PSY 1001 - Exam 1

Common Sense and Logic

*Common Sense* -The intuitive *ability to understand world* -Informal, casual, superficial, haphazard -Often wrong or even self-contradictory -What *sounds logical or sensible* is often the *opposite of what is actual or true* Science seeks to overcome these limitations through rigorous methods.

Gestalt laws of grouping

*Gestalt - "Form*," "*Pattern*," or "*Shape*" Laws of Grouping -Similarity -Continuity -Proximity -Closure Figure-ground

Behavioral Genetics

*the study of the inherited underpinnings of behavioral characteristics* brain activity, genetic factors, evolutionary past -Brain Imaging Techniques -Human Genome -John Tooby and Leda Cosmides: "The Psychological Foundations of Culture", 1992 Ways of Explaining Human Behavior

Moral: Kohlberg's stages of moral development

-Infancy: right and wrong- what feels good or bad -Toddler: right and wrong- what they are told by others -Preschool: internalize family values, consequences of behaviors -7-10- strong sense of "should" and "should not" -Preteen/teen- reason abstractly "right" and "wrong", aware of larger society

Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Functional (MRI)

-MRI Uses magnetic fields to produce very finely detailed images of the structure of the human brain and other soft tissues Shows where structures are, but not what they are doing -fMRI Variation on MRI, (functional MRI) tells indirectly about brain activity Tracks blood oxygen use in brain tissue Unclear how well oxygen indexes actual activity

Ancient Views

-Moved away from supernatural and toward natural and physiological explanations of psychological disorders *Ancient Chinese:* Made connections between bodily organs and emotions *Ancient Egyptians and Greeks:* Used narcotics to treat pain *Hippocrates:* Wrote of acrophobia

Educational Psychology

-Study of *how students learn, the effectiveness of particular teaching techniques*, the *dynamics of school populations, and the psychology of teaching draws on several other areas of psychology to study how students learn* This field also attempts to understand special populations of students, such as the academically gifted and those with special needs. Educational psychologists are usually academics, theorists, or researcher

Gender Identity Sex/gender roles

-sense of being male or female -gender dysphoria-discomfort identifying with one's biological sex; 6 months -sex role beliefs-> sex role stereotypes Ex: men are more aggressive, women more delicate -expected gender behaviors based on societal norms -sex role socialization: born male or female -> taught to be masculine or feminine

Cross-sectional Longitudinal Cross-sequential

Cross-sectional -comparing people of different ages at some point in time -similarities due to context of a cohort can confound findings Longitudinal -tracking single cohort (age group) over long period of time -lose participants due to life circumstances or drop out: Threatens validity of study Cross-sequential -people of different ages (like cross-secrional) are followed over long periods of time (like longitudinal) -helps to reduce confounding variables

Cerebrum

Four lobes 1.Frontal Planning, impulse control, abstract thinking, etc. Primary Motor Cortex Phineas Gage 2.Parietal Somatosensory Cortex (touch) Parallels the Motor Cortex 3.Temporal Memory, emotion Auditory Cortex (hearing) 4.Occipital Primary Visual Cortex Insula (deep inside) Perception, emotion, addiction

No One Perspective Tells the Whole Story in Psychology

How to determine the best explanations? -Scientific observation -Critical thinking -Connecting multiple perspectives -Adhering rigidly to one school of psychological thought will invariably lead to incomplete explanations.

Why Should You Study Psychology?

It makes you *more aware of how people work*. It makes you *more aware of how you work*. It can help you be *more effective in various career paths*. It can help you *relate better to* others, including *family members and friends*.

Positive Psychology

Scientific approach to healthy and positive psychological functioning -Martin Seligman -Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi

Vision

Sensing visual stimuli Iris Cornea Pupil Lens Retina: Photoreceptors, Rods, Dark adaptation, Cones: Color/Fovea Fovea Optic nerve Blind spot Accommodation

Bringing It All Together Making Connections in Psychology:

Studying Electronic Social Interactions The world of electronic interaction provides a context for research in many sub-disciplines of psychology.

What is Science?

There are *three distinct "flavors" to science*: 1. *Physical* Natural Science things 2. *Biological* Biological-Life Science plants & animals 3. *Social* Social Science people

Neurons: Structure

(Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system.) Soma: (cell body, contains nucleus) of the neuron contains a nucleus and other components needed for cell maintenance and function Axon: (projection that transmits signals Dendrites: (receive signals) Myelin Sheath: (insulation) Synapse: (where axon meets dendrite) The junction between the axon and the adjacent neuron Terminal button: sacs of neurotransmitter At the end of the axon, at each synapse, is a terminal button containing tiny sacs of neurotransmitters. Synaptic cleft: gap

Critical Thinking

*Ability to analyze, evaluate, and form ideas based on evidence* -*Metacognitive Thinking* Ability first to think and then to reflect on one's own thinking The oversight of one's own thinking processes Critical thinking and its cousin, scientific thinking, both involve being able to think metacognitively

Neurotransmitters

*Acetylcholine*: muscle movement, learning, memory, sleeping, dreaming Alzheimer's disease: ↓ Ach levels is released at synapses that control muscle movement (these are known as neuromuscular junctions), and it also released at synapses involved in learning, memory, attention, sleeping, and dreaming. Whether ACh excites muscles or slows them down depends on what kind of receptor receives it. *Dopamine*: voluntary movement reward anticipation, pleasure cocaine: blocks reuptake ↑ is involved in voluntarily controlling your muscles and is released during feelings of pleasure or reward *Epinephrine (adrenaline)* Physically energizes, arouses Tends not to arouse mentally primarily have energizing and arousing properties *Norepinephrine* Increases mental arousal, alertness Increases physical arousal ADHD: ↓ norepinephrine levels *Serotonin* Dreaming Depression/anxiety & Anger/Aggression: ↓ serotonin levels Ecstasy: ↑ serotonin levels plays a role in a wide range of behaviors, including dreaming and controlling emotional states such as anger, anxiety, and depression *GABA* Inhibitory Regulation, Control Alcohol: ↑ GABA levels Relaxing, uncoordinated, inhibits alertness is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Remember that inhibitory neurotransmitters tell the postsynaptic neurons not to fire *Glutamate* Excitatory Learning and memory Facilitates neural development *Nicotine* the brain's major excitatory neurotransmitter, is important in learning, memory, neural processing, and brain development. More specifically, glutamate facilitates growth and change in neurons and the migration of neurons to different sites in the brain, all of which are basic processes of early brain development

Studying Electronic Social Interactions

*Cognitive Psychology*: Divided attention (driving and texting) how we perceive information, how we learn and remember, how we acquire and use language, and how we solve problems. *Developmental Psychology*: Teen addiction to social media explores how thought and behavior change and show stability across the life span. This developmental perspective allows us to appreciate that organisms—human or otherwise—change and grow. Developmental psychologists ask such questions as these: How do our reasoning skills or emotional skills change as we age? How does parent-infant bonding affect adult relationships? Does old age bring wisdom? *Social Psychology*: Online dating studies the links among brain, mind, and behavior. Neuroscience cuts across various disciplines and subdisciplines of psychology. One can study the brain functions involved in learning, emotion, social behavior, and mental illness, to name just a few areas. *Personality Psychology*: Do extraverts use Facebook less? *Health Psychology*: Online symptom databases *Clinical Psychology*: Using avatars to overcome social fears focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders and ways to promote psychological health. Some clinical psychologists also conduct research and teach. Clinical psychologists work in universities, medical settings, or private practice.

Genes and DNA

*DNA*: 23 Pairs of Chromosomes -*Chromosome*: A chromosome is a very long thread of DNA wrapped around proteins to hold it all together. You inherit 23 chromosomes from one parent and 23 chromosomes from the other parent such that you end up with 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 individual chromosomes) in every cell of your body. Together, the total amount of your unique DNA is referred to as your genome -*2%* = Genes (code for protein) Genome Genotype / Phenotype Polygenic / Monogenic Mutations Alleles: Dominant / Recessive These different forms of a gene are known as alleles-- one of which you inherit from your mother and the other from your father

Research Ethics

*Ethics*: -The rules governing conduct -Standards of right and wrong -Essential to conducting research, either with human beings or with animals *Institutional Review Boards (IRB)*: -Participants must be treated morally and respectfully -Purpose of study, duration and process -Any possible harm or adverse effects should be disclosed are the rules governing the conduct of a person or group in general or in a specific situation; stated more simply, ethics are standards of right and wrong. What are the ethical boundaries of the treatment of humans and animals in psychological research? In psychology today, nearly every study conducted with humans and animals must pass through a rigorous review of its methods by a panel of experts.

The Evolution of Behavior

*Evolution*: Change over time in frequency of genes within a breeding species *Natural Selection*: First described by the 19th-century English naturalist Charles Darwin; great contribution was not the theory of evolution itself but rather his explanation of how evolution works; Nature favors one structure/behavior over others through impact on reproductive success. *Chance Mutations Result In*: -Disadvantages (selected against) -Adaptations (selected for) -By-products or "exaptations" (at first, neutral) *Evolutionary Psychology* Studies adaptive problems in human behavior that evolution may have solved for our early ancestors the branch of psychology that aims to uncover the adaptive problems the human mind may have solved in the distant past and the effect of evolution on behavior today. Rather than just describing what the mind does, evolutionary psychologists are interested in the functions of the human mind

The Cells of the Nervous System

*Glial Cells*: The "glue" that holds the central nervous system together serve the primary function of holding the CNS together. Insulation (Myelin) *Blood-Brain-Barrier* Metabolism Regulation of neuronal transmission -Neurons: work through use of electrical impulses and neurotransmitters Cells that process and transmit information in the nervous system Neuron Structure Action Potentials NeuroTransmission: neurotransmitters are chemical molecules contained in vesicles with the axon terminal -communicate across the synapse gap: the space between two neurons Each neurotransmitter affects behavor differently Serotonin: mood, emotional states, sleep Dopamine: attention, movement, pleasure sensations-Drugs mimic behavior of neurotransmitterAgonist: increase neural activity flow and effect Antagonist: decrease neural activity and effect

The Nature-Nurture Debate

*Nature* -inborn tendencies and genetically based traits *Nurture* -experiences -no differences at birth Either position, alone, presents an incomplete/misleading picture. *Nature and nurture are interdependent, not dichotomous* -Nature Through Nurture Position that the environment constantly interacts with biology to shape who we are, and what we do

The Cells of the Nervous System: Glial Cells and Neurons

*Neuron Types* -*Sensory neurons*: take in info from body tissues and transmit to spinal cord and brain Receive incoming sensory information -*Motor neurons*: send info from spinal cord and brain to body tissue, muscles, sense organs Carry commands for movement to muscles Include mirror neurons: neurons that communicate with other neurons, most common -*Interneurons*: communicate only with other neurons By far the most common type of neuron

The Nervous System

*Organization of the Nervous System* The nervous system controls all the actions and automatic processes of the body. Ultimately, everything we experience and do results from the activity of nerve cells, which are organized in a net of circuits far more complex than any electrical system you could imagine. Brain and spinal cord -*Central nervous system* It is divided into the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which consists of all the other nerve cells in the body. -*Peripheral nervous system* Somatic (voluntary) nervous system: Body sensations and voluntary movement Autonomic (involuntary) nervous system: Sympathetic nervous system-- Fight or flight response Parasympathetic nervous system: Relaxation

Perceiving Visual Stimuli

*Perception of Color*: Trichromatic color theory (Young and Helmholtz) *Opponent process theory (Hering)*: Thalamus links together the cone colors into three opposite color pairs, so that activation of one in each pair inhibits activity in the other: -Blue/yellow -Red/green -Black/white These two theories work together to explain our color perception -Our red, green, and blue cones respond in proportion to the amount of red, green and blue in the mixture of light that strikes our retina. -Afterimages are not explained by this theory.

Making sense of data with statistics

*Statistics* Mathematical methods used to report data Collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of numerical data mathematical procedures for collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting numeric data. For example, researchers usePage 62 statistics to describe and simplify data and to understand how variables relate to one another. There are *two classes of statistics: descriptive and inferential*. -*Descriptive*: describe/summarize -*Averages*: mean, median, Mode- most frequent -*Variability*: Range, standard deviation -*Inferential*: draw conclusions, allow for the testing of hypotheses, likelihood finding was result of mere chance -However, allow us to test hypotheses and draw a conclusion (that is, make an inference) as to how likely a sample score is to occur in a population. They also *allow us to determine how likely it is that two or more samples came from the same population*. In other words, inferential statistics use probability and the normal distribution to rule out chance as an explanation for why group scores are different. -*t-test*: compares two means to see how likely it is they came from the same population -Helps to rule out "chance" differences

Confounding Variables

-*A confound*: something other than the IV that may be contributing to the effects of the study Unwanted differences between experimental and control groups -additional variable that the researcher failed to control for in the experimental design (too many males), and one that could be responsible for a change in the dependent variable (activity level). Because most of the people in the experimental group were male and consumed sugar, we do not know whether being male or consuming sugar was responsible for the difference in active behavior. These two variables are confounded and cannot be teased apart *Placebo*: a substance or treatment that appears identical to the actual treatment but lacks the active substance Is sometimes given to the control group When a person receives a benign product or benign treatment, but they have a response to it anyways Single-Blind Studies Participant expectations Experimenter expectancy effects Robert Rosenthal Self-fulfilling prophecy *Double-Blind Studies*: If you know who you are giving the medication to, they might know from your body language so that will affect the study. SO it is good for you to not know and them to not know.

Meta-Analysis

-*A quantitative method for combining all available research results* on one question and drawing a conclusion *Summarizes effect sizes*: A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables or the extent of an experimental effect -is a quantitative method for *combining the results of all the published and even unpublished results on one question and drawing a conclusion based on the entire set of studies on the topic*

Research on the impact of technology

-*Descriptive Research*: Men use more crude language online than do women. -*Correlational Research*: Negative relation between GPA and time spent on Facebook -*Experimental Research:* Use of cell phones (even hands-free) slows reaction time in drivers -*Big Data*: Is it ethical to use without consent? -*Logic*: is also a powerful tool in the scientist's arsenal, but it can tell us only how the world should work, not how the world actually works

The Philosophy of Empiricism

-*Empiricism*: view that all knowledge and thoughts come from experience *John Locke (17th Century)* Tabula rasa ("blank slate") Unlike philosophy, psychology used the methods of Empiricism to test the claims of Empiricism. In 17th-century Europe, however, the English philosopher John Locke established the view that knowledge and thoughts come from experience and observations, a point of view known as empiricism.

Mathematical methods used to report data

-*Frequency*: The number of times a given score occurs within a data set -*Frequency Distribution*: A graph of frequencies for a range of scores -*Normal Distribution*: A perfectly symmetrical "bell curve" in which scores cluster around the middle

Functionalism

-*Functionalists less interested in what made up experiences* but *more interested in the processes that made up human conditions* -*Understanding the mind* meant *understanding what the mind can accomplish* -19th century school of thought that argued it was better to *look at why the mind works the way it does than to describe its parts* Influenced by Darwin's theory of natural selection -Championed by William James -Used introspection as well

Correlational Research Correlation Coefficients

-*Goal*: Identify Relationships -*correlation coefficient*: r ranges from -1.00 to 1.00 tell us whether two variables relate to each other and the direction of the relationship. -*strength of relationship:* zero to one -*direction of relationship*: + / - 1.00 Perfect Very strong 0.75 Strong 0.50 Moderate 0.25 Weak 0 None

Correlational Studies

-*Measure two or more variables and their relationship to one another* -how two variables relate to one another -no manipulation of variables -does not measure cause and effect *Type of Questions Researched?* Is variable x related to variable y? "Does flirting differ for men and women?" *Most Suitable Methods?* Questionnaire Naturalistic observations *Best Use for Such a Study?* When variables cannot be manipulated Predicting one thing from another *Main Limitation?* Cannot investigate cause/effect

Longitudinal Studies

-*Observe the same people over time* -make observations of the same people over time, ranging from months to decades. These kinds of studies are not only useful for studying change over time, but also can be used to study how specific causes affect specific outcomes. *Twin Adoption Studies*: examine the relative impact of genes v. environment (nature v. nurture) by studying identical twins v. unrelated siblings reared together v. reared apart If twins have the same traits despite being reared apart, the traits must be genetic. If adopted siblings reared together have the same traits despite being unrelated genetically, the traits must be environmental. Twin-adoption studies take advantage of the fact that genetic similarity ranges from 0% (strangers) to 100% (identical twins) and environmental similarity ranges from a little (different families) to a lot (same families).

The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems

-*Parasympathetic*: Constricts pupils Constricts bronchi Slows heartbeat Stimulates activity Dilates vessels Contracts bladder Stimulates ejaculation in males -*Sympathetic*: Dilates Pupils (Enhanced Vision) Relaxes Bronchi (Increased Air To Lungs) Accelerates, Strengthens Heartbeat (Increased Oxygen) Inhibits Activity (blood Sent To Muscles Instead) Contracts Vessels (Increased Blood Pressure) Inhibits Bladder Contraction Allows Blood Flow To Sex Organs

Scatter Plots

-*Positive Correlation* The more sugar, the more active Factors vary in same direction -Low dose, less active -Medium dose, medium active -High dose, very active Ex: less time studying means lower grade (both go down) -*Negative Correlations* The harsher the parent, the less obedient the child Factors vary in opposite directions -Mild parent, child obeys -Medium harsh, Medium obedience -Harsh parent, not obeyed Ex: more exercise means lower weight (one increases and the other decreases) -*Correlation Coefficient* -1.0--------0--------+1.0

What Science Is Not: Pseudoscience

-*Presented as scientific* but *lacks qualities of science* -Makes no real advances in knowledge -Disregards established facts that contradict their claims -Does not challenge its own assumptions -Offers vague or incomplete explanations -Uses unsound logic

7 Perspectives on Psychology Today

-*Psychoanalytic / Psychodynamic* Early childhood experiences + Unconscious motives -*Behaviorism / Learning* Observable stimulus-response associations -*Humanistic / Positive* Humans strive toward meaningful growth & happiness -*Cognitive* Thinking: beliefs, problem solving, memory, perception -*Sociocultural / Cross-Cultural* Families & communities as diverse contexts -*Neuropsychological / Behavioral Genetic* Genotypes and neurochemistry -*Evolutionary* Over millions of years, environmental forces reshape each species, including species behavior

What is Psychology?

-*Psychology*: the *scientific study of thought and behavior*. Distinction is made between the science of psychology and popular ("folk") psychology. -Psychology is the *study of the mind-thoughts*, *emotions, impulses and behavior involves actions that we can see* -Has its *roots in philosophy and physiology* -Psychology is unique in that it is the science of understanding *individuals—animals as well as people*. -The root word *psyche* comes from the Greek for "*mind*," but modern psychology is as likely to study the brain and behavior as it is the "mind."

Goal: Determine Causation

-*Random assignment to groups* -*Experimental Group*: The participants who *DO receive treatment* being investigated, exposed to the "cause", receives the independent Variable, can be several experimental groups in one experiment consists of participants who receive the treatment or whatever is thought to change behavior. In the sugar consumption and activity study, Hypothesized cause is manipulated -*Control Group*: The participants who *DO NOT receive the treatment* being investigated, not exposed to the "cause", no treatment or treatment w/ no effect, does not receive the independent variable Treated equally, except no manipulation Observe / Measure any Effect Effect = difference between groups Dependent Variable Each participant in the study has the same chance of being in an experimental or a control group

Research designs in psychology

-*Research Design*: Plans for *how a study is to be conducted* -*Variables*: Any characteristic that changes, or "varies" A general goal of psychological research is to measure change in behavior, thought, or brain activity. A variable is anything that changes, or varies, within or between individuals. *Research Sample* -*Population*: Entire group about whom you have a research question -*Sample*: Portion of population actually observed is the procedure researchers use to obtain participants from a population. -*Representative Sample*: Characteristics similar to population and opposite of "biased sample"

Prehistoric Views What's a shaman? What is trephination?

-*Shamans:* medicine men or women Treated the possessed by *driving out demons cultures had medicine men or women*, known as shamans, who treated the possessed by driving out demons with elaborate rituals, such as exorcisms, incantations, and prayers. Some of these shamans appeared to have practiced the oldest of all known surgical procedures, trephination -*Trephination:* Drilling a small hole in a person's skull to release spirits and demons

The Scientific Method

-*Theory*: An *explanation for past facts; an expectation of future facts* -*Hypothesis*: *Specific, informed, testable prediction* of outcome under particular conditions *Test hypotheses via measurement* -Interpret results: Mere coincidence? Hypothesis/Theory in need of revision? Further ramifications?

Experimental Studies

-*Type of questions researched?* -Cause and effect relationship between two variables of more Does independent variable (variable being manipulated/the "cause") x cause dependent variable (variable being measured for change/the "effect") y? "Do smiles with raised eyebrows lead to more offers of dates?" Ex: independent variable: antidepressant pill; dependent variable: mood change *Most suitable methods?* Random assignment- don't know who you are applying the treatment to (like the pill or therapy for instance), if it's not random, there will be some bias Controlled conditions *Best use for such a study?* Inferring cause *Main limitation?* Cannot always be applied to real world

Ethical Research with Animals

-*Very Controversial* No such thing as informed consent for animals Opponents argue that no research on animals is ethical unless it benefits the animals -*Core Principle: Humane Treatment* -*Strict Laws and Standards Govern Treatment* Housing and care, comfort and health Pain and suffering must be kept to absolute minimum

Self-Report Measures

-*Written or oral accounts of one's own thoughts, feelings, or actions* *Interviews* -Researcher asks questions and respondent answers. -Usually involves very open-ended questions without constraint on possible responses *Questionnaires -Answers are limited to the response options given.

Physiological Measures

-*provide data on bodily responses*. For years, researchers relied on physiological information to index possible changes in psychological states—for example, to determine the magnitude of a stress reaction. -*Measures of bodily responses to be related to psychological states* -*Physological techniques*: are used examine the interrelationship between a person's brain and their behavior Ex: EEG, MRI, CAT scan, PET scan -Heart Rate -Sweating -Respiration -Hormone Levels -Brain Activity

The physics of sound and the psychology of hearing Three Physical Properties

-Amplitude (in decibels) Perceived as loudness -Frequency (in hertz) Perceived as pitch -Purity complexity/ "color" Perceived as timbre (pronounced tamber) The ear Middle Ear Three tiny bones that vibrate and amplify sound Hammer Anvil Stirrup Inner Ear -Semicircular canals Assist with balance -Cochlea Basilar membrane Hair cells

Behavioral Measures

-Based on *systematic observation of people's actions, either in their normal environment (that is, naturalistic observation) or in a laboratory setting* *Social Desirability Bias* - Reduced when behavioral measures are used

Structuralism

-Believed consciousness was made up of basic elements that were combined in different ways to produce perceptions Wanted to discover the form or basic elements of mental experiences -19th century school of thought that argued that *breaking down experience into its elemental parts offers the best way to understand thought and behavior* -*Introspection* - looking inwards or looking into one's own mind to determine the structure of consciousness and individual feelings -Wilhelm Wundt, chief proponent- 1979 first psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany

Etiology

-Biological explanation for mental disorders within psychology -Genetic predisposition and hereditary links (schizophrenia, alcoholism, bipolar disorder) -Malfunctioning brain chemistry, neuroanatomic pathology

Functional Organization of the Nervous System

-Communication throughout the nervous system takes place via neurons, cells that are highly specialized to receive and transmit information all across the body -Structure of Neurons Cell Body: helps keep the cell alive and functioning Dendrites: take information in outside of the cell Axons: pass information along to other nerve cells, muscles or glands Extending from one side of the soma is a long projection called an axon, which transmits electrical impulses toward the adjacent neuron. On the other side of the soma are dendrites, fingerlike projections that receive incoming messages from other neurons. -Myelin sheath covers the axon on some neurons (but not all): accelerates the transmission of information Just like rubber around an electrical wire, the myelin sheath insulates the axon, so that the impulse travels more efficiently, strengthening the connection to adjacent neurons.

Founding Psychological Scientists

-Early important work was done by psychophysicists such as Ernst Weber, Gustav Fechner, and Hermann von Helmholtz -*Wilhelm Wundt* opened the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, 1879 -*G. Stanley Hall* Founded the American Psychological Association (APA) Established the first psychology laboratory in the USA, at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore Taught Francis Cecil Sumner, the first African American to earn a PhD in psychology in 1920 -*William James* Considered the founder of American psychology Taught G. Stanley Hall, and Mary Whiton Calkins, who went on to be the first female president of the APA in 1905

Synesthesia

-Experiencing sensations in one sense when a different sense is stimulated 5% of population -Seeing numbers or letters as colors (most common variant) -Cross-activation of corresponding areas of the brain Insufficient synaptic pruning with neural development

Physical

-Infancy to childhood 5-7 lbs and 2-3 inches per year Brain- 55% at age 2-> 90% at age 6 Motor development -Adolescence -is the transition period between childhood and early adulthood, beginning at about age 11 or 12 and lasting until around age 18. Adolescence is a tumultuous time, made both exciting and difficult by all the changes that have to take place in a relatively short period to turn a girl into a woman and a boy into a man. Maturing of adrenal and sexual glands Rapid increase in height Menarche (menarche. You may be surprised to learn that menstruation is not solely a biological event; indeed, it is also affected Page 192by cultural and environmental events) and spermarche More complex abilities: processing speed and efficiency More capable of abstract thought Cognitive empathy

Social

-Infancy to childhood Bowlby- attachment theory avoidant , resistant, disorganized, secure -Sense of self and parenting style Authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, uninvolved -Adolescence Form identity, pull away from parents Peer relationships become central focus

Cognitive

-Infancy to childhood Significant development of cognitive abilities and thought processes Language and communication skills: partially inborn, partially learned -Adulthood Complex, ever changing Crystallized intelligence Late- decline in fluid intelligence Need to have and find meaning Define oneself based on career Familial relationships central focus

Research Ethics With Humans

-Informed Consent -Respect for Persons -Beneficence- Minimize costs, maximize benefits to participants *Debriefing (to minimize negative effects of deception)*: the process of informing participants of the exact purposes of the study—including the hypotheses—revealing any and all deceptive practices and explaining why they were necessary to conduct the study and ultimately what the results of the study were. -Privacy and Confidentiality -Justice Equity in distribution of costs and benefits among participants

Bringing it all together Piaget's theory of cognitive development

-Making Connections in Sensation and Perception: -Differences Across Cultures: Variations in experience across cultures influence the way people see, smell, and feel pain. -sensorimotor: 0-2 Knowledge through the senses Gradually acquire object permanence -pre-operational: 2-6 Egocentric Use symbolic thought-words, images Inability to understand conservation -concrete operations: 6-12 Logical rules for concrete problems -formal operations: 12+ Thinks scientifically and hypothetically about abstract principles

Nature vs Nurture

-Nature/Heredity All genes and hereditary factors influence who we are Characteristics and traits are product of evolution -Nurture/Environment Everything we are and know is based on experience Behaviorism- all or most behaviors result from learning and conditioning -How nature and nurture interact, not one or the other

Neuroanatomy

-Neurons in the brain work together as neutral networks -Different parts of the brain utilize different functions that influence thoughts, feelings and behaviors -Malfunctioning or damage in different areas of the brain impact their designated functions -Brainstem is where the spinal cord enters the skull and is the oldest part of the brain Cerebellum: coordination of voluntary movement -Thalamus is on top of the brainstem -received information about taste, touch, sight and hearing Limbic system components: -hippocampus: processes memory -amygdala: fear and anger -hypothalamus: hunger, thirst, sexual behavior (controls pituitary gland- master gland of the endocrine system, when activated by hypothalamus activates other glands throughout the body, known as the master gland of the body because it secretes hormones that control the release of hormones from glands elsewhere in the body) Cerebral cortex is the outer covering of the brain -motor, cognitive and sensory processes -divided into two hemispheres Cerebral cortex hemispheres are divided into 4 regions -frontal lobes: coordinate movement, higher level functioning and speech (broca's area and wernicke's area) -parietal lobes: sense of touch (hands and feet) -temporal lobes: hearing -occipital lobes: vision

Smell (olfaction) Taste

-Olfactory Sensory Neurons Cilia -Olfactory Bulb -Olfactory Cortex Primary (temporal lobe) Secondary (frontal lobe) Papillae Taste buds (10,000 per) taste receptor cells (dozens per bud) Basic Taste Qualities Bitter Sweet Salty Sour Savory (umami) : MSG + savory smell Fattiness?

Freud's Psychosexual Theory

-Oral: 0-1 Mouth pleasure center-sucking reflex -Anal: 1-3 Learn to control bodily functions- toilet training -Phallic: 3-6 Sexual desires towards opposite sex parent-Oedipus and Electra complex -Latency: 6-12 Sexual instincts subside-develop superego and conscious -Genital: 12+ Sexual impulses reemerge

Pain

-Pain Perception skin: nocireceptors temperature pressure -Involvement of Central Nervous System Spinal Cord Thalamus/Hypothalamus Anterior Cingulate Cortex -Explaining Pain Gate control theory -Controlling Pain Thoughts, feelings Endorphins Anti-inflammatory drugs Analgesics (opioids) The chemical senses: smell and taste

NeuroTransmission

-Synaptic Transmission Electrical impulse is converted into a chemical signal. Axon vesicle releases neurotransmitter into cleft. To remove excess neurotransmitters from synaptic cleft Enzymatic degradation (in which enzymes specific to that neurotransmitter bind with the neurotransmitter and destroy it) Reuptake (which returns excess neurotransmitter to the sending, or presynaptic, neuron for storage in vesicles and future use) Dendrite receptor site detects neurotransmitter -Information transmitted between neurons via chemicals called neurotransmitters -Excitatory v. Inhibitory graded potentials in postsynaptic neuron

The Endocrine System

-System of glands that secrete and regulate hormones into the bloodstream -Hormones carried by blood to tissues throughout body; chemical messengers secreted into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions, regulating metabolism, growth, reproduction, mood, and other processes. -Processes regulated include metabolism, growth rate, digestion, blood pressure, sexual development and reproduction -Hypothalamus controls pituitary, which controls the remaining glands, which control tissues -Thyroid, Pancreas (releases hormones, including insulin, that play a vital role in regulating blood sugar levels. The sex glands (ovaries and testes) release sex hormones, which lead to the development of sex characteristics (such as body hair and breast development), sex drive, and other aspects of sexual maturation.), Adrenal (which sit atop the kidneys, release hormones in response to stress and emotions. They also help regulate heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar) and Sex glands

Scientific Thinking

-The *cognitive skills required to generate, test, and revise theories* *Attitudes Inherent to Science* -Question authority (ask for evidence) -Open skepticism- Doubt and skepticism are hallmarks of critical and scientific reasoning -Intellectual honesty (unbiased, peer reviewed) Activity of Science: Research

Descriptive Studies

-The *researcher defines a problem and variable of interest, but makes no prediction and does not control or manipulate anything.* -In general, in descriptive designs the researcher makes no prediction and does not try to control any variables. She simply defines a problem of interest and describes as carefully as possible the variable of interest. The basic question in a descriptive design is, What is variable X *Type of Questions Researched?* Single variable- "How do people flirt?" Most Suitable Methods? -*Case study*: involves the observation of one person, often over a long period of time. Much wisdom and knowledge of human behavior can come from careful observation of one individual over time -*Naturalistic observation*- agreement above observers (ex: someone from a distance studying objects) in which the researcher observes and records behavior in the real world -*Qualitative research*- which involves data gathered from open-ended and unstructured answers rather than quantitative or numeric answers -*Survey*- can reach a vast amount of people but may not always yield honest results -*Interview*- inter-rater reliability, have advantages and disadvantages and can yield diff answers each time occur between two people, one asking the questions and the other answering, usually in open-ended answers Surveys do not have these difficulties because more often than not, they restrict the possible answers to some kind of numeric rating scale, such as 1 for "completely disagree," 3 for "neither disagree nor agree," and 5 for "completely agree. *Best Use for Such a Study?* Find patterns Lead to more refined research *Main Limitation?* Hypotheses not tested Cannot investigate cause/effect

The Limits of Observation

-The *senses can be easily fooled* -What one person sees does not always square with what another person sees. -What you can see at a glance may be different than what you can see with measuring tools. -One should not generalize from a limited set of observations.

Deficiencies in Color Vision Perceiving Motion Depth Perception

-True colorblindness is very rare -Usually involves color-specific deficits -Results from an inherited pigment deficiency in the photoreceptors -Movement detector neurons -Impression of speed Background detail Smaller size of object -Apparent motion -Binocular depth cues -Binocular disparity *Monocular depth cues* -Linear perspective -Texture gradient -Atmospheric perspective -Interposition *Perceptual Constancy* Size constancy: Ames room illusion Shape constancy

Big Data

-Vast amounts of information -Collected routinely by mass technology: Social media, mobile devices, web sites -Challenging assumptions in research *Robert Rosenthal* Experimenter expectancy effects Self-fulfilling prophecy Double-Blind Studies -Also has commonly used measures of psychological research

Action Potential

-an electrical and chemical process, is the positively charged impulse that moves one way down an axon Information travels one way down axon as an electrical signal *Ion Channel*: Gate for ions to pass through cell membrane Potential: Voltage difference, allowing voltage flow *Resting Potential*: More positive ions outside than inside cell *Depolarization*: Influx of positively charged sodium ions Resulting spike in voltage = action potential *Repolarization*: Positively charged potassium ions flow out *Refractory period*: Cannot generate another action potential Propagation, Threshold, All or None Principle (Adrian's work also confirmed the existence of a threshold—a point of no return. Once the charge inside the neuron exceeds threshold (and only if it exceeds threshold), the action potential fires)

Milgram study

-one of the most widely discussed studies in the history of psychology. A number of psychologists protested it on ethical grounds.The uproar led to the creation of explicit guidelines for the ethical treatment of human subjects. Today all psychological and medical researchers must adhere to the following guidelines: 1. *Informed consent*: Tell participants in general terms what the study is about, what they will do and how long it will take, what the known risks and benefits are, and whom to contact with questions. They must also be told that they have the right to withdraw at any time without penalty. This information is provided in written form and the participant signs it, signifying consent. If a participant is under the age of 18, informed consent must be granted by a legal guardian. Informed consent can be omitted only in situations such as completely anonymous surveys. 2. *Respect for persons*: Safeguard the dignity and autonomy of the individual and take extra precautions when dealing with study participants, such as children, who are less likely to understand that their participation is voluntary. 3.*Beneficence*: Inform participants of costs and benefits of participation; minimize costs for participants and maximize benefits. For example, many have argued that the Milgram study was worth the distress (cost) it may have caused participants, for the benefit of the knowledge we have gained about how readily decent people can be led astray by powerful social situations. In fact, many of the participants said that they were grateful for this opportunity to gain knowledge about themselves that they would have not predicted (Milgram, 1974). 4. *Privacy and confidentiality*: Protect the privacy of the participant, generally by keeping all responses confidential. Confidentiality ensures that participants' identities are never directly connected with the data they provide in a study. 5. *Justice*: Benefits and costs must be distributed equally among participants.

Physics

-studies physical properties of light and sound *Psychophysics*: studies human perception of light and sound physicists who wanted to understand how people process and experience the sensations of sound, light, smell, taste, and touch -Because of the profound influence of the empiricists, in the 1870s physicists who wanted to understand how people process and experience the sensations of sound, light, smell, taste, and touch developed the field of psychophysics —the psychology of physical sensations. By doing so, these physicists started the scientific discipline of psychology *The Psychophysics of Human Perception* -First scientific form of psychology -Laboratory studies of the subjective experience of physical sensations -Relationship between the physical and psychological worlds

O.P.T.I.C.

1. *Observe* Researchers working with rats observe their behavior 2. *Predict* Propose a hypothesis based in theory: Caffeine will make female rats seek more couplings with males. 3. *Test* Collect data: how often do females on caffeine allow males to mate and how often do females not on caffeine allow males to mate? 4. *Interpret* Analyze resulting data to confirm or disconfirm the theory prediction 5. *Communicate* Publish findings of "Caffeine and mating behavior in female rats" via peer review process

Principles of Behavioral Genetics

1.The relationship between genes and behavior is complex. A lone gene does not specify a behavior: Multiple genes plus the environment do. Specific genes can cause a specific physical trait or disease. But single genes play only a small part in creating a given behavior. 2.Studying twins and adoptees helps separate heredity and the environment. Twins, identical and fraternal, raised together and apart Heritability: extent to which a characteristic is influenced by genetics Gene by Environment Interaction Studies: genetic markers (specific parts of the human genome) 3.The environment affects how and when genes affect behavior.

Hypothesis

A *hypothesis*: a specific, informed, and testable prediction of what kind of outcome should occur under a particular condition *Pseudoscience*: refers to practices that appear to be and claim to be science but, in fact, do not use the scientific method to come to their conclusions. What makes something pseudoscientific comes more from the way it is studied than from the content area.

Behaviorism

A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should *study only observable behavior* -School of thought that asserts that *psychology can be a true science* only if it *examines observable behavior, not ideas, thoughts, feelings, or motives* -John Watson -B.F. Skinner

Communication Between the Hemispheres

Activity across the corpus callosum allows the hemispheres to communicate / collaborate Contrast: Split-brain research

Behavioral Approach

An approach to psychology *emphasizing that human behavior is determined mainly by what a person has learned*, especially from *rewards and punishments* -learned responses to predictable patterns of external stimuli -Pavlov;s classical conditioning -Skinner's operant conditioning- where Skinner contributed the ideas of reward and punishment and how those affect our behavior

Cognitive approach

An approach to psychology *emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing*: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems. -Behavior as a result of "expectiations", "feelings", and "thoughts" -Study problem solving, attention, memory and other thought processes

Psychodynamic approach

An approach to psychology *emphasizing unconscious thought*, the conflict between *biological drives* (such as the drive for sex) and *society's demands, and early childhood family experiences* -Sigmund Freund -id (pleasure principle), ego (great moderator between id and superego), superego (morals and values) -defense mechanisms -sexual and aggressive urges drive behavior, thoughts and feelings

Humanistic approach

An approach to psychology emphasizing a person's *positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny* -developed in reaction to Behaviorsist and Psychodynamic models -people are motivated by desire for growth and development -Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs - self actualization -Carl Rogers - believed people are basically good -unconditional positive regard

Biological Approach

An approach to psychology in which *behavior and behavior disorders are seen as the result of physical processes*, especially those *relating to the brain and to hormones and other chemicals* -physiological and biochemical explanation of behavior -behavior as a result of genes, nervous system, hormones, neurotransmitters and other biological functions

Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology

Applies psychological concepts and questions to work settings The industrial focus is on selecting workers, matching employees to jobs, and evaluating job performance. The organizational focus is on worker satisfaction, performance, and productivity by examining management styles and work environment. is an applied science, meaning that it involves understanding real-world rather than laboratory behavior (Aamodt, 2010). The industrial and organizational sides focus on two distinct sets of problems. The industrial side involves matching employees to their jobs and uses psychological principles and methods to select employees and evaluate job performance. For this reason, the industrial side of I/O psychology is also sometimes referred to as personnel psychology. The organizational side of I/O aims to make workers more productive and satisfied by considering how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity

Hearing in the Brain (In order of decreasing)

Auditory Nerve Inferior Colliculus (Brainstem) Medial Geniculate Nucleus (Thalamus) Auditory Cortex (Temporal Lobe) The bodily senses

The Brain: Evolution of the Human Brain

Australopithecus 4 million years ago 650 cc brain Homo erectus 1.6 million years ago 900 cc brain Neanderthal 350,000 years ago 1450 cc brain Homo sapiens 200,000 years ago 1300 cc brain

Correlation and Causation

Correlation is necessary but not sufficient for causation. Why is parental harshness correlated with child rebellion? 1. Harsh parents drive their kids to rebellion 2.Rebellious kids drive their parents to harshness 3.In stressed-out families both parents & kids are at worst 4.Ornery families are genetically disposed to such behavior 5.Etc. -*Any combination of the above may be true or false*. -*A correlation does not settle why behavior occurs*. -When *interpreting correlations, it is important to remember that a correlation does not mean there is a causal relationship between the two variables* -*Correlation is necessary but not sufficient for causation*. When one variable causes another, it must be correlated with it, but just because variable X is correlated with variable Y, it does not mean that X causes Y.

Electroencephalography

EEG -Records electrical activity from scalp -Shows when brain activity occurs better than where -Event-related potential (ERP) Average of many EEGs while doing a specific cognitive process

Subdisciplines of Psychology

Educational/School Social Neuro/Physiotherapy Health Industrial/Organizational Experimental Developmental/Child/Family Cognitive/Psycholinguistics Counseling Clinical Other

The environment affects how and when genes affect behavior.

Epigenetics: "Tags" deactivate a DNA sequence without altering its structure. Soft inheritance: Passing tags on to the next generation.

Sports Psychology

Examines the psychological factors that affect performance and participation in sports and exercise examines the psychological factors that affect performance and participation in sports and exercise (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). For instance, sports psychologists might focus on improving athletic performance through techniques such as relaxation and visualization. Forensic psychology is a blend of psychology, law, and criminal justice (Adler, 2004).

Cognitivism

Gestalt Psychology *we perceive things as wholes rather than as a compilation of parts* -Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) - Frederick Bartlett -*Memory is not objective/accurate*; it is a rather highly *personal reconstruction based on point of view*. -The *way we think about things (cognitive frameworks) organizes how we experience the world*.

Overview of Brain Regions

Hindbrain Medulla: Breathing, heart, arousal, survival reflexes (are inborn, involuntary behaviors that are elicited by very specific stimuli) Pons: "Bridge" (serves as a bridge between lower brain regions and higher midbrain and forebrain activity, thereby playing an important role in regulating many of the same automatic functions as the medulla as well as body movement, including facial expressions) Cerebellum: Balance, coordination Midbrain: Parkinson's disease Upper Reticular Formation: Wakefulness (runs through both the hindbrain and the midbrain (reticular means "netlike"). The reticular formation plays a key role in wakefulness) Top of Brain Stem Forebrain: Limbic system (emotions, motivation) Hypothalamus (Drives, Pituitary (hormones)) Hippocampus (Learning, selection for lasting memory) Amygdala (Emotional significance of stimuli (esp. fear)) Thalamus (Sensory relay station, Smell is the only sensory system that has no thalamic relay, which receives input from the ears, eyes, skin, or taste buds and relays sensory information to the part of the cerebral cortex most responsible for processing that specific kind of sensory information. For this reason, the thalamus is often called a sensory relay station) Limbic System Cerebrum, etc. Cingulate gyrus (Attention, cognitive control), Basal Ganglia (sometimes considered part of the Limbic System, Collection of structures, Voluntary motor control, Parkinson's / Huntington's Diseases)

Human Development Germinal stage Fetal stage Prenatal programming

Human development: is the process of how genotype becomes phenotype and therefore how we change and remain the same over the course of a lifetime, from conception to death. Germinal stage: begins at conception and lasts for 2 weeks. At conception, the fertilized egg is a single-celled zygote which starts dividing rapidly around 36 hours after conception Fetal stage, is the formation of bone cells at 8 weeks after conception. By this time, all the major organs have already begun to form. Between 8 and 12 weeks into development, the heartbeat can be detected with a stethoscope. Organs continue to grow and mature while the fetus rapidly increases in size. Prenatal programming is the process by which events in the womb alter the development of physical and psychological health (Coe & Lubach, 2008). Of particular concern in this context are teratogens or substances that can cause permanent damage to the developing embryo or fetus.

Modern Views

Late 1880s: Medical Model *Emil Kraepelin's Diagnoses*: Dementia praecox (schizophrenia) Melancholia (depression) *Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalysis*: -assumes that the unconscious mind is the most powerful force behind thought and behavior and that dreams have meaning and are the most direct route to the unconscious mind unconscious mind defense mechanisms childhood experiences -hard to apply our understanding of a single case into a broader perspective *Mid-1900s: Three developments*: Psychotherapy Drug treatment Criteria for diagnosing mental disorders *DSM-5: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual* 5th edition Classification system that includes diagnoses for more than 250 psychological disorders

Bringing It all together

Making Connections in Psychological Research: How is technology changing how we think, feel, and behave?

Bringing It All Together What Esref Armagan's Story Reveals About the Brain Genetics

Making Connections in the Biology of Behavior: What Esref Armagan's Story Reveals About the Brain Armagan is a blind artist, a painter... The visual images that Armagan forms from his sense of touch activate the same region of the brain that is active when seeing people see something - the occipital lobe. -*Genetics* play a large role in how and when learning, growing and development occur -*Human behavior* is a product of genetics and environment (nature vs nurture- combination) -*Genes* do not determine behavior but can have a significant impact on what we do and why we do it

Touch

Mechanoreceptors Receptor cells in the skin that are sensitive to different tactile qualities Shape Grooves Vibrations Movement Thalamus-> Somatosensory Cortex (Parietal Lobe)

Near Infrared Spectrometry

NIRS Brain radiated with red light Some is reflected, some absorbed, some passes through Less expensive than fMRI, but nearly as effective

Brain Plasticity and Neurogenesis

Neuroplasticity Adopt new functions Reorganize existing functions Plasticity varies for different parts of brain and for different ages. Experienced-based change Occurs throughout the brain and throughout life. Neurogenesis (new neurons-The process of developing new neurons) Arborization (new dendrites) Synaptogenesis (new synapses) Examples: Blind (and Deaf) Individuals Contrary to popular views, not overall better at hearing (and seeing), respectively; but are better at peripheral aspects of hearing (and seeing) which is now processed in the vacated visual (or auditory) cortex

What is science?

Now that we have looked at some of the components of science and explored their limitations, let's consider the larger question: What is science? People often think only of the physical sciences as "science," but science comes in at least three distinct flavors (Feist, 2006b): physical science, biological science, and social science. -Finally, the social sciences study humans, both as individuals and as groups. These sciences include anthropology, sociology, economics, and psychology. Science is as much a way of thinking or a set of attitudes as it is a set of procedures. Scientific thinking involves the reasoning skills required to generate, test, and revise theories. What we believe or theorize about the world and what the world is actually like, in the form of evidence, are two different things. Scientific thinking keeps these two things separate. In other words, scientists remember that belief is not the same as reality.

Vision and the brain Vision and vision-specific neurons

Optic Nerve Ganglion cells Blind spot Optic chiasm Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus Feature Detectors Simple cells Complex cells Hypercomplex cells "Halle Berry" cells

Positron Emission Tomography

PET -Measures blood flow to brain areas in the active brain -Radioactive form of oxygen (glucose) is injected into participant and can be tracked -Tracks somas, but not axons or synapses -Diffusion Tensor Imaging -Type of MRI adapted to track fibers

Challenging Assumptions about Neural Growth in Adults

Research by Elizabeth Gould Complex (enriched) environmental settings resulted in increased neurogenesis in adult primates Research by Fred "Rusty" Gage (Phineas's cousin!) BrdU (radioactive marker which can track development of new cells) Human neurogenesis in adult hippocampus Measuring the Brain

What is the Scientific Method?

Science depends on the use of sound methods to produce trustworthy results that can be confirmed independently by other researchers. -The *advancement of science hinges on replication*. -The *repetition of a study* to *confirm* (or in some cases *disconfirm*) the results -If a finding cannot be replicated, it wasn't real. Science is cumulative - current knowledge builds on past knowledge.

The long strange trip from sensation to perception

Sensation -A physical process -Stimulation of our sense organs by energy/chemicals from the outer world -Transforms physical stimuli to a pattern of action potentials -Is a process of receiving information, not making sense of it Perception -A psychological process -Act of organizing and interpreting sensory signals (action potentials received from sense organs) -Uses previous experiences to interpret new stimuli Sensory Adaptation -Process by which our sensitivity diminishes when an object constantly stimulates our senses -Allows us to readily detect changes in stimulation Transduction -Conversion of physical into neural information -Is the basic process of sensation Psychophysics -The study of how we make psychological meaning of physical stimuli Absolute Thresholds -Lowest intensity one can report 50% of the time Signal Detection Theory -Thresholds Vary, Depending on Motivation, Etc. Possible Outcomes -"Yes, I see it" -"No, I don't see it" Principles of perception -Difference Thresholds -"JND" Just Noticeable Difference -Weber's Law Size of JND is constant fraction of stimulus intensity -Perceptual Set Do expectations influence our perception of physical events?

Middle Ages

Supernatural causes blamed (again!) -The Inquisition Float test for witchcraft *Asylums* - Facilities for the Mentally Ill Conditions deplorable and chaotic - "Bedlam" -Movements for moral treatment emerged in Europe and the United States. The main idea was to *provide a relaxing place where patients would be treated with dignity and care*

Temperament Sensorimotor stage Object permanence Animistic thinking Egocentrism Conservation Concrete operational stage Conventional Sexual orientation Transgender identity Emerging adulthood Individuation Dementia

Temperament is the biologically based tendency to behave in particular ways from very early in life. To be clear, temperament involves mostly unique behaviors, whereas personality also involves unique traits, feelings, beliefs, attitudes, goals, and motivations. So personality develops out of temperament differences. Sensorimotor stage: because it characterizes the way infants learn about the world through their senses and their own movements. Object permanence: which is the ability to realize that objects still exist when they are not being sensed Preoperational stage: a period that lasts until about age 5 or 6. Symbolic thinking involves using symbols, such as words or letters, to represent ideas or objects. Animistic thinking: refers to the idea that inanimate objects are alive Egocentrism is the tendency to view the world only from one's own perspective. Conservation is the ability to recognize that, when some properties (such as shape) of an object change, other properties (such as volume) remain constant. Concrete operational stage (ages 6-11), children can perform mental operations on real, or concrete, objects and events—but they still have trouble with abstract ideas and reasoning. Conventional level the person might respond with "Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is wrong. Society cannot function if people steal all the time." At this level, the person values caring, trust, and relationships, as well as social order and lawfulness. This ability to make use of social and emotional information from another person, especially a caregiver, is known as social referencing (Campos & Stenberg, 1981). Sexual orientation and gender identity are important components to the development of identity during adolescence. To be clear, sexual orientation and gender identity are not related. Gender identity is who a person identifies as, whereas sexual orientation is who a person is attracted to Transgender identity occurs when one identifies with the opposite gender one was assigned at birth. It is true that most people identify with the gender they are born—that is, they are cis-gendered (where "cis" means "same"). But not everyone does. Emerging adulthood: for the phase between adolescence and young adulthood, which spans ages 18-25. Emerging adulthood is a phase of transition between the teen years and adulthood. Teens rely on their parents for food, clothing, and housing. At about age 18, things change. Young people in their late teens know that soon they will have to assume greater responsibility for keeping themselves alive, and this has broad-reaching implications for behavior and thought. Individuation: The process through which someone's personality becomes whole and balanced. During middle adulthood a formerly very extroverted and masculine man might become more solitary and less focused on being "macho," but some middle-aged adults cling to their youth, deny their undeveloped selves, and spiral into a crisis of midlife. Dementia is an unusual degree of loss in cognitive functions and includes memory problems and difficulty in reasoning, solving problems, making decisions, and using language.

Two hemispheres

Two hemispheres: The two halves of the cerebrum have different processing "styles" -*Right hemisphere* - holistic, integrated -*Left hemisphere* - analytical and focused Language / Aphasia ( a deficit in the ability to speak or comprehend language) -*Broca's area *(Frontal-This region, responsible for the ability to produce speech): speech production -*Wernicke's area* (Temporal): speech comprehension -*Right hemisphere* - holistic, integrated -*Left hemisphere* - analytical and focused -*Corpus Callosum*: A thick bundle of nerve fibers that connect the two cerebral hemispheres

Counseling Psychology

a *branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being Work with less severe psychological disorders; Help healthy people deal with life* Counseling psychologists tend to work with *less severe psychological disorders than clinical psychologists*. They *treat and assess relatively healthy people and assist them with career and vocational interests*.

Clinical Psychology

a branch of psychology that *studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders* Study of the *treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders and ways to promote psychological health*

Health Psychology

a subfield of psychology that *provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine* Study of *the role that psychological factors play in physical health and illness Topics in health psychology range from studies of *how stress is linked to illness and immune function to studies on the role of social factors in how people interact with health care professionals*. Some health psychologists work in disease prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation; thus, this area involves clinical practice as well as research.

Humanistic Psychology

an approach to *understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings* Personal growth and meaning as a way of *reaching one's highest potential* -Abraham Maslow -Carl Rogers

Forensic Psychology

area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system Field that blends psychology, law, and criminal justice

The Nature of Science

key principles and ideas which provide a description of science *as a way of knowing, as well as characteristics of scientific knowledge* -Science is about testing ideas regarding the world by observing the world (collecting data) thus using those observations to determine whether the idea is supported. -As you can see, this requires observation and logic.

Cognitive Psychology

the *scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating* Study of how we *perceive information* how we learn and remember how *we acquire and use language* and how *we solve problems* Those who do research on cognition and learning are often referred to as experimental psychologists, because they conduct laboratory experiments to address their research questions.

Developmental Psychology

the *scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span* explores how *thought and behavior change* and *show stability across the life span*. This developmental perspective allows us to appreciate that organisms—human or otherwise—change and grow.

Personality Psychology

the *study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting* Study of what *makes people unique and the consistencies in people's behavior across time and situations*

Social Psychology

the *study of the causes and consequences of sociality Study of how the *real or imagined presence of others influences thought, feeling, and behavior*

Behavioral Neuroscience

the *study of the links among brain, mind, and behavior* Neuroscience cuts across various disciplines and subdisciplines of psychology. One can study the brain functions *involved in learning, emotion, social behavior, and mental illness*, to name just a few areas.

Biological Psychology

the scientific *study of the links between biological and psychological processes* Study of the connections between *bodily systems and chemicals, and their relationship to behavior and thought*