individuals' self-interest creates the worst outcome for everyone else. In this case, your interest in talking about the movie would create a terrible experience for your friends who haven't seen it yet.

Your friend designs an experiment to test the hypothesis that wearing silly outfits will increase happiness. Participants in one condition wear a ridiculous hat for the duration of the experimental session, and participants in the other condition simply wear their normal attire. Your friend then counts the number of times each participant smiles during the session. He finds that people smile more in the hat condition compared to the control condition, and concludes that silly outfits increase happiness. If you doubt his conclusion because you think people might also smile more when they feel uncomfortable in a social situation, then you would be concerned about: a. the construct validity of the independent variable b. the construct validity of the dependent variable c. the external validity of the independent variable d. the external validity of the dependent variable

b. the construct validity of the dependent variable Reason: Construct validity assesses how accurately the measurement measures the variable. In this study, the IV = wearing a silly costume and the DV = smiling. This means you think that smiling is a poor way of measuring happiness.

belief in a just world

bad things happen to bad people good things happen to good people *correlated w/victim blaming*

executive function - self-regulation

basically self control or delayed gratification - resource model: when these resources are depleted people tend to become impulsive *muscle metaphor*

In terms of dissonance theory, what is the primary reason that "we" (our side) often dehumanizes "them," the enemy, seeing them as animals, brutes, or monsters? a. The enemy is violent and cruel and deserves whatever we do to them. b. The enemy started the war. c. Our side has treated the enemy brutally and needs to justify these actions. d. Our side is more moral and humane than their side.

c. Our side has treated the enemy brutally and needs to justify these actions. Reason: Dehumanization of the enemy is a way of reducing dissonance.

Why does groupthink lead to poor decision-making? a. incomplete survey of alternatives b. failure to work out back-up plans c. all of the above d. none of the above

c. all of the above Reason: Groupthink leads members to focus solely on one solution, and to dismiss alternative or back-up plans because they think the first solution will succeed.

_______________ is likely to occur when we are certain about our attitudes, whereas ________________ is likely to occur when we are unsure about our attitudes. a. self-perception theory; cognitive dissonance b. confirmation bias; altruism c. cognitive dissonance; self-perception theory d. prejudice; stereotyping

c. cognitive dissonance; self-perception theory Reason: Cognitive dissonance occurs BECAUSE we are certain about our attitudes; this is why our conflicting behavior causes so much discomfort. Self-perception theory involves using one's past behavior to determine one's current attitude.

You walk by a hot dog stand, and the vendor asks you if you'd like to buy a small drink. You agree, and then the vendor asks if you'd like to buy a hot dog as well. You find yourself agreeing, and pay for both items. Which sequential request strategy did the vendor use? a. low-balling b. door-in-the-face c. foot-in-the-door d. that's-not-all-folks

c. foot-in-the-door Reason: Foot-in-the-door involves securing a small request first, then following up with a larger request. We feel compelled to comply because of self-perception theory.

The closer you are to a goal, the more likely you will become frustrated if you are impeded from reaching that goal. This idea is best explained by the: a. relational aggression theory b. hostile aggression theory c. frustration-aggression hypothesis d. indirect aggression theory

c. frustration-aggression hypothesis

The student government are trying to decide whether or not plastic bottles should no longer be sold on campus. A few members agree that decreasing plastic bottle use would help the environment, and after discussion, the entire group agrees to not only ban the sales of plastic water bottles, but to also fine students who are seen carrying plastic water bottles around. This example of individual attitudes becoming more extreme in a group setting is known as: a. group cohesiveness b. groupthink c. group polarization d. conformity

c. group polarization

According to Yerkes-Dodson Law, ___________ arousal leads to better performance on simple tasks, whereas ____________ arousal leads to better performance on difficult tasks. a. moderate; high b. low; high c. high; moderate d. low; low

c. high; moderate Reason: This explains why the presence of others (which induces arousal) leads to better performance on easy tasks.

Zack and Cody, twin brothers, were given $100 for their birthday. The twins are trying to decide how to split the money. Their mother suggests they split it evenly (i.e. each twin gets $50). However, Zack really wants a new video game, which will cost $40, and Cody really wants a new camera, which will cost $60. They decide to split the money so it satisfies their individual interests (i.e. Zack gets $40, and Cody gets $60). This type of negotiation is called: a. interpersonal communication b. fixed-pie beliefs c. integrative agreement d. group polarization

c. integrative agreement Reason: Each party received outcomes that are superior to what they would have obtained from an equal division of the contested resources (e.g. the $100). Zack and Cody's mother subscribes to fixed-pie beliefs; she thinks they should split it evenly so it is a "fair" trade.

The tendency to engage in social loafing is stronger in __________; it is also stronger in __________. a. men; Asian cultures b. women; Asian cultures c. men; Western cultures d. women; Western cultures

c. men; Western cultures Reason: Women are more likely to promote interpersonal relationships over themselves, and Asian cultures promote interdependent view of self more.

When in the presence of others, _______________ will lead to us performing better on easy tasks and worse on difficult tasks, whereas _________________ will lead to us performing worse on easy tasks and better on difficult tasks. a. social loafing; social facilitation b. social referencing; social influence c. social facilitation; social loafing d. heuristic thinking; systematic thinking

c. social facilitation; social loafing Reason: Social facilitation occurs in situations where individual performance can be identified and evaluated (i.e. taking a midterm), whereas social loafing occurs in situations where individual performance CANNOT be identified or evaluated (i.e. clapping/cheering at a sports game).

After learning that her neighbor has been abused by her husband for years, Sandy can't help but think that her neighbor should have left the marriage sooner, or else she wouldn't have suffered. This an example of victim blaming, which illustrates the: a. cognitive dissonance theory b. self-perception theory c. system justification theory d. social influence theory

c. system justification theory Reason: Since we believe that the world is a fair and just place, we also believe that victims must somehow be responsible for their ill fate.

Lois and Peter are both running for school board president. Lois's campaign focuses on important issues and advances strong, high-quality arguments for why she should be elected. Peter's campaign features lots of posters and ads with attractive women and celebrities endorsing him for the job. According to research on persuasion, Lois is MOST likely to win the election if: a. most of the people in town are too busy to pay much attention to the campaign. b. during the campaign, most people in town are in a positive mood. c. the issues involved are personally relevant for most of the people in town. d. most people in town don't like thinking extensively about things.

c. the issues involved are personally relevant for most of the people in town. Reason: People are more likely to think systematically if the issue is personally relevant to them. All of the other choices indicate that people will think more heuristically.

Jim and Pam, a married couple, are buying a house and have narrowed their choice down to two options. Jim remembers that one house had a beautiful kitchen; Pam, however, remembers that there were roaches in the broom closet. By sharing this information with each other, Pam and Jim are using __________ to avoid __________. a. mindguards; groupthink b. social roles; deindividuation c. transactive memory; process loss d. subgroups; group polarization

c. transactive memory; process loss Reason: Transactive memory refers to how groups tend to have better overall memories than individuals.

low arousal positive [lap]

calm relaxed peaceful - hong kong

alchohol

can increase aggressive behavior because it serves as a disinhibitor, reducing a persons inhibition. people process information so that they may respond to the most obvious aspects of a social situation and fail to pick up subtle elements *think-drink effect*

ways to resolve dissonance

change behavior change thoughts change cognitions add new thoughts or cognitions

cognitive dissonance

changing attitudes to justify behavior -unpleasant state caused by people's awareness of inconsistency among important beliefs, attitudes, or actions

anxious/ambivalent attachment style

characterized by a concern that others will not reciprocate ones disrespectful for intimacy this results in higher than average levels of anxiety

avoidant attachment style

characterized by difficulty developing intimate relationships because previous attempts to be intimate have been rebuffed

adult attachment - avoidant [memories of caregiver]

cold and rejecting

rule of internal reflection

common sense---> we have direct access to our feelings

On his way back to class, Sanjeev encounters an angry mob ready to storm the dining hall to demand better food. Sanjeev likes the food and wants to stop the mob. What would be the most effective solution? a. Increasing group cohesiveness by inviting the entire mob to his house for tea. b. Passing out blue shirts for everyone to wear. c. Reducing process loss in the group by making sure that its most expert members have the most influence d. Finding a friend in the group, calling out her name, and talking to her loudly in front of everyone.

d. Finding a friend in the group, calling out her name, and talking to her loudly in front of everyone. Reason: By reducing deindividuation, group cohesiveness decreases and thus results in poorer performance (i.e. the dissolution of the mob).

According to the textbook, what is the "hypocrisy paradigm" in experimental research? a. Choosing participants who are hypocrites in order to study their rationalizations. b. Requiring participants to write essays that are critical of hypocrisy. c. Making participants understand that everyone is a hypocrite. d. Making participants aware of their own hypocrisy in not practicing what they preach.

d. Making participants aware of their own hypocrisy in not practicing what they preach. Reason: When we are forced to confront our own hypocrisy, we often change our attitudes to eliminate our hypocrisy due to cognitive dissonance.

Which of the following is NOT a reason to explain why heat is related to aggression? a. When it's hot outside, people are more likely to spend time outdoors and thus interact more often with people (more opportunities to be aggressive). b. Heat is a negative stimulus, and people mistakenly attribute this negative mood to other people. c. Heat can lead to decreased self-control, which can then lead to increased aggression. d. People tend to enjoy summer the most, and they become annoyed more easily if someone tries to ruin their good mood.

d. People tend to enjoy summer the most, and they become annoyed more easily if someone tries to ruin their good mood. (a) = opportunity account (b) = misattribution account (c) = CLASH model

Which of the following would NOT make an individual more likely to endorse complementary stereotyping? a. A terrorist attack on a large city, which increases people's belief in a just world b. A higher level of chronic motivation to justify the social system c. Watching a movie with gendered stereotypes d. Understanding that competence does not necessarily lead to success

d. Understanding that competence does not necessarily lead to success Reason: According to complementary stereotyping, we believe that competent people become successful, and lack of competence leads to failure.

In which condition was obedience the LOWEST in Milgram's obedience experiment? a. When the victim was in the same room as the "teacher" b. When the teacher had to place the victim's hand on the shock plate c. When the victim was remote and the teacher could not hear the victim's complaints d. When the teacher had two dissenting confederate allies

d. When the teacher had two dissenting confederate allies Reason: Obedience dropped to 10%.

In which of the following situations would normative social influence occur? a. You are unsure who to vote for in the upcoming election, so you ask others for their opinions. b. An earthquake has just begun, and you notice others are hiding under desks, so you do the same. c. You decide to try a new coffee shop, and you overhear the person in front of you order a vanilla latte, so you order the same thing when it's your turn. d. You notice your classmates waiting outside the classroom door for your next class, and you wait with them even though you're certain that the classroom is empty.

d. You notice your classmates waiting outside the classroom door for your next class, and you wait with them even though you're certain that the classroom is empty. Reason: Normative influence occurs when we fear deviating from the norm that others have set (even if we know the right answer). Since everyone else is waiting, you figure that is the norm.

How might watching violent media affect an individual? a. they are more likely to perceive others' ambiguous behavior/actions as hostile b. they are more likely to experience a reduced physiological arousal response to upsetting stimuli c. watching violent media causally induces increased aggression among previously non-aggressive individuals d. a and b e. all of the above

d. a and b (a) = hostile attributions (b) = emotional desensitization (c) = research has NOT been able to find a strong causal relationship between aggression and consumption of violent media

______________ emerges when the need for agreement is more important than the need for accuracy or good decision-making among groups. a. group cohesiveness b. group coherence c. group polarization d. groupthink

d. groupthink

You read in a magazine that Justin Bieber was caught eating a burrito by first devouring into the middle of the burrito, rather than the normal top-to-down form of eating. A few weeks later, photos surface on the Internet of this heinous act. A week after that, more news articles pop up on your social media feed about this. Your friend tells you that the entire thing was actually a hoax played by a popular YouTuber, but you play it off, saying that you know for certain it was the real Justin Bieber eating a burrito the wrong way. Which concept leads you to believe this was a true event? a. confirmation bias b. conformity c. the sleeper effect d. illusory truth effect

d. illusory truth effect Reason: Repeated information is easier to process and therefore perceived as more true. By repeatedly being exposed to this story, you believed that it was true, even after your friend tells you it was an elaborate prank. (this was a real-life example, by the way).

According to ____________ ___________, if a parent wants their older son to stop bullying his younger brother due to a genuine change in attitude, they should ___________. a. insufficient justification; give him a timeout b. insufficient deterrence; threaten to take away his toys for a month c. insufficient justification; threaten to take away his toys for a month d. insufficient deterrence; give him a timeout

d. insufficient deterrence; give him a timeout Reason: A mild threat produces greater attitude change than a severe threat (the child doesn't see the punishment as justification for his attitude change, so he assumes that he must actually dislike bullying his brother).

You are trying to decide whether to take a test in a lecture hall where you will be surrounded by lots of other people or in a room by yourself. Assuming you have studied well for the test and find the material to be easy, you will perform best on the test in the ____________ because it will result in _______________. a. room by yourself; social loafing b. room by yourself; social facilitation c. lecture hall; social loafing d. lecture hall; social faciliation

d. lecture hall; social facilitation Reason: According to social facilitation, we perform better on easy tasks in the presence of others.

The Jets and the Sharks are embroiled in a conflict, and the Jets have asked you to advise them on the best strategy for resolving the dispute. According to research on conflict and cooperation discussed in your textbook, the Jets can achieve the best outcome for themselves if they: a. threaten to use force if the Sharks refuse to comply with their demands. b. wait for the Sharks to issue a threat, and then respond with an even bigger threat to demonstrate their superior power. c. make sure to say something to the Jets each afternoon so that the two groups have daily communication. d. set up a meeting with the Sharks to work out a solution that each party would be willing to accept if they were in each others' shoes.

d. set up a meeting with the Sharks to work out a solution that each party would be willing to accept if they were in each others' shoes. Reason: Integrative agreement allows each party to decide which outcome they would prefer for themselves.

On the way into the Silo after class one day, you see a hand-written sign advertising chocolate covered strawberries. A large $3 has been crossed out with an X, and underneath is written "Now only $2!!" in big red letters. "What a good deal!" you think to yourself, but then realize that this is a perfect example of: a. foot-in-the-door. b. door-in-the-face. c. head over heels. d. that's not all folks.

d. that's not all folks. Reason: "That's not all folks" strategy involves asking a request of the customer and then throwing in a discount or bonus without waiting for the customer to respond.

You're watching an infomercial for the latest acne-fighting cream. The commercial declares the price as $40, but immediately changes it to $20 and informs you that you'll also get free shipping with your order. You have been feeling pretty down about your acne lately, so you decide to order the cream. Which sequential request strategy did the infomercial use? a. low-balling b. door-in-the-face c. foot-in-the-door d. that's-not-all-folks

d. that's-not-all-folks Reason: This involves asking an inflated request, then adding a discount or bonus. We tend to comply because of feelings of reciprocity (the infomercial reduced the price AND offered free shipping - how kind of them!), as well as perceptual contrast (Wow it used to be $40? I'm getting a steal!).

two continuous dimensions - attachment avoidance

deactivation of attachment system suppression of attachment needs

schadenfreude

delight in another person's misfortune

adult attachment - secure [memories of caregivers]

dependably responsive and caring

fomo is positively correlated with

depression checking phone in class and while driving

gender differences in defining self

is there any truth to stereotype that when women get together they talk about interpersonal problems & relationships, wheras men talk about anything -women= relational -men= collective interdependence

is the fae truly fundamental?

its less prominent when you see individuals across a range of situations its less prominent when explaining ones own behavior its less prominent in cultures where more attention paid to situations

fundamental attribution error - the castro study [iv & dv]

iv: half choose and half are assigned a pro/against position dv: p's rate writers attitudes toward castro

amae

japanese word for interpersonal dependency - passively seeking affection

self-concept

knowledge about who we are usually come about at at 18 months

were does prejudice come from?

learning basically - socialization agents such as parents and teachers - the media - normative conformity

fomo is negatively correlated with

life satisfaction

festinger and carlsmith - who experienced cog dissonance?

the people who only received 1 dollar, because *they completely had to justify lying for a small amount of money* - they even rated they enjoyed the experiment more that the control group and those who received 20 bucks *those who received 20 could make an external justification*

misattribution of arousal

the process whereby people make mistaken inferences about that is causing them to fell the way they do

social tuning

the processes whereby people adopt another persons attitudes

internal justification

the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself

overjustification effect

the tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic rewards

positive illusions

the tendency of the s/o to see their partner more positively than the partner does

justification of effort

the tendency to like things more when we worked harder to attain them

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people's behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors

mere-categorization effect

the tendency to prefer our own group *even when the groups are random and arbitrarily assigned

bias blind spot

the tendency to think that other people are more susceptible to attributional biases in their thinking than we are