PSY 200 Exam 3

Insomnia, p. 328

"Lack of sleep" Condition of not getting enough sleep to feel rested the next day Results from causes including noise, worries, indigestion, uncomfortable temperatures, use of alcohol or caffeine, and medical or psychological disorders

The idea of cognitive dissonance attracted much attention and inspired a great deal of research. Here are two examples:

- An experimenter left a child in a room with toys but forbade the child to play with one particular toy. If the experimenter threatened the child with severe punishment for playing with the toy, the child avoided it but still regarded it as desirable. However, if the experimenter merely said that he or she would be disappointed if the child played with that toy, the child avoided the toy and said (even weeks later) that it was not a good toy. - An experimenter asked college students to write an essay defending a position that the experimenter knew, from previous information, contradicted the students' beliefs. For example, college students who favored freer access to alcohol might be asked to write essays on why the college should increase restrictions on alcohol. Those who were told they must write the essays did not change their views significantly, but those who were asked to "please" voluntarily write the essay generally came to agree with what they wrote.

How can we decide what is a basic emotion (if there is such a thing?)? Psychologists have proposed the following criteria:

- Basic emotions should emerge early in life without requiring much experience. For example, nostalgia and pride emerge slowly and seem less basic than fear, anger, or joy. The problem with this criterion is that all emotional expressions emerge gradually. Infants' expressions at first do not distinguish among distress, anger, and fear. - Basic emotions should be similar across cultures. Because most emotions appear to be similar throughout human cultures, this criterion does not eliminate much. - Each basic emotion should have a distinct physiology. If we take this criterion seriously, we should probably abandon the idea of basic emotions. Physiological reactions such as heart rate and breathing rate do not distinguish strongly between one emotion and another, although they do indicate the intensity of an emotion. Brain measurements also fail to identify which emotion someone feels. - Finally, each basic emotion might have its own facial expression. Most of the research has focused on this last criterion.

Relaxation is an excellent way to reduce unnecessary anxiety. Here are some suggestions:

- Find a quiet place, or at least a spot where the noise is not too disturbing. - Adopt a comfortable position, relaxing your muscles. If you are not sure how to do so, start with the opposite: Tense all your muscles so you notice how they feel. Then relax them one by one, starting from your toes and working toward your head. - Reduce sources of stimulation, including your own thoughts. Focus your eyes on a simple, unexciting object. Or repeat something - a word, a phrase, a prayer, perhaps the Hindu syllable om - whatever feels comfortable to you. - Don't worry about anything, not even about relaxing. If worrisome thoughts pop into your head, dismiss them with "oh, well."

Factors Associated with a Tendency Toward Violent Behavior

- Growing up in a violent neighborhood - Having parents with history of antisocial behavior - Having a mother who smoked cigarettes or drank alcohol during pregnancy - Poor nutrition or exposure to lead or other toxic chemicals early in life - A history of head injury - Not feeling guilty after hurting someone - Weaker than normal sympathetic nervous system responses (which correlates with not feeling bad after hurting someone) - High levels of testosterone coupled with low levels of cortisol - A history of suicide attempts

For occasional or minor insomnia, you can try a few things yourself:

- Keep a regular time schedule for going to bed and waking up each day. - Spend some time in the sunlight to set your circadian rhythm. - Minimize exposure to television and computers in the hours before bedtime. - Avoid caffeine, nicotine, and other stimulants, especially in the evening. - Don't rely on alcohol or tranquilizers to fall asleep. After repeated use, you may be unable to sleep without them. - Keep your bedroom cool and quiet. - Exercise daily but not shortly before bedtime.

Many aspects of life correlate with happiness or subjective well-being. In the following list, remember that correlations do not demonstrate causation, so alternative explanations are possible:

- Married people tend to be happier than unmarried people, especially if it is a happy marriage. College students with close friendships and romantic attachments are usually happier than those without such attachments. Marriages and close social contacts are helpful in many ways. Also, happy people are more likely than sad people to get married or develop friendships. (Would you want to marry or become close friends with someone who was frequently sad?) - Happy people are more likely than average to have a sense of purpose in life, and a goal in life other than making money. One reason the money goal does not lead to happiness is that most people who strive to be rich do not succeed. - Health and happiness go together, to no one's surprise. Health improves happiness, and a happy disposition improves habits that lead to health. - People who have many conversations that exchange important information tend to be happier than those who engage only in small talk. - Religious people tend to be happier than nonreligious people. That trend is stronger in countries with high attendance at religious services, such as Turkey and Poland, than in countries with low attendance, such as Sweden. Religion's ability to enhance happiness apparently depends on building social networks, as it does not correlate significantly with private devotion. - People who have happy friends tend also to be happy. A massive longitudinal study suggests a cause-and-effect relationship: If your friends or other people with whom you have frequent contact become happier, then within a few months, you will probably become happier also, and a few months later, your other friends will start becoming happier. Evidently, happiness is contagious.

An alternative view, known as the neurocognitive theory, is that dreaming is simply a kind of thinking, similar to daydreaming or mind wandering, that occurs under these conditions:

- Reduced sensory stimulation, especially in the brain's primary sensory areas - Reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex, important for planning and working memory - Loss of voluntary control of thinking - Enough activity in other brain areas, including those responsible for face recognition and certain aspects of motivation and emotion

Cultural Differences in Attribution and Related Matters

- When given a description of a conflict, such as one between mother and daughter, Chinese students are more likely than Americans to see merit in both arguments. - Far more Chinese than English-language proverbs include apparent self-contradictions, such as "beware of your friends, not your enemies" and "too humble is half proud". - Chinese people are more likely than Americans to predict that current trends -whatever they might be - will reverse themselves. If life seems to have been getting better lately, most Americans predict that things will continue getting better, whereas Chinese expect them to get worse.

Review Question: If you are supervising employees who say they can finish a challenging job in six weeks, what kind of bonus should you promise them?

A bonus they can earn by finishing within six weeks but also a not-quite-so-good bonus for finishing within eight weeks

Review Question: What led to significant weight gain among the Pimas?

A change in diet

Review Question: In one survey, 40-year-olds recalled more lifetime sex partners than did 50-year-olds. What is the most likely explanation?

A difference between cohorts

Concept Check: Are Freud's ideas on dreaming falsifiable in the sense described in Chapter 2?

A falsifiable theory makes specific predictions so that we could imagine evidence that would contradict it. Freud's dream theories make no clear predictions.

Concept Check: If a human fetus is exposed to high levels of both testosterone and estradiol throughout prenatal development, how does the sexual anatomy appear?

A fetus exposed to high levels of both testosterone and estradiol develops a male appearance. High levels of testosterone lead to male anatomy; low levels lead to female anatomy. The level of estradiol is not decisive for external anatomy.

Concept Check: If a human fetus is exposed to very low levels of both testosterone and estradiol throughout prenatal development, how does the sexual anatomy appear?

A fetus exposed to very low levels of both testosterone and estradiol throughout prenatal development develops a female appearance.

Enjoying Diversity

A goal of treating everyone the same sometimes backfires by implying that everyone should act the same. A goal of accepting and enjoying the differences among people is generally a better goal.

Review Question: What did Freud mean by the "latent content" of a dream?

A hidden meaning that the dream symbolizes

Concept Check: What are some criticisms of Maslow's hierarchy?

A lower level of need does not always take priority over one at a higher level. Maslow's hierarchy ignores parenting and overemphasizes self-actualization. Also, goals vary among cultures.

Intrinsic Motivation, p. 346

A motivation based on the pleasure that the act itself provides Working a crossword puzzle or playing a video game is based on intrinsic motivation

Concept Check: What is the main objection to polygraph tests?

A polygraph too often identifies an innocent person as lying.

The Value of Deadlines

A professor set firm deadlines for one class and let another class choose their own deadlines to see whether those with evenly spaced deadlines would outperform those who had the opportunity to procrastinate. Hypothesis: Students who are required, or who require themselves, to spread out their work will do better than those with an opportunity to wait until the end of the semester. Results: If you were in the class that could choose the deadlines, what would you do? Twelve of the fifty-one students set all three deadlines on the final day of the semester. Presumably, they reasoned that they would try to finish their papers earlier, but they would have the opportunity for extra time if they needed it. Other students, however, saw that if they set their deadlines at the end, they would expose themselves to a temptation that would be hard to resist, so they imposed earlier deadlines. Some spaced the deadlines evenly at one-third, two-thirds, and the end of the semester, and others compromised, setting deadlines for the first two papers somewhat later but not at the end of the semester. On average, the students in the section with assigned deadlines got better grades than those who were allowed to choose their own deadlines. Of those permitted to choose their own deadlines, those who set their deadlines at approximately one-third, two-thirds, and the end of the semester did about the same as those with assigned deadlines and much better than those who set all their deadlines at the end.

Prisoner's Dilemma, p. 414

A situation where people choose between a cooperative act and a competitive act that benefits themselves but hurts others

REM Sleep

A special stage known as REM sleep replaces the stage 1 periods after the first one. REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movements, a high level of brain activity, and relaxed muscles. Dreams are common in this stage but not limited to it.

Concept Check: What is the main objection to "consensus" scoring?

A test based on consensus scoring cannot easily identify the truly outstanding individuals because it doesn't give proper credit on difficult items.

The Trolley Dilemma

A trolley car with defective brakes is coasting downhill toward five people lying on the tracks. You could throw a switch to divert the trolley onto a different track, where one person is lying. If you flip the switch, the trolley will kill one instead of five. Should you do it?

Emotional Intelligence, p. 391

Ability to perceive, imagine, and understand emotions and to use that information in making decisions

Review Question: How much annual salary would it take to make the average American happy?

About twice as much as the current salary, whatever that is

Multiculturalism, p. 424

Accepting, recognizing, and enjoying the differences among people and groups and the unique contributions that each person can offer

James-Lange Theory

According the James-Lange theory of emotions, the feeling aspect of an emotion is the perception of a change in the body's physiological state.

Manifest Content, p. 331

According to Freud, content that appears on the surface of a dream

Latent Content, p. 331

According to Freud, hidden ideas that a dream experience represents symbolically

Selye's Concept of Stress

According to Hans Selye, stress is "the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it." Any event, pleasant or unpleasant, that brings about change in a person's life produces some measure of stress. However, this definition omits lifelong problems, such as coping with racism. By an alternative definition, stress is an event that someone interprets as threatening.

Schachter and Singer's Theory

According to Schachter and Singer's theory, autonomic arousal determines the intensity of an emotion but does not determine which emotion occurs. We identify an emotion on the basis of how we perceive the situation.

Concept Check: You are going on a first date with someone you hope will find you exciting. According to Schachter and Singer's theory, should you plan a date walking through an art gallery or riding on roller coasters?

According to Schachter and Singer's theory, you should plan a date riding on roller coasters. If your date gets emotionally excited, he or she may attribute the arousal to you. However, if you are dating someone who gets nauseated on roller coasters, you should change your strategy!

Prevalence of Homosexuality

According to surveys in several countries, 1 to 6 percent of adult men and somewhat fewer women regard themselves as primarily or exclusively homosexual. Sexual orientation varies in degree from exclusively homosexual to exclusively heterosexual with intermediate gradations.

Circumplex Model of Emotion

According to the circumplex model of emotion, emotional feelings occur along a continuum from arousal to sleepiness and another continuum from pleasure to misery. This model deals with the feeling aspect of emotion, not the cognitive aspects.

Self-Actualization, p. 347

Achievement of one's full potential The need for creative activities to fulfill your potential

Review Question: What is meant by "group polarization"?

After a discussion, a group that mostly favored one position at the start becomes more extreme in favoring that position.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

After traumatic experiences, some people (not all) have long-lasting changes in their emotional reactions. Apparently some people are more predisposed to PTSD than others are.

Review Question: On average, how does the alertness of an older person change over the course of a day?

Alertness is highest in the morning and then decreases.

Alfred C. Kinsey

Alfred C. Kinsey was an outstanding interviewer who put people at ease so they could speak freely but he was also alert to probable lies.

Variability in Human Sexual Behavior

Alfred Kinsey, who conducted the first extensive survey of human sexual behavior, found that sexual activity varies more widely than most people realize.

Review Question: How does the concept of allostasis differ from homeostasis?

Allostasis pertains to how we make changes for new circumstances.

Conformity, p. 442

Altering one's behavior to match other people's behavior or expectation

Minority Influence

Although a minority may have little influence at first, it can, through persistent repetition of its message, eventually persuade the majority to adopt its position or consider other ideas.

Cultural Differences

Although some cultures tend to be more collectivist or conforming than others, it is an overgeneralization to regard all Asian cultures as collectivist or to assume that all members of a society are equally collectivist.

Concept Check: In what way does conformity in the United States seem to differ from conformity in Asia?

Americans often conform to avoid embarrassing themselves. Asians sometimes conform to the wrong opinions of others to avoid embarrassing the others.

Resilience, p. 408

An ability to handle difficult situations with a minimum of distress

Brain Mechanisms of Circadian Rhythms

An area of the brain generates an approximately 24-hour rhythm. Sunlight does not generate this rhythm, but it does reset it.

Attitudes

An attitude is a like or dislike that influences behavior.

Anxiety, p. 394

An increase in the startle reflex A vague sense that "something bad might happen" We readjust our anxiety based on our experiences

Concept Check: How does a guilty-knowledge test differ from the usual polygraph test?

An ordinary polygraph test asks whether you did or did not do something, and an innocent person might be nervous, even when telling the truth. A guilty-knowledge tests asks questions that should cause only someone with detailed knowledge about the crime to become nervous.

Anger

Anger arises when we perceive that someone has done something intentionally that blocks our intended actions.

Sexual Orientation and Brain Anatomy

Animal studies demonstrated that one section of the anterior hypothalamus is generally larger in males than in females. This brain area is necessary for the display of male-typical sexual activity in many mammalian species, and its size depends on prenatal hormones. Might part of the anterior hypothalamus differ between homosexual and heterosexual men? Hypothesis: INAH3, a cluster of neurons in the anterior hypothalamus, will be larger on average in the brains of heterosexual than homosexual men or heterosexual women. Results: Three of the four neuron clusters did not consistently vary in size among the groups LeVay studied. However, area INAH3 was on the average about twice as large in heterosexual men as it was in homosexual men and about the same size in homosexual men as in heterosexual women. The size of this area was about the same in heterosexual men who died of AIDS as in heterosexual men who died of other causes, so AIDS probably did not control the size of this area.

The Footbridge Dilemma

Another trolley with defective brakes is coasting downhill and about to kill five people. This time you are standing on a footbridge over the track. You see a way to save those five people: A fat person is beside you, leaning over. If you push him off the bridge, he will land on the track and block the trolley. You are, let's assume, too thin to block it yourself. Again your action would kill one to save five. Should you do it?

Fear and Anxiety

Anxiety can be measured objectively by variations in the startle reflex after a loud noise.

Concept Check: What experience reflects the fact that part of the brain can be awake while another is asleep?

Any of the following: waking up but finding oneself unable to move, sleepwalking, or lucid dreaming.

Review Question: What does a polygraph measure?

Arousal of the sympathetic nervous system

Concept Check: In what way did the obedience in Milgram's experiment resemble the foot-in-the-door procedure? How did it resemble Skinner's shaping procedure?

As with the foot-in-the-door procedure, Milgram started with a small request (give a small shock) and then built up. Skinner's shaping procedure also starts with an easy task and then builds to something more difficult.

Review Question: On average, how do attributions differ between people in Asian countries and people in the United States?

Asians tend to make more external (situational) attributions.

Bisexuality, p. 372

Attraction to both sexes

Concept Check: According to evolutionary theory, attractiveness is a sign of good health. Why would it be difficult for an unhealthy individual to produce "counterfeit" attractiveness?

Attractive features such as bright feathers in a bird or large muscles in a man require much energy. it would be difficult for an unhealthy individual to devote enough energy to produce such features.

Attribution

Attribution is the set of thought processes by which we assign internal or external causes to behavior. According to Harold Kelley, we are likely to attribute behavior to an internal cause if it is consistent over time, different from most other people's behavior, and directed toward a variety of other people or objects.

Self-Serving Biases, p. 426

Attributions people adopt to maximize credit for success and minimize blame for failure Less prominent among Asians

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (from Bottom to Top)

Basic Needs Physiological Needs: Food, drink, oxygen, constant temperature Safety Needs: Security, safety Psychological Needs Belongingness and Love Needs: Social interactions Esteem Needs: Prestige, fame, feeling of accomplishment Self-Fulfillment Needs Self-Actualization: Achieving one's full potential, including creative activities

Concept Check: How would the fundamental attribution error affect people's attitudes toward actors and actresses who portrayed likable and contemptible characters?

Because of the fundamental attribution error, people tend to think that performers who portray likable characters are themselves likable, and those who play contemptible people probably resemble those characters.

Stereotype, p. 422

Belief or expectation about a group of people

Differences Between Men and Women

Bisexual orientation is more common in women than men. Measurements of penis erection accurately gauge a man's sexual interest, but vaginal secretions do not measure a woman's sexual interest.

Cumulative Effects of Three Nights Without Sleep

Body temperature and reasoning decrease each night and increase the next morning. They also deteriorate from one day to the next.

More Recent Surveys

Both men and women cite vaginal intercourse as their most preferred sexual activity. Most people remain sexually active throughout life if they remain healthy and have a loving partner.

In Closing: Module 13.3

Broadly defined, attitudes influence almost everything we do. It is important to be alert to some of the influences that might throw you off course. Advertisers, politicians, and others try to polish their techniques of persuasion, and not everyone has your best interest at heart.

Do We Have Basic Emotions?

Certain psychologists propose that we have a few basic emotions. The main evidence is that people throughout the world can recognize certain emotional expressions. However, we seldom recognize an emotion from facial expression alone; we also consider posture, context, tone of voice, and other information. Using such information, we can identify a wider range of emotional states than just a few. The fact that we recognize expressions of disgust and surprise is not decisive for calling them emotions, because we also recognize expressions of sleepiness and confusion, which most people do not regard as emotions.

In Closing: Module 13.5

Certain situations bring out the worst in people, even well-educated people with good intentions. If we want to prevent people from panicking when a fire breaks out in a crowded theater, the best solution is not to remind people what to do. The solution is to build more exits. Similarly, it is difficult to teach people to behave ethically or intelligently when they are under strong pressure to conform or to obey orders. To avoid the temptation to make bad decisions, we need to choose our situations carefully.

Sympathetic Nervous System, p. 380

Chains of neuron clusters just to the left and right of the spinal cord that arouse the body for vigorous action Often called the "fight-or-flight" system because it increases your heart rate, breathing rate, sweating, and flow of epinephrine (also known as adrenaline)

Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is a state of unpleasant tension that arises when a behavior conflicts with an attitude. People try to reduce the inconsistency, often by changing their attitudes.

Narcolepsy, p. 329

Condition characterized by sudden attacks of sleepiness during the day People with narcolepsy lose the brain cells that produce orexin, and therefore return to a pattern resembling infants People with narcolepsy experience sudden attacks of muscle weakness or paralysis and occasional dreamlike experiences while awake; these symptoms represent intrusions of REM sleep into the waking period

Sleep Apnea, p. 328

Condition in which someone fails to breathe for a minute or more during sleep People with sleep apnea may lie in bed for 8 to 10 hours but sleep less than half that time Most common in overweight middle-aged men whose breathing passages become narrower than usual Treatment includes recommendations to lose weight and to avoid alcohol and tranquilizers before bedtime

Anorexia Nervosa, p. 361

Condition in which someone intensely fears gaining weight and refuses to eat a normal amount Anorexia means "loss of appetite," but the problem is not really lack of hunger. Most people with anorexia enjoy the taste of food and even enjoy preparing it, but they express fear of eating and gaining weight The term nervosa, meaning "for reasons of the nerves," distinguishes this condition from digestive disorders In the United States, anorexia nervosa occurs in a little less than 1 percent of women at some point in life and in about 0.3 percent of men. It usually begins in the teenage years, and almost never after the mid-20s Most people with anorexia run long distances, compete at sports, or are extremely active in other ways; they usually deny or understate their problem

Pure Autonomic Failure, p. 381

Condition in which the autonomic nervous system stops regulating the organs Nothing in the nervous system influences heart rate, breathing rate, and so forth One effect is that someone who stands up quickly faints because none of the usual reflexes kick in to prevent gravity from drawing blood from the head With regard to emotions, affected people still recognize that some situations call for anger, fear, or sadness, but they report that their emotions feel less intense than before; the cognitive aspect of emotion remains, but the feeling is weak

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), p. 405

Condition marked by prolonged anxiety and depression A profound result of severe stress Has been recognized in postwar periods throughout history under such terms as "battle fatigue" and "shell shock" Also occurs in rape or assault victims, torture victims, survivors of life-threatening accidents, and witnesses to a murder People with PTSD suffer from frequent nightmares, outburst of anger, unhappiness, and guilt A brief reminder of the tragic experience might trigger a flashback that borders on panic; mild problems seem unduly stressful, even years after the event

Periodic Limb Movement Disorder, p. 330

Condition marked by prolonged, unpleasant, "creepy-crawly" sensations in the legs and repetitive leg movements strong enough to interrupt sleep, especially during the first half of the night Also known as restless leg syndrome Interrupts sleep in many people, mostly over age 50

Night Terror, p. 330

Condition that causes someone to awaken screaming and sweating with a racing heart rate, sometimes flailing with the arms Occur during stage 3 or stage 4 sleep, not REM, and their dream content, if any, is usually simple, such as a single image Many children have night terrors, as do nearly 3 percent of adults Treatments include psychotherapy, antidepressant and antianxiety drugs, and advice to minimize stress

Concept Check: What is the best predictor of long-term success for a marriage?

Consistent displays of affection and respect correlate with long-term success.

Deadlines

Deadlines motivate people to work harder. Setting deadlines for parts of an assignment can spread out the task.

Delay of Gratification, p. 349

Declining a pleasant activity now in order to get greater pleasure later

Review Question: What is the usual consequence of resisting a temptation?

Decreased probability of resisting the next temptation

Sleeper Effect, p. 433

Delayed persuasion by an initially rejected message Very small after someone listens to a speech; that is, people who reject the speaker's message at first don't often accept it later

Electroencephalograph (EEG), p. 327

Device that measures and amplifies tiny electrical changes on the scalp that reflect brain activity

Polygraph, p. 395

Device that records sympathetic nervous system arousal, as measured by blood pressure, heart rate, breathing rate, and electrical conduction of the skin "Lie-detector test" Polygraph results are only rarely admissible as evidence in U.S. courts

Review Question: What is meant by "cognitive dissonance"?

Disagreement between attitudes and actions

Problem-Focused Coping, p. 405

Doing something to improve a stressful situation

Concept Check: How does dreaming differ from other thinking?

Dreaming resembles other thinking, but it occurs during a time of decreased sensory input and loss of voluntary control of thinking.

Three Views of Motivation

Drive Theories According to drive theories, motivation is an irritation that continues until we find a way to reduce it. Basic Position: Motivations are based on needs or irritations that we try to reduce; they do not specify particular actions. Major Weaknesses: Implies that we always try to reduce stimulation, never to increase it. Also overlooks importance of external stimuli. Homeostasis (Plus Anticipation) Homeostasis is the process of maintaining a variable such as body temperature within a set range. Basic Position: Motivations tend to maintain body states near some optimum intermediate level. They may react to current needs and anticipate future needs. Major Weaknesses: Overlooks importance of external stimuli. Incentive Theories Incentives are external stimuli that attract us even if we have no biological need for them. Basic Position: Motivations are responses to attractive stimuli. Major Weaknesses: Incomplete theory unless combined with drive or homeostasis.

Review Question: Research on rats suggests that bulimia nervosa resembles what other condition?

Drug addiction

Sleep Stages

During sleep, people cycle through sleep stages 1 through 4 and back through stages 3 and 2 to 1 again. The cycle beginning and ending with stage 1 lasts about 90 to 100 minutes.

Comparison of the Memories of Young Adults (18 to 22 years old) and Older Adults (66 to 78 years old)

Early in the morning, older people perform as well as younger people on memory tasks. Later in the day, young people improve and older people deteriorate.

Concept Check: Under what circumstances would an eating binge produce an experience similar to taking an addictive drug?

Eating a meal high in sugars and fats right after a deprivation period produces an experience comparable to those produced by addictive drugs.

In Closing: Module 13.1

Either we have evolved a tendency to help others, or we learn to. The research on the prisoner's dilemma and similar games attempts to demonstrate that cooperation and mutual aid are logical under certain conditions. You cooperate to develop a good reputation so that others will cooperate with you and not penalize you. Do you find this explanation completely satisfactory? Sometimes, you make an anonymous contribution to a worthy cause with no expectation of personal gain, not even an improvement of your reputation. You simply wanted to help that cause. You occasionally help someone you'll never see again while no one else is watching. Perhaps these acts require no special explanation. You have developed habits of helping for all the reasons that investigators have identified. Once you developed those habits, you generalize them to other circumstances, even when they do you no good. Yes, perhaps. Or maybe researchers are still overlooking something. Conclusions in psychology are almost never final. You are invited to think about these issues yourself and develop your own hypotheses.

Embarrassment, p. 400

Emotional reaction to mistakes (such as thinking someone was flirting with you when in fact they were flirting with the person behind you), being the center of attention (such as having people sing "Happy Birthday" to you), or "sticky situations" (such as having to ask someone for a major favor) Self-conscious emotion that occurs when you think about how other people regard you or might regard you if they knew what you had done

Measuring Emotions

Emotions are inferred, not observed directly. Researchers rely on self-reports, observations of behavior, and measurements of physiological changes.

Usefulness of Emotions

Emotions call our attention to important information and adjust our priorities to our situation in life.

Circadian Rhythms

Even in an unchanging environment, people become sleepy in cycles of approximately 24 hours.

Prediction and Control

Events are generally less stressful when people think they can predict or control them.

Obesity, p. 360

Excessive accumulation of body fat About 30 percent of U.S. adults are obese Many people with obesity feel distressed and suffer from low self-esteem because of how other people treat them

Self-Fulfilling Prophecies, p. 421

Expectations that increase the probability of the predicted event

Internal Attributions, p. 424

Explanations based on someone's attitudes, personality traits, abilities, or other characteristics Example: Saying that your brother walked to work this morning "because he likes the exercise" Also known as dispositional (i.e., relating to the person's disposition)

External Attributions, p. 424

Explanations based on the situation, including events that would influence almost anyone Example: Saying that your brother walked to work this morning "because his car wouldn't start" Also known as situational (i.e., relating to the situation)

Review Question: What are the main ways in which motivation affects job performance?

Extrinsic motivation mainly increases quantity, and intrinsic motivation mainly increases quality.

Concept Check: What are some factors that contribute to high job satisfaction?

Factors associated with high job satisfaction include high ability to perform the job, a happy personality, a perception that the pay scale is fair, and old age.

Health Psychology, p. 402

Field that addresses how people's behavior influences health, including such issues as why people smoke, why they sometimes ignore their physician's advice, and how they can reduce pain

Concept Check: How could you increase your probability of getting a good start on writing a term paper?

First, find some way to boost your confidence. Then make specific plans, such as, "I will spend Monday night at the library looking for materials." You could also estimate your probability of completing the first part of the paper.

Aggressive Behavior

Frustration or discomfort of any kind increases the probability of anger and aggression, especially if one perceives that others have caused their frustration intentionally.

Duchenne Smile, p. 385

Full expression including the muscles around the eyes Named after Duchenne de Boulogne, the first person to describe it Hard to produce voluntarily A good indicator of someone's true feelings

Origins of Sexual Orientation

Genetic influences and prenatal environment affect sexual orientation. On the average, heterosexual and homosexual men differ in the size of a structure in the hypothalamus that contributes to certain aspects of sexual behavior. Less is known about the role of experience in the development of sexual orientation.

Group Polarization

Groups of people who lean mostly in the same direction on a given issue often make more extreme decisions than most people would have made on their own.

Groupthink

Groupthink occurs when members of a cohesive group fail to express their opposition to a decision for fear of making a bad impression or harming the cohesive spirit of the group.

Review Question: On average, people born in more recent decades are (blank) than those born in earlier decades, and life satisfaction (blank) as people grow older.

Happier... increases.

Concept Check: List some factors that correlate with happiness.

Happiness correlates positively (though not in all cases strongly) with wealth, health, living in a country that tolerates minority groups and gives high status to women, having close personal relationships, having goals in life, having substantive conversations, having happy friends, expressing gratitude, and helping others. It also increases in old age, and is greater for people born in recent decades (at least in the United States).

Increasing Happiness

Happiness increases from changes in activities, such as listing things to feel grateful about and helping other people.

Happiness and Joy

Happiness level is usually fairly stable over time. However, it decreases for years, sometimes permanently, after the death of a close loved one, divorce, loss of a job, or a disability.

Ten Common Hassles and Uplifts

Hassles 1. Concerns about weight 2. Health of a family member 3. Rising prices of common goods 4. Home maintenance 5. Too many things to do 6. Misplacing or losing things 7. Yard work or outside home maintenance 8. Property, investment, or taxes 9. Crime 10. Physical appearance Uplifts 1. Relating well with your spouse or lover 2. Relating well with friends 3. Completing task 4. Feeling healthy 5. Getting enough sleep 6. Eating out 7. Meeting your responsibilities 8. Visiting, phoning, or writing someone 9. Spending time with family 10. Home (inside) pleasing to you

Review Question: How did Lawrence Kohlberg evaluate moral reasoning?

He evaluated the reasons people gave for their decisions on moral dilemmas.

Altruistic Behavior, p. 414

Helping others despite a cost to ourselves Uncommon in other animal species

Estradiol, p. 369

Hormone present in higher quantities in females than in males An abundant type of estrogen Important for internal female development but has little effect on development of the external anatomy

Testosterone, p. 369

Hormone present in higher quantities in males than in females

Cortisol, p. 402

Hormone that enhances metabolism and increases the supply of sugar and other fuels to the cells

Insulin, p. 356

Hormone that increases the flow of glucose and several other nutrients into body cells Promotes the movement of glucose and other nutrients out of the blood and into the cells that need fuel and into cells that store nutrients for future use

Leptin, p. 357

Hormone that the body's fat cells release in amounts proportional to their mass Your fat cells' way to say, "The body has enough fat already, so eat less" Triggers the start of puberty: When the body reaches a certain weight, the increased leptin levels combine with other forces to induce the hormonal changes of puberty

Consensus Information, p. 425

How a person's behavior compares with other people's behavior

Distinctiveness, p. 425

How a person's behavior varies from one situation to another

Consistency Information, p. 425

How a person's behavior varies from one time to the next

The Cognitive Aspect of Emotion

Hypothesis: A drug that increases arousal will enhance whatever emotion a situation arouses, but the type of emotion will depend on the situation. Results: Many students in the euphoria situation joined the playful partner. One jumped up and down on the desk, and another opened a window and threw paper wads at passersby. The anger situation was less effective than expected, although a few students muttered angry comments or refused to complete the questionnaire. Recall that some of the participants had been informed beforehand that the injections would produce certain autonomic effects. No matter which situation they were in, they showed only slight emotional responses. When they felt themselves sweating and their hands trembling, they said to themselves, "Aha! I'm getting the side effects, just as they said I would."

Broaden-and-Build Hypothesis, p. 389

Idea that a happy mood increases your readiness to explore new ideas and opportunities Barbara Fredrickson (2001) You think creatively, notice the details in the background that you ordinarily overlook, and increase your pursuit of new experiences that will help maintain your happy mood

Human-Relations Approach, p. 351

Idea that employees like variety in their job, a sense of accomplishment, and a sense of responsibility; therefore, employers should enrich the jobs, giving each employee responsibility for meaningful tasks Also known as Theory Y

James-Lange Theory, p. 381

Idea that perception of bodily changes provides the feeling aspect of emotion Your interpretation of a stimulus evokes autonomic changes and sometimes muscle actions Situation -> Appraisal (Cognitive Aspect of the Emotion) -> Actions (Physiological and Behavioral Aspects) -> Perception of the Actions (Feeling Aspect of the Emotion)

Exchange (or Equity) Theories, p. 439

Idea that social relationships are transactions in which partners exchange goods and services

The Milgram Experiment

If an experimenter asked you to deliver shocks to another person, starting with weak shocks and progressing to stronger ones, at what point, if any, would you refuse? Research by Stanley Milgram (1974) was inspired by reports of atrocities in the Nazi concentration camps during World War II. People who had committed the atrocities defended themselves by saying they were only obeying orders. International courts rejected that defense, and outraged people throughout the world insisted, "If I had been there, I would have refused to follow such orders" or "I would have been like the woman in the movie Schindler's List who risked her life to save Jewish people from the Nazi Holocaust." Well, maybe you would have, and maybe not. It is hard to be sure what you would do in a situation you have never faced. Milgram suspected that people might yield to pressure. Hypothesis: When an authority figure gives normal people instructions to do something that might hurt another person, some of them will obey. Results: Of 40 participants, 25 delivered shocks all the way to 450 volts. Most of those who quit did so early. Most of those who went beyond 150 volts and everyone who continued beyond 330 persisted all the way to 450. Those who delivered the maximum shock were not sadists but normal adults recruited from the community through newspaper ads. They were paid a few dollars for their services, and if they asked, they were told that they could keep the money even if they quit. (Not many asked.) People from all walks of life obeyed the experimenter's orders, including blue-collar workers, white-collar workers, and professionals. Most became nervous and upset while they were supposedly delivering shocks to the screaming learner. In Milgram's experiment, a rigged selection chose a confederate of the experimenter to be the "learner." The "teacher" in Milgram's experiment flipped switches on a box, apparently delivering stronger and stronger shocks for each successive error that the "learner" made. Although the device looked realistic, it did not actually shock the learner. In one variation of the procedure, the experimenter asked the teacher to hold the learner's hand on the shock plate. This close contact with the learner decreased obedience to less than half its usual level. Milgram varied his procedure in many ways. Division of responsibility increased obedience. An implication of personal responsibility decreased obedience.

Concept Check: How would group polarization affect a jury?

If most jury members lean toward a guilty or innocent verdict, they will become even more confident of their decision after a discussion. In a civil suit, if most jurors favor a strong penalty against the defendant, they will probably choose an even stronger penalty after a discussion.

Forewarning and Inoculation Effects

If people have been warned that someone will try to persuade them of something or if they have previously heard a weak version of the persuasive argument, they tend to resist the argument.

Concept Check: What conclusion would have followed if the early-deadline students did better than the late-deadline students did but that the class on the average did as well as the assigned-deadline students?

If students in the two sections had equal performance overall, we could not conclude that deadlines help. Instead, the conclusion would be that brighter students tend to set earlier deadlines.

Concept Check: What conclusion would follow if researchers had found that the twin would PTSD had a normal size hippocampus?

If the twin without PTSD had a normal hippocampus, the conclusion would be that severe stress had damaged the hippocampus of the twin with PTSD.

Asch's Conformity Studies

In Asch's conformity studies, a participant was asked which of three lines matched another line. Before answering, the participant heard other people answer incorrectly. Asch found that conformity became more frequent as group size increased to about three, and then it leveled off. In Asch's experiments, participants who were faced with a unanimous incorrect majority conformed on 32 percent of trials. Participants who had one ally giving the correct answer were less likely to conform.

Obedience

In Milgram's obedience study, many people followed directions in which they thought they were delivering painful shocks to another person.

Schachter and Singer's Experiment

In Schachter and Singer's experiment, people who were uninformed about the effects of epinephrine reported strong emotions appropriate to the situation. According to Schachter and Singer, autonomic arousal controls the strength of an emotion, but cognitive factors tell us which emotion we are experiencing.

Discrimination, p. 422

In social behavior, unequal treatment of different groups of people, such as minority groups, the physically disabled, people who are obese, or gays and lesbians

Proximity, p. 437

In social psychology, the tendency to choose as friends people with whom we come in frequent contact

Review Question: What is one apparent advantage of feeling sad?

In some ways sad people are more realistic.

Development of Genitals

In the early stages of development, the human fetus possesses anatomical structures that may develop into either male genitals (if testosterone levels are high enough) or female genitals (if testosterone levels are lower).

The Prisoner's Dilemma

In the prisoner's dilemma, two people can choose to cooperate or compete. The compete move seems best from the individual's point of view, but it is harmful to the group.

Insomnia

Insomnia - subjectively unsatisfactory sleep - results from many influences. Sleep abnormalities include sleep apnea and narcolepsy.

Alternative Views

Instead of speaking of a list of basic emotions, an alternative is to consider emotions as varying along continuous dimensions.

Concept Check: Insulin levels fluctuate over the course of a day. Would they be higher in the middle of the day, when people tend to be hungry, or late at night, when most are less hungry?

Insulin levels are higher in the middle of the day. As a result, much of your meal is stored, and you become hungry again. At night, when insulin levels are lower, you draw from your supplies to make more glucose.

Review Question: Why does intense, prolonged stress sometimes lead to fever, fatigue, and sleepiness?

Intense stress activates the immune system.

Reappraisal

Interpreting a situation in a new, less threatening way reduces tension.

Overcoming Temptations

It is better to avoid tempting situations than to try to combat temptation. Resisting a temptation helps people to later resist the same type of temptation, but it often weakens their ability to resist other types. Seeing another person yield to temptation increases the risk of also yielding, unless one sees the other person as an outsider, different from oneself. A reminder about ethical norms decreases cheating in some situations.

Concept Check: What would be an improvement on the advice "try to avoid seeming prejudiced"?

It is better to try to have a positive experience and to enjoy cultural differences.

Other Emotions

It is often helpful to distinguish several types of positive emotion such as pride, awe, and amusement. Embarrassment, shame, guilt, and pride depend on how we believe others will react to our actions.

Concept Check: "I want my employees to enjoy their work and to feel pride in their achievements." Does that statement reflect a belief in the human-relations approach or the scientific-management approach?

It reflects the human-relations approach.

Review Question: What roles does sunlight play, if any, in the circadian rhythm?

It rests the rhythm, like resetting the time on your watch.

Review Question: If someone remains awake nonstop for three days, what happens to the person's alertness?

It rises and falls on a 24-hour schedule, superimposed on a downward slope.

Concept Check: Why are checklists an unsatisfactory way to measure stress?

It seems doubtful that several small stressors should add to as much as one large stressor. Items on stress checklists are often ambiguous. Also, an event can be more stressful for one person than another.

Concept Check: Suppose a well-dressed, attractive, articulate speaker presents a long list of rather weak arguments for why a college should require all seniors to take a comprehensive examination. Will this speech be more effective if the speaker is talking about your college or some other college? Why?

It will be more effective if it concerns some other college. When a decision is unimportant to you, you follow the peripheral route to persuasion, which attends to your emotions at the moment instead of careful examination of the evidence.

Concept Check: Why should we not insist on verbal reports to infer or measure emotions?

It would be impossible to teach a child (or anyone else) the words for emotions unless we had already inferred the emotions from the individual's behavior.

Concept Check: What jobs are especially vulnerable to job burnout?

Job burnout is especially common in the helping professions, such as nursing or therapy.

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction is strongly correlated with an individual's interest in the job, and moderately correlated with good performance on the job. People with a happy disposition are more likely than others to be satisfied with their jobs, as are older workers in general. Job satisfaction also requires a perception that the pay scale is fair.

Varying secretions of insulin regulate the flow of nutrients from the blood into the cells or from storage back into the blood.

Just finished meal -> Increasing levels of glucose and other nutrients in blood -> Satiety and/or Pancreas secretes more insulin Satiety -> Other influences, e.g., stomach distension Pancreas secretes more insulin -> Excess glucose and other nutrients in blood are converted to fats and other substances and stored in body cells. Surge in blood nutrients is dampened. Energy stores are developed for future needs

Review Question: Although Alfred Kinsey reported that 13 percent of men and 7 percent of women had a predominantly homosexual orientation; later surveys reported much lower numbers. Why?

Kinsey did not interview a representative sample of the population.

Concept Check: Why did Kinsey's results differ from those of later surveys?

Kinsey interviewed a nonrandom, nonrepresentative sample of people.

Limits to Kohlberg's Views

Kohlberg concentrated on logical reasoning. In fact, people usually act first, based on an emotional urge, and look for a justification later. Also, many people, especially in non-Western cultures, base their moral decisions on factors Kohlberg ignored, including loyalty, authority, and purity.

A feedback system between eating and insulin levels maintains homeostatic control of nutrition.

Lack of eating, empty digestive system -> Low blood insulin, so little glucose enters cells; appetite increases -> Eating fills digestive system, increases insulin level; more glucose enters cells -> Appetite decreases, digestive system empties

Kohlberg's View of Moral Reasoning

Lawrence Kohlberg argued that we should evaluate moral reasoning on the basis of the reasons people give for a decision rather than the decision itself.

Set Point, p. 357

Level of some variable that the body works to keep constant Similar to the temperature at which you set the thermostat in your house For most people, weight fluctuates around a set point, just as a diving board bounces up and down from a central position

In Closing: Module 13.4

Life is like a roller-coaster ride in the dark: It has many ups and downs, and you never know what is going to happen next. You want to ride with someone you like and trust. Many people choose their partners poorly. In some regards, forming impressions of romantic partners is especially difficult. A person you date is trying to make a good impression, and you hope to like the person. As the relationship progresses, another factor kicks in: Remember from the section on persuasion that anyone you like tends to be highly persuasive. In short, it is easy to form an attachment and later regret it. Choose carefully.

Attitude, p. 429

Likes or dislikes that influence behavior Includes an evaluative or emotional component (how you feel about something), a cognitive component (what you know or believe), and a behavioral component (what you are likely to do)

Polysomnograph, p. 327

Literally, "many-sleep measure" Device that combines an EEG measure with a simultaneous measure of eye movement

Bulimia Nervosa, p. 362

Literally, "ox hunger for nervous reasons" A condition in which people alternate between self-deprivation and periods of excessive eating, with a feeling of loss of control To compensate after overeating, people with bulimia nervosa may force themselves to vomit or use laxatives or enemas, or they may go through long periods of dieting and exercising In the United States, about 1 percent of adult women and about 0.1 percent of adult men have bulimia nervosa; the incidence increased steadily for several decades, although it has leveled out since about 1990 Most people recover fully or partly from bulimia, but many have lingering problems of depression

Job Burnout, p. 352

Long-lasting sense of mental and physical exhaustion and discouragement People with this condition feel detached from their job and their coworkers, and they lack any sense of accomplishment; they become less effective on the job, and their health deteriorates Especially common among people in the helping professions, such as nurses, teachers, and therapists, who are expected to be supportive and encouraging at all times

Allostasis, p. 346

Maintaining levels of biological conditions that vary according to an individual's needs and circumstances Acts to prevent difficulties instead of just correcting them after they occur

Homeostasis, p. 346

Maintenance of an optimum level of biological conditions within an organism The idea recognizes that we seek a state of equilibrium, which is not zero stimulation

Review Question: Which of the following is NOT good advice about making a New Year's resolution? a. Make your resolution realistic. b. Make it general, such as "I will do my best." c. Tell other people about your resolution. d. Keep track of how successful you are in keeping your resolution.

Make it general, such as "I will do my best."

Emotions and Autonomic Arousal

Many emotional states are associated with increased arousal of the sympathetic nervous system, which readies the body for emergency action.

Homeostasis and Allostasis

Many motivated behaviors tend to maintain body conditions and stimulation at a near-constant, or homeostatic, level. In addition, behaviors anticipate future needs.

Conformity

Many people conform to the majority view even when they are confident that the majority is wrong. An individual is as likely to conform to a group of three as to a larger group, but an individual with an ally is less likely to conform.

Marriage

Marriage and similar relationships often break up because of problems that were present from the start, such as displays of anger.

Short-Term Regulation of Hunger

Meals end by several mechanisms, principally distension of the stomach and intestines. Hunger resumes when the cells begin to receive less glucose and other nutrients. The hormone insulin regulates the flow of nutrients from the blood to storage.

Concept Check: How could we measure anxiety levels of nonhuman animals, preverbal children, or others who cannot answer in words?

Measure the strength of the startle reflex.

Influence of Fear

Messages that appeal to fear are sometimes effective, unless the message is too extreme or if it suggests that the problem is hopeless.

Bait-and-Switch Technique, p. 432

Method of eliciting compliance whereby a person first offers an extremely favorable deal, gets the other person to commit to the deal, and then makes additional demands

That's-Not-All Technique, p. 432

Method of eliciting compliance whereby someone makes an offer and then improves the offer before you have a chance to reply

Foot-in-the-Door Technique, p. 432

Method of eliciting compliance whereby someone starts with a modest request, which you accept, and follows with a larger request

Review Question: The neurocognitive theory of dreams compares dreams to what?

Mind wandering and daydreaming

Guilty-Knowledge Test, p. 396

Modified version of the polygraph test that produces more accurate results by asking questions that should be threatening only to someone who knows the facts of a crime When properly administered, rarely classifies an innocent person as guilty

Dream Content

More dreams are threatening than pleasant. Freud proposed that dreams are the product of unconscious motivations. Modern theorists describe dreaming as a kind of thinking that occurs under conditions of low sensory input and no voluntary control of thinking.

Glucose, p. 356

Most abundant sugar in the blood, an important source of energy for the body and almost the only source the brain uses The body makes glucose from almost any food If you eat too much, your body converts the excess into fats and other stored fuels. If you eat too little, you convert the stored fuels back into blood glucose

Concept Check: Why is the ability to recognize the expressions of six emotions not convincing evidence that these are basic emotions?

Most everyday expressions do not fit neatly into those six categories. We can also identify additional states, such as contempt and pride. Also, we can identify facial expressions of other conditions that may or may not be emotions.

Concept Check: Why did a doubling of the mean wealth of Americans over 30 years fail to increase mean happiness?

Most of the increased wealth went to rich people. Most people's wealth did not increase much.

Review Question: What did Solomon Asch's study of conformity reveal?

Most people conform even when they know the majority opinion is wrong.

Weight-Loss Techniques

Most people fail to lose weight for the long term by dieting, often because they fail to follow the diet. A combination of diet and exercise works better, although the success rate is still disappointing.

Concept Check: What are the arguments against regarding anorexia as a result of emotional problems?

Most people with anorexia had no psychiatric problems before developing anorexia. Standard forms of psychotherapy and drug therapies are not very effective with anorexia. Also, a treatment based on increasing body warmth and avoiding excessive exercise has been reported to be highly effective.

Social Loafing

Most people work less hard when they are part of a group than when they work alone, except when they think they can make a unique contribution or if they think others are evaluating their contribution.

Coping Styles

Most strategies for dealing with stress fall into three major categories: trying to fix the problem, reappraisal, and trying to control emotions.

Characteristics of Motivated Behaviors

Motivated behaviors vary from time to time, from situation to situation, and from person to person. They persist until the individual reaches the goal.

Extrinsic Motivation, p. 346

Motivation based on the rewards an act might bring or the punishments it might avoid A drive for hunger, water, or a comfortable temperature is an extrinsic motivation

Motivation as Incentive

Motivations are partly under the control of incentives - external stimuli that pull us toward certain actions. Both drives and incentives control most motivated behaviors.

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivations

Motivations include the possible rewards and the joy of the task itself.

Concept Check: What are some of the ways in which men's sexuality differs from women's?

Nearly all men identify their sexual orientation early and cannot imagine switching. Some women discover their orientation later, and a fair number have a consistent bisexual response. Measuring penis erections can accurately indicate a man's sexual interest, but vaginal secretions are not a dependable way to measure a woman's sexual interest.

Parasympathetic Nervous System, p. 381

Neurons whose axons extend from the medulla and the lower part of the spinal cord to neuron clusters near the organs; it decreases the heart rate and promotes digestion and other nonemergency functions

Stress, p. 402

Nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it

Concept Check: Most studies find that gay men have approximately the same levels of testosterone in their blood as heterosexual men of the same age. Do such results conflict with the suggestion that prenatal hormonal conditions can predispose certain men to homosexuality?

Not necessarily. The suggestion is that prenatal hormones can alter early brain development. In adulthood, hormone levels are normal, but certain aspects of brain development have already been determined.

The Effect of Birth Cohort on Well-Being: The Legacy of Economic Hard Times

On average, people born in a given year (such as 1965 or 1945) reported greater well-being as they grew older. In addition, those born in more recent decades reported greater well-being than those born earlier.

Happiness and Age

On average, people report increased happiness and life satisfaction as they grow older. In the United States, people born in recent decades tend to report more happiness than people born in previous decades.

Performance on Indirect Measures of Race Evaluation Predicts Amygdala Activation

On average, white people who claimed to have no racial prejudice responded slower if they had to make one response for "black face or pleasant word" and a different response for "white face or unpleasant word" than if the pairings were reversed - black and unpleasant, white and pleasant.

Concept Check: You have read two explanations for humans' altruistic behavior. Why do both of them require individual recognition?

One explanation for altruistic behavior is that cooperating builds a reputation, and reputation requires individuals to recognize one another. The other explanation is that people who cooperate will punish those who do not. Again, to retaliate, they need to recognize who has failed to cooperate.

Review Question: What is meant by a "collectivist" culture?

One where people subordinate their own wishes to the welfare of their society

Concept Check: What are some limitations of Kohlberg's approach?

Ordinarily, people make quick moral decisions intuitively and emotionally, rather than reasoning them out logically. Also, Kohlberg assumed that all moral decisions are based on seeking justice and avoiding harm to others. Most of the world's people also consider such matters as group loyalty, respect for authority, and spiritual purity.

Hierarchy of Needs, p. 347

Organization from the most insistent needs to the ones that receive attention only when all others are under control

First Impressions

Other things being equal, we pay more attention to the first information we learn about someone than to later information. First impressions form rapidly, and some are more accurate than we might guess.

Review Question: To what extent do facial expressions of emotion differ among human cultures?

People anywhere can recognize facial expressions with greater than chance accuracy, but they are more accurate with faces from their own culture.

Bystander Apathy

People are less likely to help someone if other people are in an equally good position to help.

Review Question: What is the usual outcome of cognitive dissonance?

People change their behavior first, and then change their attitudes.

Cognitive and Social Influences on Eating

People eat more in groups than when eating alone. They eat more, drink more, and enjoy their meal more when they have high expectations for the meal, based on such things as the name of the food or the supposed location of the winery. They eat more when they are offered larger portions.

Concept Check: What evidence indicates important nongenetic influences on eating and weight gain?

People eat more when in social groups than when eating alone. People's expectations about foods, based on such things as the name of the food, influence intake. People eat more when portion sizes are larger.

Fundamental Attribution Error

People frequently attribute people's behavior to internal causes, even when they see evidence of external influences.

Concept Check: Why do many psychologists doubt the concept of basic emotions?

People frequently show parts of several emotions instead of all the aspects of one emotion. That is, the various aspects supposedly associated with one emotion do not correlate well with one another.

Forming Relationships

People generally choose friends and romantic partners who live near them. In the early stage of romantic attraction, physical appearance is the key factor, but similarity of interests and goals becomes more serious later. Relationships are most likely to thrive if each person believes that he or she is getting about as good a deal as the other person is.

Overcoming Procrastination

People get started toward their goals if they set specific plans about what they will do, when, and where. Estimating your probability of doing something increases your chance of doing it. Making any kind of decision helps end procrastination.

Concept Check: Over the past few decades, the average age of starting puberty has become younger. What is one explanation, based on this chapter?

People have been gaining weight and therefore producing more leptin. Leptin facilitates the onset of puberty.

Cultural Differences

People in Asian cultures are less likely than those in Western cultures to attribute behavior to consistent personality traits and more likely to attribute it to the situation.

Social Influence

People influence our behavior by setting norms and by offering information. We also follow others' examples just because they suggested a possible action.

Emotional Intelligence

People need skills to judge other people's emotions and the probable emotional outcomes of their own actions. The ability to handle such issues may constitute "emotional intelligence." However, it is not clear that current measurements of emotional intelligence predict much that we could not already predict based on academic intelligence and certain aspects of personality.

Self-Serving Bias and Self-Handicapping

People often try to protect their self-esteem by attributing their successes to skill and their failures to outside influences. They sometimes place themselves at a disadvantage to provide an excuse for failure.

Motivation Conflict

People seldom do anything for just one reason. In general, biological needs take priority over other motivations, but not always.

Cognitive Factors in Aggression

People sometimes justify cruel or uncooperative behavior by lowering their opinion of the victims. People also decrease their own sense of personal responsibility.

Anorexia Nervosa

People suffering from anorexia nervosa deprive themselves of food, sometimes to a dangerous point. Most show extreme physical activity, which can be interpreted as a mechanism of temperature regulation. A therapy based on keeping the person warm, restricting exercise, and monitoring food intake has shown promise.

Bulimia Nervosa

People suffering from bulimia nervosa alternate between periods of strict dieting and brief but spectacular eating binges. Bulimia has been compared to drug addiction.

Making Goals Realistic

People tend to underestimate how much time and effort they will need to achieve their goals. It is best to plan for more time and resources than seem necessary and to start as quickly as possible.

Delayed Gratification

People vary in whether they choose a larger reward later over a smaller one now. Children who can delay gratification show long-term advantages when they reach adolescence. It is often easier to choose the delayed reward if you make the choice far in advance.

Concept Check: What evidence conflicts with the idea that crying relieves tension?

People who cried during a sad movie had no less tension than people who restrained their crying, and they reported feeling more depressed.

Evidence Supporting the James-Lange Theory

People who lose control of their autonomic responses generally report weakened emotional feelings. Molding someone's posture and breathing pattern into the pattern typical for some emotion facilitates that emotion.

Intersexes, p. 370

People with anatomy that appears intermediate between male and female

Effects of Brain Damage

People with brain damage that impairs their emotions have trouble making good decisions, especially in situations related to moral treatment of others.

Concept Check: In what way does prefrontal cortex damage interfere with decision making?

People with damage to the prefrontal cortex cannot imagine feeling good or bad after various outcomes; therefore, they do not consider the emotional pain that a decision might cause.

The Intricate Link Between Violence and Mental Disorder

People with mental illness who are also substance abusers have an 8 percent chance of committing a violent crime within two to three years. Those who are not substance abusers are no more dangerous than the rest of the population.

Concept Check: What happens to emotions in people with conditions that weaken their autonomic responses? How do these results relate to the James-Lange theory?

People with pure autonomic failure have no systematic autonomic changes, and their emotions feel weak. That result supports the predictions of the James-Lange theory.

A Snapshot of the Age Distribution of Psychological Well-Being in the United States

People's reported well-being reaches a low point at about age 50 and then increases, on average, as long as people remain healthy. These results represent a survey of more than 340,000 people in 2008.

Jet Lag, p. 323

Period of discomfort and inefficiency while your internal clock is out of phase with your new surroundings Most people suffer more serious jet lag when traveling east than when traveling west

Mere Measurement Effect, p. 349

Phenomenon that estimating your probability of doing some desirable activity increases your probability of doing it

Forewarning Effect, p. 433

Phenomenon that informing people that they are about to hear a persuasive speech activates their resistance and weakens the persuasion

Review Question: According to Schachter and Singer's theory, the intensity of an emotion depends on your (blank) and your identification of which emotion you feel depends on your (blank).

Physiological arousal... appraisal of the situation.

Positive Psychology

Positive psychology is the study of features that enrich life.

Review Question: Suppose you are nervous about giving a speech before a group of 200 strangers. How could you inoculate yourself to reduce the stress?

Practice giving your talk to a smaller group.

Mere Exposure Effect, p. 437

Principle that the more often we come into contact with someone or something, the more we tend to like that person or object

Concept Check: Could we decrease violent crime through better treatment of mental illness?

Probably not, although treating drug abuse might be effective. Aggressive behavior is often a problem among mental patients who abuse alcohol or other drugs, but mental patients without substance abuse are no more dangerous than anyone else.

Implicit Association Test (IAT), p. 422

Procedure that measures reactions to combinations of categories, such as "flowers" and "pleasant" The results correlate only weakly with people's expressed attitudes

Central Route to Persuasion, p. 431

Process in which people who take a decision seriously invest the necessary effort to evaluate the evidence and logic

Motivation, p. 345

Process that determines the reinforcement value of an outcome for addictive behavior What makes you seek something more at one time than another

Social Perception and Cognition, p. 421

Processes for learning about others and making inferences from that information Influence our observations, memory, and thinking

Political Proposals of the U.S. Socialist Party, Early 1900s

Proposal: Women's right to vote Eventual Fate of Proposal: Established by the 19th Amendment to U.S. Constitution; ratified in 1920 Proposal: Old-age pensions Eventual Fate of Proposal: Included in the Social Security Act of 1935 Proposal: Unemployment insurance Eventual Fate of Proposal: Included in the Social Security Act of 1935; also guaranteed by other state and federal legislation Proposal: Health and accident insurance Eventual Fate of Proposal: Included in part in the Social Security Act of 1935 and in the Medicare Act of 1965 Proposal: Increased wages, including minimum wage Eventual Fate of Proposal: First minimum-wage law passed in 1938; periodically updated since then Proposal: Reduction of working hours Eventual Fate of Proposal: Maximum 40-hour workweek (with exceptions) established by the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 Proposal: Public ownership of electric, gas, and other utilities and of the means of transportation and communication Eventual Fate of Proposal: Utilities not owned by government but heavily regulated by federal and state government since the 1930s Proposal: Initiative, referendum, and recall (mechanisms for private citizens to push for changes in legislation and for removal of elected officials) Eventual Fate of Proposal: Adopted by most state governments

Inoculation, p. 406

Protection against the harmful effects of stress by earlier exposure to smaller amounts of it

Romantic Love

Psychologists distinguish passionate love and companionate love. For many people, love fades over a lifetime, but for a substantial number of people, it remains strong and passionate even after decades of marriage.

Review Question: What does an implicit association test (IAT) measure?

Reaction times

Contempt, p. 396

Reaction to a violation of community standards, such as when someone fails to do a fair share of the work or claims credit for something another person did

Disgust, p. 396

Reaction to something that would make you feel contaminated if it got into your mouth

Review Question: What is meant by "multiculturalism"?

Recognizing and enjoying the differences among people

Emotion-Focused Coping, p. 405

Regulating one's emotional reaction

Reappraisal, p. 405

Reinterpreting a situation to make it seem less threatening

Emotion-Focused Coping

Relaxation, exercise, and distraction reduce excess anxiety.

Heart Disease

Research has found only a small link between emotional responses and the onset of heart disease.

In Closing: Module 12.1

Research on emotions is fascinating but difficult. Of the various components of emotion, the cognitive and feeling aspects are hardest to measure. Behavioral and physiological measures are more objective, but they have their own problems. The best solution is to approach any question in multiple ways. Any study has limitations, but if several different kinds of research point to the same conclusion, we gain confidence in the overall idea. That principle is, indeed, important throughout psychology: Seldom is any study fully decisive, so we strive for independent lines of research that converge on the same conclusion.

Studies Using PET and fMRI Brain Scans

Researchers aroused emotions in various ways and then used PET or fMRI scans to identify which brain areas became aroused. The areas aroused by any emotion largely overlap those aroused by other emotions. No brain area appears specific to one type of emotion.

Review Question: What is the best advice if you have a conflict with a romantic partner?

Restrain your emotional display.

Circadian Rhythm, p. 321

Rhythm of activity and inactivity lasting approximately one day The term circadian comes from the Latin roots circa and dies, meaning "about a day"

Sadness

Sadness is a reaction to a loss. Crying is a way of communicating sadness or distress to others.

Autonomic Nervous System, p. 380

Section of the nervous system that controls the organs such as the heart and intestines The brain and spinal cord regulate the autonomic nervous system Consists of the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems

Review Question: Embarrassment, shame, guilt, and pride are grouped as what category of emotions?

Self-conscious

Subjective Well-Being, p. 397

Self-evaluation of one's life as pleasant, interesting, satisfying, and meaningful

Attribution, p. 424

Set of thought processes we use to assign causes to our own behavior and that of others

Goal Setting

Setting a goal motivates strong effort if the goal is high but realistic. Other important factors include making a serious commitment to the goal, receiving feedback on progress, and believing that the goal will bring a fair reward.

Gender Identity, p. 370

Sex that someone regards himself or herself as being

Rape, p. 418

Sexual activity without the consent of the partner In one survey, about 10 percent of adult women reported that they had been forcibly raped, and another 10 percent said they had sex while incapacitated by alcohol or other drugs Of all sexual assaults that legally qualify as rape, only about half the victims think of the experience as rape, and far fewer report it to the police

Sexual Arousal

Sexual arousal proceeds through four stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Sexual Arousal Stages

Sexual arousal usually proceeds through four stages - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. Excitement builds until the third stage, a sudden release of tension known as climax or orgasm, which the entire body feels. The fourth and final stage is resolution, a state of relaxation. The pattern of excitation varies from one person to another.

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), p. 368

Sexually transmitted disease that attacks the body's immune system In the United States, AIDS spread first among male homosexuals and later among heterosexuals; in parts of Africa, it affects up to one-fourth of the population between ages 15 and 50 One difficulty is that people remain symptom-free for years, so they can spread the virus long before they know they have it and before their partners have reason to suspect it To prevent AIDS, use condoms during sex and don't share injection needles

Concept Check: How do the short-term effects of cortisol differ from the effects of prolonged cortisol?

Short-term, moderate increases in cortisol enhance memory and increase immune responses. For example, many college students have increased immune system activity during the stressful time of taking final exams. Prolonged cortisol damages the hippocampus, impairs memory, and exhausts the immune system.

Pluralistic Ignorance, p. 416

Situation in which people say nothing, and each person falsely assumes that others have a better-informed opinion

In Closing: Module 10.2

Sleep and dreams are not a state of unconsciousness but a state of reduced or altered consciousness. For example, a parent will awaken at the sound of a child softly crying. A healthy brain is never completely off duty, never completely relaxed. Although our understanding of sleep and dreams continues to grow, major questions remain. Even such basic issues as the function of REM sleep remain in doubt. People have long found their dreams a source of wonder, and researchers continue to find much of interest and mystery.

Concept Check: Name two important functions of sleep.

Sleep conserves energy, and memories strengthen during sleep.

The Need for Sleep

Sleep serves several functions, including conservation of energy and an opportunity to strengthen memories. Sleep-deprived people have difficulty maintaining attention.

Motivation as Drive Reduction

Some aspects of motivation can be described as drive reduction, but people strive for new experiences that do not reduce any apparent drive.

Obesity

Some people are predisposed to obesity for genetic reasons. Obese people tend to be inactive and remain so even after losing weight.

Morning and Evening People

Some people arouse quickly and reach their peak alertness early. Others increase alertness more slowly and reach their peak in late afternoon or early evening. Evening people are at a disadvantage if they need to start work or school early in the morning.

Job Burnout

Some people have a long-lasting discouragement that alienates them from their job and their coworkers.

Transformational Leader, p. 353

Someone who articulates a vision of the future, intellectually stimulates subordinates, and motivates them to advance the organization

Review Question: What is a transformational leader?

Someone who is seen as visionary and stimulating

Transactional Leader, p. 353

Someone who tries to make an organization more efficient at doing what it is already doing by providing rewards (mainly pay) for effective work Often effective in organizations where activities stay the same from year to year

Methods of Influence

Someone you like or consider similar to yourself is more persuasive than other people are. Being told that most people favor some idea or action makes it appealing. You may feel obligated to perform a favor for someone who did a favor for you or gave you something. An item may appear more desirable because of its contrast to something else. In the foot-in-the-door, bait-and-switch, and that's-not-all techniques, a first request makes you more likely to accept a second request.

Sexual Orientation, p. 371

Someone's tendency to respond sexually to male or female partners or both or neither People vary in their sexual orientations, just as they do in their food preferences and other motivations

Social Psychologist, p. 412

Specialist who studies social behavior and how people influence one another

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep, p. 326

Stage characterized by rapid eye movements, a high level of brain activity, and deep relaxation of the postural muscles Also known as paradoxical sleep; REM sleep is paradoxical because it is light in some ways and deep in others. It is light because the brain is active and the body's heart rate, breathing rate, and temperature fluctuate substantially. It is deep because the large muscles of the body that control posture and locomotion are deeply relaxed

Companionate Love, p. 440

Stage in a relationship marked by sharing, care, and protection

Passionate Love, p. 440

Stage in a relationship when sexual desire, romance, and friendship increase in parallel Marked with excitement

Cognitive Dissonance, p. 429

State of unpleasant tension that people experience when they hold contradictory attitudes or when their behavior contradicts their stated attitudes, especially if the inconsistency distresses them

Drive, p. 345

State of unrest or irritation that energizes one behavior after another until one of them removes the irritation

Schachter and Singer's Theory of Emotions, p. 382

Statement that the degree of sympathetic nervous system arousal determines the intensity of the emotion, but a cognitive appraisal of the situation identifies the type of emotion

Stereotypes and Prejudices

Stereotypes are generalized beliefs about groups of people. A prejudice is an unfavorable stereotype.

Incentives, p. 346

Stimuli that pull us toward an action

Indirect Effects on Health

Stress affects health indirectly because people exposed to stressful events often change their eating, sleeping, and drinking habits.

Direct Effects on Health

Stress causes increased secretion of the hormone cortisol. Brief, moderate elevations of cortisol enhance memory and immune system responses. However, prolonged cortisol damages health by impairing the hippocampus and by exhausting the immune system.

Difficulties of Measuring Stress

Stress checklists are problematic because many items are ambiguous. They treat all types of stress as interchangeable, although later research indicates that the stress from feeling rejected is especially hurtful. Furthermore, the stressfulness of an event depends on the person's interpretation of the event and ability to cope with it.

In Closing: Module 11.3

Studies of sexual motivation remind us that important motives have multiple determinants, both biological and social. We engage in sexual activity because it feels good, and we have evolved mechanisms that make it feel good because sex leads to reproduction. We also engage in sexual activity because it cements a relationship with another person. Sex is one of the most powerful ways of drawing people together or tearing a relationship apart. Society regulates sexual behavior strictly. The rules vary from one culture to another, but every culture has definite expectations about what people will do, when, and with whom. In short, we cannot make much sense of complex human behaviors without considering a range of biological and social influences.

Reasons for Cooperation

Studies of the prisoner's dilemma demonstrate two rational reasons for cooperation: A cooperative person enhances his or her reputation and therefore gains cooperation from others. Also, people who cooperate punish those who do not.

Positive Psychology, p. 397

Study of the predispositions and experiences that make people happy, productive, and successful Studies the features that enrich life, such as happiness, hope, creativity, courage, spirituality, and responsibility Includes not only momentary happiness, but also subjective well-being

Review Question: What do the long waves of brain activity during stage 4 sleep indicate?

Synchrony among neurons

Examples of Questions to Measure Collectivist Versus Individualist Attitudes

T/F - I take pride in accomplishing what no one else can accomplish. T/F - It is more important to me that I perform better than others on a task. T/F - I am unique - different from others in many respects. T/F - I like my privacy. T/F - To understand who I am, you must see me with members of my group. T/F - I would help, within my means, if a relative were in financial difficulty. T/F - Before making a decision, I always consult with others. T/F - I have respect for the authority figures with whom I interact. Note: The first four items measure individualism; the second four measure collectivist attitudes.

Coercive Persuasion

Techniques designed to pressure a suspect into confessing decrease the reliability of the confession because, under these circumstances, many innocent people confess also.

Self-Handicapping Strategies, p. 426

Techniques for intentionally putting oneself at a disadvantage to provide an excuse for a failure

Inoculation Effect, p. 434

Tendency for people to be less persuaded by an argument because of first hearing a weaker argument

Groupthink, p. 447

Tendency for people to suppress their doubts about a group's decision for fear of making a bad impression or disrupting group harmony The main elements leading to groupthink are overconfidence by the leadership, underestimation of the problems, and pressure to conform

Group Polarization, p. 447

Tendency for people who lean in the same direction on a particular issue to become more extreme in that position after discussing it with one another It requires a fairly homogeneous group

Primacy Effect, p. 421

Tendency for the first information we learn about someone to influence us more than later information does

Type B Personality, p. 404

Tendency to be easygoing, less hurried, and less hostile

Type A Personality, p. 404

Tendency to be highly competitive (insisting on always winning), impatient, and often hostile Heart disease correlates with Type A behavior, especially with hostility, but only weakly

Actor-Observer Effect, p. 425

Tendency to be more likely to make internal attributions for other people's behavior and to be more likely to make external attributions for one's own behavior You are an "actor" when you try to explain the causes of your own behavior and an "observer" when you try to explains someone else's behavior

Diffusion of Responsibility, p. 415

Tendency to feel less responsibility to act when other people are equally able to act

Fundamental Attribution Error, p. 425

Tendency to make internal attributions for people's behavior even when we see evidence for an external influence on behavior Also known as the correspondence bias, meaning a tendency to assume a strong similarity between someone's current actions and his or her dispositions Emerges in many settings

Social Loafing, p. 416

Tendency to work less hard ("loaf") when sharing work with other people Has been demonstrated in many situations

Concept Check: Is testosterone related more to sexual activity or to seeking new partners? What evidence supports this conclusion?

Testosterone relates more to seeking partners. Men with higher testosterone levels are less likely to commit themselves to a monogamous relationship.

Review Question: Why is it likely that the Social Readjustment Rating Scale understates the stress levels of Type A people?

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale measures life changes but not constant stress such as work.

Concept Check: The introduction to this chapter described people who stood in line to visit a foul-smelling flower. Would that action make sense in terms of drive-reduction, incentive, or homeostasis views of motivation?

The action is a response to an incentive, the opportunity for an unusual experience. It would be harder to explain in terms of drive-reduction or homeostasis.

The Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which sometimes act in opposing ways and sometimes cooperate. The sympathetic nervous system readies the body for emergency action. The parasympathetic nervous system supports digestive and other nonemergency functions. Both systems send axons to the heart, the digestive system, and most other organs. Both systems are constantly active, although one system can temporarily dominate.

Concept Check: What advice would you give someone who wants to resist a temptation?

The best advice is to avoid the situation in which you might feel temptation! Second, don't expose yourself to one temptation just after successfully resisting a different type of temptation. If it is possible to make a commitment far in advance, do so. Think of people who yield to the temptation as different from yourself. Also, remind yourself of ethical norms.

General Adaptation Syndrome, p. 402

The body's response to stressful events of any type Begins with the alarm stage, marked by activity of the sympathetic nervous system to prepare the body for vigorous activity; however, the sympathetic nervous system is not capable of sustained, long-term arousal After a while, the body enters the resistance stage, when the adrenal glands release cortisol and other hormones that maintain prolonged alertness; the body also saves energy by decreasing unnecessary activity After intense, prolonged stress the body enters exhaustion, marked by fatigue, inactivity, and decreased ability to resist illness

Concept Check: During which sleep stage is the brain least active? During which stage are the muscles least active?

The brain is least active during stage 4 sleep. The muscles are least active during REM sleep.

Leadership

The demands of leadership depend on the situation. Organizations generally work best if many people can take a leadership role, depending on the situation. When an organization thrives, its leader is perceived as visionary. Leaders perceived as using rewards to get employees to do their work efficiently are effective in situations when the business is stable.

Review Question: A moral dilemma such as the trolley dilemma or the footbridge dilemma pits two considerations against each other. What are they?

The desire to help more people versus the guilt you would feel from hurting one person

Concept Check: At a meeting of your student government, you suggest a new method of testing and grading students. The other members immediately reject your plan. Should you give up?

The fact that your idea was rejected does not mean that you should give up. If you and a few allies continue to present this plan, showing apparent agreement among yourselves, the majority may eventually adopt a similar plan - probably without giving you credit for it.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus, a small area on the underside of the brain, helps regulate eating, drinking, sexual behavior, and other motivated activities.

Measuring Unconscious Prejudice

The implicit association test finds evidence of subtle prejudice, even among many people who deny having such prejudices. However, most people are aware of their prejudices, even if they don't like to admit them.

Concept Check: What is the advantage of the implicit association test over asking people about their racial prejudices?

The implicit association test may reveal prejudices that people don't want to admit, even to themselves.

Concept Check: Suppose someone expresses a positive attitude on a Likert scale but you suspect the person really has a negative attitude. Which method from an earlier module of this chapter might confirm your suspicion?

The implicit association test measures attitudes that don't match what people say.

Concept Check: In a typical family, one or two members have jobs, but their wages benefit all. Why do these wage earners not engage in social loafing?

The main reason is that the wage earners see they can make a special contribution that the other (children, injured, or retired) cannot. Also, others can easily observe their contributions.

Polygraph

The polygraph measures the activity of the sympathetic nervous system. The polygraph is sometimes used as a "lie detector." However, because the responses of honest people overlap those of liars, the polygraph makes many mistakes.

Genetic Role in Sexual Orientation

The probability of a homosexual orientation is higher among monozygotic twins of adult homosexuals than among their dizygotic twins. The probability is higher among dizygotic twins than among adopted brothers or sisters who grew up together.

In Closing: Module 11.2

The research in this module underscores the idea that our motivations reflect a complex mixture of physiological, social, and cognitive forces. People eat for many reasons - physiological, cognitive, and social - and they abstain from food for many reasons also. To understand why people become overweight or anorexic, we have to address many types of influence. The general point is this: All our motivations interact and combine. We seldom do anything for just one reason.

Review Question: What happens to romantic love after decades of marriage?

The results vary, but in many cases passionate love continues for a lifetime.

Job Design

The scientific-management approach emphasizes efforts to find the best, most efficient, safest way to do a job. According to the human-management approach, jobs should be made interesting enough to give workers a sense of achievement.

Concept Check: After damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus, an animal's weight eventually reaches a higher than usual level and then fluctuates around that amount. What has happened to the set point?

The set point has increased.

Physical Attractiveness

Theoretically, physical attractiveness should be a cue to someone's health and therefore desirability as a mate. Someone with approximately average features is attractive, presumably because average features have been associated with successful breeding in the past.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis, p. 417

Theory in which the main cause of anger and aggression is an obstacle that stands in the way of doing something or obtaining something

Activation-Synthesis Theory of Dreams, p. 332

Theory that dreams occur because the cortex takes the haphazard activity that occurs during REM sleep plus whatever stimuli strike the sense organs and does its best to make sense of this activity

Review Question: What have social psychologists learned about first impressions of people?

They can influence your behavior and that of the other person also.

Review Question: How do deindividuation and dehumanization increase aggressive behavior?

They enable the perpetrator to think of the victim as less worthy of kind treatment.

Review Question: What happens when people adopt postures and breathing patterns characteristic of a particular emotion? How do these results relate to the James-Lange theory?

They show an enhanced tendency to feel that emotion. This result is consistent with the James-Lange theory.

Concept Check: Why do some professors avoid looking at students' names when they grade essay exams?

They want to avoid being biased by their first impressions of the students.

Review Question: When a rat runs in a running wheel before a meal, what is the main motivation?

To keep warm

Concept Check: If you are an evening person, what could you do to improve your grades?

Try to schedule your important classes in the afternoon instead of the morning.

Prejudice, p. 422

Unfavorable attitude toward a group of people

In Closing: Module 11.1

Unfortunately, many workers do the same job every day, with little motivation to work harder. However, the most productive people see their work as a competition. They want to make a better product, sell more of their product, write a better novel, or do whatever else they are doing better than anyone else, or at least better than their own previous performance. The best students have a similar ambition in their course work. This module has highlighted a few hints on how to facilitate the process, such as by combating the temptation to procrastinate.

The Native American Pima

Until the 1940s, the Native American Pima remained thin eating their traditional diet of desert plants. Today, they eat the typical U.S. diet while remaining relatively inactive, and the result is high prevalence of obesity.

Peripheral Route to Persuasion, p. 431

Use of superficial factors to persuade people, such as repetition of a message or prestige of the speaker If for any reason you associate something with feeling happy, you form a favorable attitude toward it

Concept Check: Some people control anxiety with tranquilizers. In which of the three categories of coping strategy do these drugs belong?

Using tranquilizers is an example of emotion-focused coping.

Anxiety and the Amygdala

Variations in fear and anxiety relate to activity of the amygdala. People with damage to the amygdala are capable of feeling fear, but they are impaired in processing most types of information that might lead to fear.

Microexpressions, p. 379

Very brief, sudden emotional expressions

Scientific-Management Approach, p. 351

View that most employees are lazy, indifferent, and uncreative, and that the job should be made simple and foolproof Also known as Theory X You should experiment to find the best way to do the job, select appropriate workers, and train them well to do it the right way

Sleep Spindles, p. 327

Waves of brain activity at about 12 to 14 per second that result from an exchange of information between the cerebral cortex and the underlying thalamus Important for storing memory and the improvement of memory that often occurs after sleep depends on the amount of sleep spindles

Review Question: Why is the ability to recognize the facial expressions of emotions not good evidence for the idea of basic emotions?

We also recognize facial expressions of other states that we don't regard as emotions.

Actor-Observer Effect

We are more likely to attribute internal causes to other people's behavior than to our own.

In Closing: Module 13.2

We are seldom fully aware of the reasons for our own behavior, much less someone else's, but we make our best guesses. If someone you know passes by without saying "hello," you might attribute that person's behavior to absentmindedness, indifference, or hostility. You might attribute someone's friendly response to your own personal charm, the other person's extraverted personality, or that person's devious and manipulative personality. The attributions you make are sure to influence your own social behaviors.

In Closing: Module 12.3

We have considered the ways people try to deal with stressful situations. How well do these strategies work? They work well for many people but at a cost. The cost is that coping with serious stressors requires energy. Many people who have had to cope with long-lasting stressors break their diets, resume smoking and drinking habits that they had abandoned long ago, and find it difficult to concentrate on challenging cognitive tasks. Still, in spite of the costs, an amazing number of people say that the experience of battling a chronic illness, tending to a loved one with a severe illness, or dealing with other painful experiences has brought them personal strength and an enhanced feeling of meaning in life. They found positive moments even in the midst of fear and loss. Not everyone rises to the occasion, but many do.

Concept Check: How is the content of dreams similar to waking thoughts, and how is it different?

We mostly dream about the same topics we think about, but dreams usually feature less happy emotions.

Concept Check: Researchers often show a photograph and ask observers to identify the emotion. In what way might this procedure underestimate the ability to recognize emotions?

We ordinarily have many other cues, including gestures, posture, tone of voice, and context. Also, it is easier to recognize expressions of sadness and fear when someone looks down or to the side.

In Closing: Module 12.2

We try to feel happy as much as possible and try to avoid feeling sad, angry, or frightened, right? Well, usually but not always. People voluntarily go to movies that they know will make them sad or frightened. They ride roller coasters that advertise how scary they are. Some people seem to enjoy being angry. Alcoholics and drug abusers experience wild swings of emotion, and many who quit say that although life is better since they quit, they sometimes miss the emotional swings. All of our emotions, within limits, provide richness to our experiences.

Persuasion

When people consider a topic unimportant, they form attitudes based on happy or unhappy associations, often from superficial factors such as a speaker's appearance. When people care about the topic, they evaluate the evidence more carefully and consider their emotions only to the extent that they are relevant.

Sleeper Effect

When people reject a message because of their low regard for the person who proposed it, they sometimes forget where they heard the idea and later come to accept it.

Long-Term Regulation of Hunger

When someone gains weight, the fat cells increase release of leptin, which decreases hunger. When someone loses weight, fat cells decrease leptin release and hunger increases.

Emotions and Moral Decisions

When we face a moral decision, we often react emotionally. Those quick emotional feelings may be an evolved mechanism to steer our behavior toward what is usually the right choice.

Overcoming Prejudice

Working together for a common goal weakens prejudices between groups.

Concept Check: Suppose someone with intact retinas becomes blind because of damage to the visual cortex. Will that person nevertheless synchronize the circadian rhythm to the time of sunlight? Explain.

Yes, someone with blindness because of cortical damage nevertheless tends to waken during times of sunlight. The average amount of bright light activates certain ganglion cells that send their output not to the visual cortex, but to the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which controls the circadian rhythm.

Review Question: Theoretically, how can we explain why you sometimes act altruistically toward people you have never met?

You hope to develop a reputation for being helpful.

Concept Check: Juanita returns from watching The Return of the Son of Sequel Strikes Back Again Part 2 and says it was excellent. Most other people disliked the movie. Will you make an internal or external attribution for Juanita's opinion? Why? Distinctiveness, consensus, or consistency?

You probably will make an internal attribution because of consensus. When one person's behavior differs from others', we make an internal attribution.

Concept Check: Suppose you are the president of a U.S. company, negotiating a business deal with someone from the opposite side of the world. Should you prefer a meeting place in Europe or on an island in the Pacific Ocean?

You should prefer to meet on a Pacific island so that you will travel west.

Concept Check: If instead of watching someone, you close your eyes and imagine yourself in that person's position, will you be more likely to explain the behavior with internal or external attributions? Why?

You will be more likely to give an external attribution because you will become more like an actor and less like an observer.

Concept Check: Suppose your parents pay you to get a good grade in a boring course. According to cognitive dissonance theory, are you more likely to develop a positive attitude toward your studies if your parents pay you $10 or $100?

You will come to like your studies more if you are paid $10. If you are paid only $10, you won't be able to tell yourself that you are studying harder only for the money. Instead, you will tell yourself that you must be really interested. The theory of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Chapter 11) leads to the same prediction: If you study hard without any strong external reason, you perceive that you have internal reasons for studying.

Concept Check: Are you more likely to conform to a group when you are outnumbered 5 to 1, 10 to 1, or 10 to 2?

You would be about equally likely to conform when outnumbered 5 to 1 or 10 to 1. Any group of 3 or more produces about the same urge to conform. However, having even one ally decreases the pressure, so you would be less likely to conform when outnumbered 10 to 2.

Concept Check: If you were on a submarine deep in the ocean with only artificial light that was the same at all times, what would happen to your rhythm of wakefulness and sleepiness?

You would continue to produce a 24-hour circadian rhythm. The sun resets the rhythm, but you generate it within your own body.

Concept Check: Which would disrupt your studying more, your own radio or your roommate's radio? Why?

Your roommate's radio would be more disruptive. You can turn your own radio on or off, switch stations, or reduce the volume. You have no such control over your roommate's radio.

Concept Check: Identify each of the following as an example of reciprocation, the contrast effect, foot-in-the-door technique, the bait-and-switch technique, or the that's-not-all technique. a. A credit card company offers you a card with a low introductory rate. After a few months, the interest rate on your balance doubles. b. A store marks its prices "25 percent off," scratches that out and marks them "50 percent off!" c. A friend asks you to help carry some supplies over to the elementary school for an afternoon tutoring program. When you get there, the principal says that one of the tutors is late and asks whether you could take her place until she arrives. You agree and spend the rest of the afternoon tutoring. The principal then talks you into coming back every week as a tutor.

a. Bait-and-switch technique b. Either the contrast effect or the that's-not-all technique c. Foot-in-the-door technique

Review Question: In which of the following situations would people be most likely to engage in social loafing? a. Cleaning up the environment b. Doing household chores c. Participating on a team sport d. Washing your own car

a. Cleaning up the environment

Review Question: Which of the following results in a child with an "intersex" appearance of the genitals? a. Exposure of a female fetus to higher than average levels of testosterone b. Exposure of a male fetus to higher than average levels of estradiol c. Absence of the Y chromosome d. Stressful experiences to the mother during pregnancy

a. Exposure of a female fetus to higher than average levels of testosterone

Review Question: A friend asks you to drive him to the mall. When you get there, he asks whether you could wait while he shops and then drive him home. Which of these persuasion techniques did he use? a. Foot-in-the-door technique b. Contrast effect c. That's-not-all technique d. Reciprocation

a. Foot-in-the-door technique

Review Question: The main fuel of the body, especially the brain, is (blank). The hormone that increases its flow into the cells is (blank).

a. Glucose... insulin.

Review Question: Which of these brain areas is considered most important for regulating hunger and satiety? a. Hypothalamus b. Corpus callosum c. Locus coeruleus d. Fusiform gyrus

a. Hypothalamus

Stages of Sleep

a. Relaxed, Awake Neural activity unsynchronized b. Stage 1 Sleep Just fallen asleep Neural activity unsynchronized c. Stage 2 Sleep Pulse and breathing slower Start of longer, slower brain waves d. Stage 3 Sleep Pulse, breathing, and brain activity slower yet Neural activity more synchronized Stages 3 and 4 dominate first half of night e. Stage 4 Sleep Pulse, breathing, and brain activity slowest Brain waves highly synchronized, indicating low overall neuron activity f. REM (Paradoxical) Sleep Eyes move back and forth Dreams more frequent, vivid, complex Brain waves desynchronized Postural muscles most relaxed Duration gets longer toward morning

Review Question: Which of the following would increase your probability of contributing money to a charity? a. Several weeks in advance, someone asks you to estimate your probability of contributing to the charity. b. The person asking you for a contribution starts by telling you that you are a good person. c. The person asking you for a contribution says your contribution is needed, because other people have not been contributing.

a. Several weeks in advance, someone asks you to estimate your probability of contributing to the charity.

Review Question: Which of the following is an example of an internal attribution? a. She contributed money to charity because she is generous. b. She contributed money to charity to impress her boss, who was watching. c. She contributed money to charity because she owed a favor to the person collecting for the charity. d. She contributed money to charity because she saw other people doing the same thing.

a. She contributed money to charity because she is generous.

Review Question: If you want your children to preserve the beliefs and attitudes you try to teach them, which of the following should you do? a. Present only arguments in favor of those beliefs. b. Expose them also to weak attacks on those beliefs.

b. Expose them also to weak attacks on those beliefs.

Review Question: Which of the following best describes the woman in the text with damage to her amygdala in both brain hemispheres? a. Unable to experience fear b. Fails to process information about possible danger c. Prone to outbursts of unprovoked anger and aggression d. Very slow to shift between happiness and sadness

b. Fails to process information about possible danger

Review Question: According to Selye's definition of stress, which one of the following would be considered stressful? a. Constant quarreling with your family b. Getting married c. Lifelong poverty d. Being a member of a minority group

b. Getting married

Review Question: Tests of emotional intelligence ask questions about how someone would feel in various situations. Which of the following is a significant difficulty with such tests? a. The tests take too long to administer. b. It is hard to be sure what is the correct answer. c. The questions are so easy that almost everyone gets the same score. d. Scores on these tests correlate negatively with academic intelligence.

b. It is hard to be sure what is the correct answer.

Review Question: For which of these purposes are physiological measurements more helpful? a. Determining whether someone is angry or frightened b. Measuring the strength of someone's anger or fear

b. Measuring the strength of someone's anger or fear

Review Question: Which of the following is associated with the probability of developing PTSD? a. PTSD depends on the severity of the traumatic event. b. People with a smaller than average hippocampus are more likely to develop PTSD. c. People who talk with a therapist as soon as possible after the event can avoid PTSD. d. Monozygotic twins are more likely to develop PTSD.

b. People with a smaller than average hippocampus are more likely to develop PTSD.

Review Question: According to evolutionary theory, which of the following is true? a. The average person is highly attractive. b. Someone with average features in all regards is attractive. c. A person with average features is unattractive.

b. Someone with average features in all regards is attractive.

Review Question: For which kind of person, if any, do genetic differences most strongly influence the probability of aggressive behavior? a. The influence is strongest on people who grew up in supportive, middle-class families. b. The influence is strongest on people who suffered maltreatment during childhood. c. Genes produce equally strong influences on aggressive behavior for all kinds of people. d. No evidence suggests a genetic influence on aggressive behavior.

b. The influence is strongest on people who suffered maltreatment during childhood.

Review Question: In which of the following cases would you be most likely to follow the central route to persuasion? a. A discussion about the pros and cons of a medical treatment for a condition you don't have b. A discussion about proposed changes in the government of a country on the other side of the world c. A discussion about the best seafood for people to eat d. A discussion about the best kind of cat food (assuming you don't own a cat)

c. A discussion about the best seafood for people to eat

Review Question: In which of these ways do male homosexuals differ, on average, from male heterosexuals? a. Concentration of testosterone in the blood and brain b. Concentration of estradiol in the blood and brain c. Anatomy of one part of the hypothalamus d. Number of older sisters

c. Anatomy of one part of the hypothalamus

Review Question: Suppose you have anxieties because of living in a dangerous neighborhood. Which of the following is an example of problem-based coping? a. Taking tranquilizers to control anxiety b. Playing soothing music to relax yourself c. Moving to a different neighborhood d. Convincing yourself that the neighborhood isn't as dangerous as it seems

c. Moving to a different neighborhood

Review Question: Which conclusion did Milgram draw from his obedience study? a. Most people will deliver a weak shock to someone, but they refuse at higher levels. b. Less-educated people will obey orders, but well-educated people refuse. c. Normal people will follow orders even if it means badly hurting someone. d. Stronger ethical standards need to be instituted for guiding psychological experiments.

c. Normal people will follow orders even if it means badly hurting someone.

Review Question: Which of the following generally increases how much food people eat? a. People eat more when they are alone. b. People eat more when the weather is hot. c. People eat more when offered a larger portion size. d. People eat more if they have been inactive.

c. People eat more when offered a larger portion size.

Review Question: Which animal species spend the greatest amount of time sleeping? a. Infant whales and dolphins b. Horses and related species c. Predatory animals d. Migratory birds

c. Predatory animals

Review Question: Someone your own age from another country moves next door. Neither of you speaks the other's language. Of the following factors, which will tend to weaken the likelihood of your becoming friends? a. Proximity b. Familiarity c. Similarity

c. Similarity

Review Question: Women differ most strongly from men, on average, in which of these aspects of sexual experience? a. Men go through four stages of sexual arousal, whereas women go through three. b. Women go through four stages of sexual arousal, whereas men go through three. c. Women are more likely to experience more than one orgasm in a short time. d. Men are more likely to experience more than one orgasm in a short time.

c. Women are more likely to experience more than one orgasm in a short time.

Review Question: According to the James-Lange theory, which of the following is true? a. You run away because you feel fear. b. If you see a bear, you automatically run away with it. c. Your feeling of fear is your perception of what your body is doing. d. Feeling fear and running away are the same thing.

c. Your feeling of fear is your perception of what your body is doing.

Review Question: In which of these ways is dreaming usually different from waking thought? a. We dream about different topics than we think about. b. Dreams are highly repetitive. c. Most dreams are in black and white. d. Dreams usually feature less pleasant emotions.

d. Dreams usually feature less pleasant emotions.

Review Question: Which hormones strongly influence appetite? a. Estradiol, testosterone, and epinephrine (adrenalin) b. Insulin, epinephrine (adrenalin), and leptin c. Estradiol, testosterone, and ghrelin d. Insulin, ghrelin, and leptin

d. Insulin, ghrelin, and leptin

Review Question: The self-handicapping strategy leads to which of the following? a. People take a risky gamble to try to make a big success. b. People try some task repeatedly until they get it right. c. People choose an easier task instead of one with a bigger potential reward. d. People do something to harm their own performance.

d. People do something to harm their own performance.

Review Question: Someone donates a large amount to a political campaign. Later, the donor asks the elected candidate to support a project. Which of these persuasion techniques was used? a. Foot-in-the-door technique b. Bait-and-switch technique c. That's-not-all technique d. Reciprocation

d. Reciprocation

Review Question: Which of these bits of advice is best for someone who is trying to resist a temptation? a. Practice resisting various types of temptation. b. Be confident of your ability to resist the temptation. c. Watch what happens to other people who yield to temptation. d. Remind yourself of ethical norms.

d. Remind yourself of ethical norms.

Review Question: Which of the following is characteristic of people with narcolepsy? a. Periods of a minute or more during sleep when they fail to breathe b. Repetitive leg movements during sleep that are strong enough to waken the person c. A sleep pattern resembling that of an old person d. Sudden intrusions of REM sleep into the waking period

d. Sudden intrusions of REM sleep into the waking period

Review Question: Suppose you want to persuade people to buy some product. Which of the following statements would probably work best? a. Most of the people who have bought this product like it. b. More people have bought this product this year than last year. c. Ten other people that I talked to today have bought this product. d. Ten of your neighbors on your own street have bought this product.

d. Ten of your neighbors on your own street have bought this product.

Review Question: Which of these criticisms seems to apply to Zimbardo's prison study? a. The effect was too small to be statistically significant. b. Participants were not randomly assigned to the two groups. c. Later studies failed tor replicate these results. d. The participants were probably influenced by demand characteristics.

d. The participants were probably influenced by demand characteristics.