PSC ch.1
components of psychological science
Study of behavior study of the brain study of the mind study based on research
Nature vs Nurture
That is, are psychological characteristics biologically innate? Or are they acquired through education, experience, and culture (the beliefs, values, rules, norms, and customs existing within a group of people who share a common language and environment)?
What did Watson and Skinner mainly focus on?
environmental effects on observable behavior
Goal of cognitivism
explore internal mental processes that influence behavior
According to -, what matters is what people do, and how - teach them to act one way rather than another. By contrast, - investigates -, including learning through - alone. -environmental forces -observation -behaviorism -mental processes -cognitive psychology
According to behaviorism, what matters is what people do, and how environment forces them to act one way rather than another. By contrast, cognitive psychology investigate mental processes including learning through observation alone.
The case of Kitty Genovese is famous among psychologists for showing:
Bystander apathy
example of availability heuristic
Danny tips a waiter more than he normally would because last night Danny saw a character on his favorite TV show tip very generously.
Mind, Brain, and behavior
Mind refers to mental activity. Mental activity results from biological processes within the brain. Behavior describes the totality of obersvable human(or animal) actions
Goal of Psychoanalytic Theory
Understand how unconscious thoughts cause psychological disorders
description prediction explanation control
the goals of psychological science are to describe what a phenomenon is, predict when it will occur, control what causes it to occur, and explain why it occurs
dualism
the idea that the mind and the body are separate yet intertwined
Gestalt theory
the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts.
Functionalism
the mind came into existence over the course of human evolution
critical thinking
to systematically question and evaluate information using well-supported evidence
The psychologists David Dunning and Justin Kruger theorize that a person who is - in a field will naturally be a - judge of his or her own level of competence. That is why people often think they are - competent than they really are.
The psychologists David Dunning and Justin Kruger theorize that a person who is INCOMPETENT in a field will naturally be a POOR judge of his or her own level of competence. That is why people often think they are MORE competent than they really are.
Structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind
Match the hypothetical psychological entity with its central characteristic: 1. Id 2. Ego 3. Superego
1. Basic desires 2.rational, conscious 3.moral values
Match the psychologist with the corresponding concept: 1. Wilhelm Wundt 2.Sigmund Freud 3.Edward Thorndike 4.Saul Sternberg
1. introspection 2.psychodynami 3.puzzle box 4.memory scanning
mind/body problem
Are the mind and body separate and distinct, or is the mind simply the subjective experience of ongoing brain activity
Functionalism began with -, who argued that -'s emphasis on the mind's component parts left out the mind's role in enabling us to adapt to our -. This view drew inspiration from -'s theory of - through natural selection. -culture -evolution -Charles Darwin -structuralism -environment -Wilhelm Wundt -William James -behaviorism
Functionalism began with William James, who argued that structuralism's emphasis on the mind's component parts left out the mind's role in enabling us to adapt to our environment. This view drew inspiration from Charles Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection.
Identify the statements as either a belief held or not held by B. F. Skinner. -Understanding mental process is crucial for understanding behavior. -Mental processes are simply another form of behavior. -Learning takes place through repeated responses to environmental stimuli. -Most important human behaviors are innate, not learned.
Held by Skinner: -Mental processes are simply another form of behavior -learning takes place through repeated responses to environmental stimuli Not held by Skinner: -understanding mental process is crucial for understanding behavior -most important human behaviors are innate, not learned
In ancient times, philosophers such as Plato and - were already debating whether our psychological traits were the product of biology—that is, -—or of influences like education, experience, and culture—in short, -. Another classic question is the relationship between mental activity and brain function; today this is known as the - problem. -thought/brain -Aristotle -nurture -Descartes -mind/body -nature
In ancient times, philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle were already debating whether our psychological traits were the product of biology—that is, nature—or of influences like education, experience, and culture—in short, nurture. Another classic question is the relationship between mental activity and brain function; today this is known as the mind/body problem.
goal of humanistic psychology
Investigate how people become happier and more fulfilled; focus on the basic goodness of people
People often make sense of events by coming up with or offering explanations. When the facts on which an explanation is based are available before the event but the explanation is only given afterward, the explanation may represent - bias. An example would be -. Explanations are more convincing when they can be used to - events. An example of this would be -.
People often make sense of events by coming up with or offering explanations. When the facts on which an explanation is based are available before the event but the explanation is only given afterward, the explanation may represent HINDSIGHT bias. An example would be EXPECTING A SOCCER TEAM TO WIN, BUT THEN EXPLAINING THEIR LOSS BY GIVING REASONS WHY IT WAS TO BE EXPECTED. Explanations are more convincing when they can be used to PREDICT events. An example of this would be CORRECTLY PREDICTING A POLITICAL CANDIDATE'S VICTORY WHERE EVERYONE ELSE EXPECTED A LOSS.
example of confirmation bias
a baseball scout who is impressed by a minor-league player cites his strong and classic form at the plate, ignoring the player's high strikeout rate
What produces mental activity?
biological activity in the brain
the study of the brain addresses -.
neurochemical processes & hormonal activity
Identify the following ways in which a good psychologist views new and surprising conclusions of research studies.
use critical thinking and with amiable skepticism
Identify actions that involve the process called critical thinking.
using logic to decide if someone else's argument makes sense, using factual evidence to decide whether a food is good for you, and using a balance of openness and wariness in judging what you read
Is the theory of natural selection related to structuralism or functionalism?
functionalism, because the theory focuses on the function of adaptive behavior—to increase survival and reproduction.
What did Freud believe?
he believed that unconscious conflicts, often sexual in nature, had a strong influence on behavior
We are wonderful at explaining why things happened, but we are much less successful at predicting future events
hindsight bias
What did Miller and Neisser study?
how mental functions such as observing, remembering, and reasoning are important for understanding behavior
A shopper buys a brand-name over-the-counter allergy medication because of past good results with it, and because it's what the shopper is used to buying. She makes the purchase even though she sees a cheaper generic version with the same exact same formulation of ingredients, and even though she recently saw a TV story about how generics are just as good as the brand-name products they imitate. Which biases is the shopper falling victim to?
ignoring evidence and taking mental shortcuts
Match the school of psychological thought with its founding contributor(s). 1. cognitive 2. Gestalt 3. behaviorism 4. psychoanalytic 5. humanistic A. carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow B. Sigmund Freud C. goerge miller and ulric Neisser D. john watson and B. Skinner E.Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Köhler
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow Correct label: humanistic Sigmund Freud Correct label: psychoanalytic George Miller and Ulric Neisser Correct label: cognitive John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner Correct label: behaviorism Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Köhler Correct label: Gestalt
Clever Hans was able to answer questions correctly by - . One piece of evidence for this is that he was unable to answer questions correctly if - .
Clever Hans was able to answer questions correctly by watching his owner's unconscious facial expressions. One piece of evidence for this is that he was unable to answer questions correctly if his owner did not know the answer.
Which of the following are the major tenets of Darwin's theory of evolution? -An animal born with a mutation that is not adaptive will be helped by its family. -Members of the species that have adaptive changes are most likely to survive. -Species change over time. -Members of the species that survive are most likely to reproduce.
Correct Answer(s) -Species change over time. -Members of the species that have adaptive changes are most likely to survive. -Members of the species that survive are most likely to reproduce. Incorrect Answer(s) -An animal born with a mutation that is not adaptive will be helped by its family.
goal of behaviorism
Describe behavior in response to environmental stimuli
Goal of Functionalism
Describe how the conscious mind aids adaptation to an environment
goal of structuralism
Identify the basic parts, or structures, of the conscious mind
example of seeing relationships that do not exist
Liz tucks a feather into each shoe when she runs track races,claiming this custom helps her win
an extremely common reasoning error is the misperception that 2 events that happen at the same time must somehow be related
Seeing relationships that do not exist
The difference between subjective and objective phenomena in psychology is, more or less, the difference between people's -, such as the taste of chocolate or a dream about zombies, and their -, such as their response when offered a choice between soup and salad. It is easier to study -scientifically, because the data are open to - inspection. -public -inner experiences -private -outward behavior
The difference between subjective and objective phenomena in psychology is, more or less, the difference between people's inner experiences, such as the taste of chocolate or a dream about zombies, and their outward behavior, such as their response when offered a choice between soup and salad. It is easier to study outward behavior scientifically, because the data are open to public inspection.
wundt: introspection
a systematic examination of mental experiences that requires people to inspect and report on the content of their thoughts.
Because people expect the world to make sense, they often come up with explanations for why events happen
accepting after-the-fact explanations
Why should you be skeptical of people's descriptions of their personal strengths?
because people often fail to see their personal weaknesses
What is amiable skepticism?
being open to new ideas but carefully considering the evidence
people show a strong tendency to place great importance on evidence that supports their beliefs
confirmation bias
the study of behavior addresses -.
cooperation & mating
Which of the following might a researcher in cognitive neurosciences study? -language -people's perceptions of others. -overt behavior -genes -memory -perception
correct: -language -perception -memory -people's perception of others incorrect: -genes -overt behavior
Which of the following would represent a Gestalt approach? -describing a sound by talking about its pitch, its tone, and its clarity -seeing pictures in cloud shapes -believing that two people can see one thing in different ways -describing a sketch of a cityscape as a series of lines and boxes
correct: -seeing pictures in cloud shapes -believing that 2 people can see one thing in different ways -describing a sound by talking about its pitch, its tone, and its clarity -describing a sketch of a cityscape as a series of line and boxes
the study of the mind addresses -.
memory & thought
Rosita's intelligence is determined by both her nature and her nurture. Sort the following influences on intelligence based on whether they are aspects more of nature or of nurture. -Rosita inherited her birth parents' gift for language -Rosita's adoptive parents encouraged her to do her homework -Rosita had capable, caring teachers who were able to give her the attention she needed -Rosita was born with a normally healthy brain
nature: -Rosita inherited her birth parents' gift for language -Rosita was born with a normally healthy brain nurture: -Rosita's adoptive parents encouraged her to do her homework -Rosita had capable, caring teachers who were able to give her the attention she needed
Why should you be suspicious of after-the-fact explanations?
once people know an outcome, they interpret and reinterpret old evidence to make sense of that outcome
Lila suspects that drinking alcohol may lead to better productivity, and she does research online to see whether she is correct. If she is influenced by confirmation bias, which will take place?
she will dismiss websites that claim alcohol hurts productivity, saying they are invalid sources AND she will seek out websites that describe the benefits of alcohol to productivity AND she will mostly forget the websites that claim alcohol makes people less productive
People often follow simple rules, called heuristics, to make decisions
taking mental shortcuts
example to see own inadequacies
teacher supervising a group project asks the students to rate everyone's contributions, including her own. Jan rates her own work as more valuable than any other groupmember rates her work
Freud's theories were not very scientific because they were not:
testable