PSY 246 Midterm Review (Infancy and Childhood)

Bowlby

- Focused on institutional deprivation of children in hospitals - Noticed an inability to form an intimate bond - Later focused on toddlers hospitalized for short periods of time - Distress/ Non-distress - "Where's my mummy??" ATTACHMENT BEHAVIORS: actions that maintain proximity to a parent EX: following, crying out, and clinging; rooted in evolution because of their adaptiveness *Attachment behaviors help the young survive, providing protection from predators. - Humans go through kind of imprinting although it develops more slowly than in other animals. - Signals for keeping the parent close: the cry is the distress call and the smile induces closeness, crawling develops

Three stages of separation (Bowlby)

1. PROTEST = cry and reject comforting from substitutes; anxious searching for mother 2. DESPAIR = less active; mourning state; continue searching for mother 3. DETACHMENT = accepts substitute care; upon mother's return child seems indifferent (could be a defense) *these stages mirror bereavement stages

Self-Object Differentiation (WERNER)

As child develops, increasingly differentiates itself from environment (realizes different from object) Happens in 3 sequential levels: SENSORIMOTOR AFFECTIVE level: - everything exists as part of oneself ex. if child loses toy, the toy ceases to exist - when they dont see something they think its gone PERCEPTUAL level: - 4-5 yrs old - objects begin to have their own existence apart from themselves - perception of the importance of objects related to the use of them ex: resting tree, sleepy car CONCEPTUAL level: - abstraction of objects (eg. volume, area, mass) - objective characterization w/o reference to oneself (the car travels at 65 mph) - starting to apply scientific principles not just fast car

Piaget's Periods + Stages

PERIOD 1: Sensorimotor intelligence (birth -2 yrs) (includes object permanence) STAGE 1: (birth to 1 month) - the USE OF REFLEXES - first schemas governed by reflexes eg. sucking reflex; realizes acquires food STAGE 2: ( 1 to 4 months) - PRIMARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS - repetition of an experience eg. thumb-sucking initial chance encounter unsuccessful attempts to repeat success after many trials * trying many times to become successful, deals with own body STAGE 3: ( 4 to 8 months) - SECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS - target is external world ex. movement of mobile above crib - initial success of moving mobile is followed by many repetitions - baby enjoys having ability to make event happen - baby realizes their body affects their environment - affecting something outside of yourself STAGE 4: ( 8 to 12 months) - COORDINATION OF SECONDARY SCHEMAS - combination of more than one secondary schema ex: goal is to grab matchbox, obstacle is parent's hand in front at first regular reaching then 2 schemas combined striking and grabbing * before 8 months the child would just hit hand, after 8 months child realizes hand needs to be moved first - concept of space and time (some events first than others) STAGE 5: ( 12 to 18 months) - TERTIARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS - experimental observations of effects of different actions on environment - behaviors originating from curiosity about world, no adult teaching ex: hitting table, varying force, varying sound STAGE 6: ( 18 months to 2 yrs ) - BEGINNINGS OF THOUGHT - hypothetical thoughts allows for actions to be practiced without any observable physical movement ex: getting keys out of matchbox, first unsuccessful attempt then thinking about it and then physically open - Deferred imitation = imitation of models hours or days after observation ex: child observes tantrum of playmate, a day later shows same behavior, therefore carried internal representation of modeled behavior OBJECT PERMANANCE: Stage 1&2: no concept of external object Stage 3: ability to recover something which they have placed somewhere Stage 4: ability to find hidden objects if object was seen being hidden (beginning of object permanence!!) Stage 5: ability to follow a number of displacement movements, only those which were seen Stage 6: ability to imagine displacements which are not seen ex: ball rolling under bed) - PRINCIPLE OF ASSOCIATIVITY= can get to the same place by using different paths - PRINCIPLE OF REVERSIBILITY = getting ball back reverses the negative situation to good one PERIOD 2: Preoperational thought ( 2 to 7 yrs) - thinking not systematic or logical -Daddys have luciennes - Conservation, think taller glass contains more liquid (identity, compensation, inversion arguments) -EGOCENTRISM = only able to take on viewpoint ex. giving gifts to someone based on what they like. if i like it then mommy likes it collective monologues *get rid of egocentrism if child interacts more with other children since other children do not know what child wants such as raising hands to be picked up infant level - no concept of a world beyond their physical self preoperational level - children only conceive of the world in terms of their own actions formal operations level - adolescents exaggerate the power of their own thoughts and minimize the power of the thoughts of others PERIOD 3: Concrete operations ( after age 7) - thinking is more organized, logical *During both periods 2 and 3 children use symbols when use on object to represent an absent one ex: seen in stage 6 when child opens and closes mouth to represent opening and closing matchbox - language development initially 2-4 MORAL JUDGMENT: based on rules of the game of marbles - 4 yr old has no concept of winning - 7 yr old follows rules and determines winner/loser based on rules Under 10 - rules fixed b/c adult authority is not challengeable based on consequences HETERONOMY = unquestioning acceptance of rules of adults After 10 - rules more flexible, increasing ability to create new rules based on intentions AUTONOMY = concept of rules being product of ordinary people therefore can be broken, bent , or changed ANIMISM = ascribing of life to inanimate objects e.g. things are alive when they "do" something (give light, burn, move) prior to 8 years - anything that does something is alive Is the sun alive; yes because it gives off heat after 8 years - restriction of life only to things that move ** eventually replaced with mature behavior unlike where with werner some go back PERIOD 4 : Formal Operations (11 to adulthood) - abstract thinking, without the need for the presence of real objects

The Strange Situation

Researcher introduces parent and baby to playroom and then leaves. The parent is seated while baby plays with toys. Stranger enters, takes a seat and talks to parent. Parent leaves the room and stranger responds to baby and offer comfort if baby is upset. Parent returns, greets baby, and offers comfort if necessary. Stranger leaves the room. The second separation episode included the parent leaving the room. Stranger enters and offers comfort. The parent returns, greets the baby, offers comfort if necessary, and tries to re-interest baby in the toys.

Functional asymmetry (Gesell)

a certain amount of unbalance (asymmetry) is functional. we are most effective when we confront the world from an angle, favoring one hand, direction, or eye EX. The tonic reflex (first 3 months ) - head on one side, extended arm on side which head is turned and other arm is flexed behind the head

Theory of Evolution (Darwin)

all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce

Recapitulation

also referred to as biogenetic law, states that embryonic development of an organism will mirror the evolutionary development of the species textbook: Ernst Haeckel, who, in the late 1860s, proposed that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. That is, the development of an individual organism (ontogeny) repeats in an abbreviated way the evolutionary history of its species (phylogeny). The human embryo goes through phases when it looks like a fish, then an amphibian, and so on, recapitulating the ancient evolutionary history of our species.

Instinct

an innate, unlearned behavior that is released by an external stimulus, is species specific, occurs in a fixed action pattern, and has survival value to it.

Hierarchic integration

behavior comes under control of higher regulating centers ex: hand movement becomes more advanced as brain develops First baby just flails arms without a goal. Then develop hand-eye coordination. The more the baby develops the more it can do

Cultural implications

children mimic indigenous people ex: both ascribe properties to inanimate objects

Reciprocal Interweaving (Gesell)

developmental process by which two tendencies gradually reach an effective organization EX. Handedness Baby first uses one hand, then both, then one again ( which they prefer) *happens in personality as well with introversion/extroversion

Microgenesis

developmental process that occurs each time we confront a task, novelty ex: city in different country -first you notice smells, then sounds, minute details, then identify familiar structures etc. - People who are artistic they have microgenic mobility - Able to go back to experiencing things as if it was their first time (going back to primitive thoughts + perceptions)

Microgenic mobility

individual differences in people's ability to draw on primitive thoughts and perceptions; some people can go back further than others *why some people more creative than others *sometimes good in terms of creativity in art *sometimes bad in terms of schizophrenia with getting stuck with wrong perception

Self-Regulation (Gesell)

intrinsic maturation so powerful that organism can regulate itself EX. babies can regulate cycles of feeding, sleep, and wakefulness **Children may resist attempts to teach them things that they are not ready to learn **Balance mechanism, many fluctuations and regressions however.

Discontinuity

qualitative changes are discontinuous in development - compared to quantitative which is continuous - not continuous because things change so drastically that cannot compare ex: 1. how far butterfly can fly = you can't measure how the caterpillar can fly 2. depression is different in child vs. adult. use different scale questionnaire * we need different inventories b/c there are qualitative differences

Maturation

refers to process by which development is governed by intrinsic factors - principally the genes **the genes determine the sequence, timing, and form of emerging action-patterns

Ethology

study of animal and human behavior within an evolutionary context

Physiognomic perception

tendency for people to use face to determine perception of another's mood - based on unity with oneself and objects - for adults only appropriate for animate objects while children's whole world is full of life **Schizophrenics, artists, and indigenous people still rely on this perception**

Geometric-technical perception

tendency to use objective and measurable properties in perception - abstract - 8 and up -qualitative change with development of abstract thinking

Werner

- Influenced by Gestalt psychology which says we like to perceive as a whole shape. the final perception is more than sum of parts Principal of closure = human tendency to make parts into wholes (separates how children see things compared to adults) ORTHOGENIC PRINCIPLE = increasing differentiation and hierarchic integration of an organism as it develops * no differentiation to complex differentiation with development *seen in behaviors such as drawing; zig zags to planning what to draw personality; wants to become teacher Development is combination of organismic and comparative forces ORGANISMIC ORIENTATION = can't study perception w/o studying the perceiver; perception, language, memory shouldn't be studied in isolation *Children have less differentiation than adults hence not as easy to separate cognition from physical + emotional aspects ex: physical items seen and described as relative to them, wooden triangle is digging tool COMPARATIVE APPROACH: - should be possible to compare development in different cultures, species, and pathological states, based on that humans develop in similar patterns across cultures *PICTORIAL IMAGERY = children think in pictures Development multilinear rather than unilinear since culture leads from physiognomic perception to geometric but still possible to have physiognomic - Development involves both quantitative and qualitative changes, development is discontinuous and should be measured accordingly *Rousseau would say childhood and adulthood are completely different therefore can't use adult measures on children - Must look at subjective experiences of children in order to understand their thoughts; abandon our adult thoughts and look through childs eyes -Rousseau and Montessori would agree education should be customized to child's preferred ways of learning eg. sandpaper letters allows motoric mutli-sense learning Golden period of artistic development : 5-7 yrs CRITICS: - not specific guide - no developmental milestones - abstract theory - vague constructs

Montessori (actual educator rather than theorist)

- Like Rousseau believed in maturational promptings and that children learn differently from adults SENSITIVE PERIODS= Similar to critical periods but less rigid *Genetically programmed blocks of time during which the child is especially eager and able to master certain tasks eg. acquisition of language - not fixed, if learned in certain period you can still learn just more difficult CRITICAL PERIOD = - fixed moment in time when skill has to be developed - if missed you cannot fix it

Gesell in relation to maturation

- Maturation through genes - Development unfolds in fixed sequences although rate varies among individuals - Children need social environment but work best when in tune with inner maturational principles - Evidence comes from twin studies where one twin practiced stair climbing and grasping. This twin showed superiority to the twin not receiving practice. However, untrained twin caught up quickly with much less practice and frustration - inner timetable determines readiness to do thing - Opposed to efforts to teach children things ahead of schedule PRINCIPLES OF MATURATION: Child's development is influenced by: 1. Child is product of his/her environment 2. Child's development is directed by the action of genes = process of maturation STUDY OF PATTERNS: Patterning process = process by which actions become organized ex. babies vision 4 months = sees but cannot contact 6 months = crude palmar grasp 10 months = Pincer grasp (index finger and thumb) INDIVIDUALITY: - Believed in uniqueness of each child - All normal children go through same sequences but vary in their rates of growth - Parents shouldn't try to force children into patten but instead take cues from children themselves - Goal shouldn't be to fit child into social mold CHILD REARING: - advocated demand feeding = non-schedules need based feeing - respect child's individuality during the first year of life - respect child' s immaturity, he will creep before he walks, say no before yes Responsiveness!!! not spoiling. Research shows that children of responsive parents cry less and engage in inquisitive exploration

Darwin

- Species had not been created in a fixed and perfect form but had evolved - NATURAL SELECTION: a struggle for existence allows only certain members of the population to transmit their genes to latter generations. Over these generations nature selects who can best adapt to their surroundings eg. giraffes - Natural selection vs. lamarckism : in natural selection a taller neck giraffe reaches more food than a short neck giraffe so the tall neck ends up reproducing more than a short neck and therefore long necks are more common in population. In Lamarckism, the giraffe cannot reach the taller branches so the neck lengthens and the offspring ends up being born with a longer neck - Darwin observed that human embryos are similar to the embryo of other animals (ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny) - Darwin proposed that evolutionary continuity is seen in behavior realm as well - Our species physically weaker so we had to rely on intelligence and inventions to survive; more highly evolved moral emotions - No sharp lines between human emotions and other animals ex. warning calls in times of danger, proximity seeking, mourning the death of a loved one etc.

Attachment is imprinting (Bowlby)

- Young animals learn which moving object to follow; their actions move from broad to specific targets - Human babies use social behaviors to maintain proximity; their actions move from broad to specific ex. smiling, babbling, holding on, crying - Crawling ushers in following and at this point they become fearful of strangers; they have imprinted on a particular person

Eidetic Imagery

- ability to describe scene in great detail - "photographic" memory - more common in children than adults - more common in indigenous people than industrialized **Occurs into schizophrenic, indigenous, artistic people as well**

Emile's Education (Rousseau)

- infant; remove harmful objects and let Emile explore house - learn to walk and talk on his own - no need to look to others for correction

Mary Ainsworth

Colleague of Bowlby that expanded on attachment theory by type - secure/insecure - Developed each attachment type through series of observational studies called "the strange situation." Through this Ainsworth interested in how babies would use the mother as a base from which to explore and how they would react to two brief separations. Should mother always meet her baby's demands for her presence and attention? - Bowlby, Ainsworth, and Gesell would say biology has given cues that the baby gives adult and we should follow them. So when they cry go to baby, return their smiles, etc.

Montessori (cont.)

EDUCATION: - Child centered learning (not parents job to direct learning) - Respect efforts at independent mastery, that doing their own thing - Allow children to interact with nature at own pace (gives them energy) - Natural settings and objects stimulate the child's power of observation ex. if letters made from flowers, child might learn them quicker because have an interest in nature at this age - Allow children to master walking on their own - Teaching the child to walk leads to a sense that own efforts arent good enough - Avoid constant carrying and playpen enclosures -Child will eventually master walking - Self-mastery induces feelings of pride and freedom -Forced mastery induces feelings of inadequacy MONTESSORI SCHOOL: - Mixed age class (enter at 2.5 yrs) - Independent mastery (teacher is more follower than leader, doesnt direct, instruct, drill) - Materials and tasks based on child's inner needs at sensitive periods **When tasks are based on appropriate sensitive period, child will happily work on them until achievement is made** - LEARNING MATERIAL= Built in control of error Child self-judges success through results - No rewards or punishments Key differences btwn Montessori vs Traditional school : - Cognitive, moral, emotional development emphasis rather than social development - Teacher prepares learning materials vs. teacher is center of class - Curriculum structured for each child vs. for whole class - Concepts internalized by exploration and educational materials vs. taught by teacher - Own pace vs. set pace - Identifies own errors vs. teacher identifies errors - movement in classroom vs. seating READING AND WRITING: - Start at 4 yrs instead of 6 or 7 yrs - Based on sensitive period for language acquisition, mastered by age 3 so 4 yr old is eager to apply mastery - Child should write before reading!!! - Child responding to sensory stimulating activities eg. hand movements - By writing children form muscular + visual memory of letters and words - Shown how to hold pencil - Hand-eye coordination becomes mastered through prior exercises of living ex. cutting vegetables *NO BOOKS used during this period. When pick up book at 5-6, can fully read it MISBEHAVIOR: - Moral misconduct not accepted, ignore first - Child cant mistreat other students or class materials - Respect develops naturally usually but if not : 1. If child bothers a student, student would insist on being left alone in such manner leading other child to respect their wishes 2. Misbehavior usually means child is unfulfilled in their work so change materials based on needs 3. Time out (extreme measure) - Discipline should come from within, not teacher - Internal sense of right and wrong NATURE: - Contact with nature should be maintained - in natural settings, child more watchful and quiet; patient observer - If in city, gardening and taking care of animals - When children make things grow and develop, they feel they are one with nature and part of something larger FANTASY AND CREATIVITY: - Fantasy shows mind that lost tie to reality - Child must overcome tendency to wander in the realm of fantasy (will happen when child develops powers of discrimination and judgment) - NO free drawing - Drawing based on reality, forms, colorful harmonies CRITICISM : - Problems transitioning into traditional classroom - Limits child's creativity and freedom since discouraged fantasy, free drawing, free play, fairytales, artistic creativity - Lack socialization --> independent mastery based --> may be linked to emotional distance/coldness

Lorenz

Father of ethology - studied animal behavior NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION = ethologists believe behavior is best studied in an animal's natural setting INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR = a special class of unlearned behavior CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INSTINCT : 1. Released by a certain external stimulus ex. animal distress call 2. Species specific 3. Fixed action pattern 4. Survival value eg. lemmings and cliff suicide - Dissenters feel that Lorenz ignored the role of the environment and experience

Piaget

Intellectual development, everything based on thoughts - Originally worked on standardized testing of children - hypothesized wrong answers of younger children suggest the use of different thinking strategy than older children ex. at 5 get wrong, at 7 get right - interview style is open - Children progress through 4 stages in an invariant sequence (same order) - Focused on environment, not maturationist!!! - genetically-based reflexes important only for first month or so after that development determined by environmental effects - 2 children in some environment, the one that interacts with it more, thinks more ASSIMILATION = taking in, as in eating or digestion ex: things with wheels are cars ACCOMODATION = when things don't fit into existing schemas (specific groupings of thoughts to understand the world), we must make changes and expand schemas to include new info ex: other things with wheels besides cars *the more you interact with environment, the more accommodations, since need to make new categories ORGANIZATION = constant process of using abilities in combinations' organizing ideas into coherent systems ex: things with wheels help is het to where we need to go *now that different schemas we can organize ***Nature or nurture? BOTH Active construction process in which children through own activities build cognitive structures *Interact with nature to develop cognitive abilities

Carol Gilligan

Kohlberg's theories developed from a male sample ... therefore are inappropriate for females males: "rules, rights and abstract principles" females: "interpersonal relationships and the ethics of compassion and care" Due to these differences women score at stage 3 (based on interpersonal relationships) and males score at stage 4+ (reflect more abstract conceptions of social organization) moral dilemmas should be related to real life experiences instead of being hypothetical(e.g. abortion) When used women surpass stage 3 thinking males more concerned with rational view of morality, females more concerned with relationship view

Locke in comparison to Rosseau

LOCKE argued : - people are largely shaped by their social environments - a child's mind is a blank slate and whatever comes into the mind comes from the environment, which affects us through associations, repetition, imitation, and rewards and punishments (principles of learning). - favored making children concerned with people's opinions of them - the main goal of education is self-control, instill self-discipline - Education is a socialization process, gaining approval of adults leads to the child becoming virtuous member of society - Opposed to physical punishment - Best reward = praise and flattery Best punishment = disapproval - Don't coddle and be firm early to avoid bad habits from forming *Money and sweets are not good rewards because children are then encouraged to find happiness in only those items - Gradual steps to eliminate fears - Changing behavior by "gentle" degrees = systematic desensitization (children develop irrational fears) - Children cant understand or remember rules so expose children to good models and practice the desired behavior - Children aren't blank slates after all, have own cognitive capacities that set limits on what we can teach ROUSSEAU argued; - Children NOT blank slates or empty containers - Nature should guide a child's growth, grow according to nature's plan (4 main stages of development) - Development proceeds according to inner, biological timetable -BIOLOGICAL MATURATION -Children grow based on inner drives - Nature over societal influences - Adults too dependent on the opinion of others - Children perfect capabilities by dealing physical things without adult teaching - Base lessons on child's age - Learn according to nature's promptings independently (walk, talk, eat, socialize) - no need to look for others for correction because that makes child lose their sense of independence and become reliant on societal approval/disapproval - Schools try to instill adult knowledge as quickly as possible, presenting many lessons that exceed the child's understanding - Successes based on child's self judgment - Child centered

Learning language accord. to Werner

Language wrongly studied in non organismic manner (unrelated to emotion) LABEL THEORY = learn our culture's labels for things (tree , symbol different from reverent) Language emerges out of BODILY-ORGANISMIC activities = motor actions, gestures, feelings *flutter eyelids to depict fluttering lights ONOMATOPOEIC = imitations of sound; sound like the activity they are meant to describe ex: dog woof woof small = high pitch

Kohlberg

Level I. Preconventional Morality Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation concern about consequences ... similar to Piaget's first stage of moral thinking no real rationale for the position ... "it's the law" or "you can't break the law" if the answer is different, the reasoning is still the same (e.g. It's OK to steal the drug, "because he asked first." ) morality is something outside of the person (set by the grown ups) - not a central part of themselves Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange still a basic concern for oneself as opposed to society (therefore, still classified as preconventional thinking) • different individuals have different viewpoints Heinz may feel its OK but the druggist may feel its not Fair exchange basis (e.g. Heinz was right to steal bc the druggist was unwilling to make a fair deal) change in focus on punishment as evidence that the action was wrong Level II. Conventional Morality Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships characteristic of teenagers move toward the notion of "goodness" and "badness" based on community standards logical arguments are made on the basis of character as opposed to punishments Intentions He was a good man for wanting to save her His intentions were good for wanting to save the life of a loved one introduction of the idea that everyone would behave in the same way ... "no husband would be able to sit idle as his wife dies" the situation dictates whether the actions are right or wrong Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order from a family-focused approach to a society-focused approach we should obey laws so that social order is maintained Social order > personal gain note that the answers in stage 4 are identical to the answers in stage 1 thinking: stage 4 participants can provide the reasoning behind the answer Level III. Postconventional Morality Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights society should be more than smoothly functioning ... it should be "just" All should have basic rights such as life, freedom and liberty Democratic procedures in place for changing unfair laws notion of a social contract beginning notions of what is moral and what is immoral some tolerance for elevating people's rights (e.g. life) over legalities (i.e. laws) It is the husbands duty to save the wife and this duty transcends every law of the land bottom line: concern over what a society value Stage 6. Universal Principles sometimes, simple democratic processes end with solutions which are perceived to be unjust "tyranny of the majority" everyone has the same rights, so we cannot benefit one person if by so doing we harm another in order to truly understand a situation, we need to see it from the eyes of the other person(s) also need total equality for all persons involved (nobody is better than anyone else) this is a very demanding view of morality: therefore only a few people will achieve it stage 6 may be definable only in theory - not practice Higher principle of justice may require civil disobedience: Eg. Martin Luther King cannot have justice when laws are by definition, unjust ... must challenge the laws themselves 7th STAGE Why should I act morally when no one else seems to? Why act generously when the world is governed by self interest? The answers for despair can come from a spiritual attitude which he called stage 7 Its not a stage of moral reasoning but rather a stage of spiritual development growing out of personal experiences and reflection. It doesn't change stage 6 but it may give people emotional support for working for what is right Being part of something larger than oneself: God or nature

Phases of attachment (Bowlby)

PHASE 1 (birth - 3 months): - Social gestures with limited selectivity (indiscriminate) - Social smile begins at 3 to 4 weeks (reflex at this point) - Babbling - Crying - Holding on - Grasp reflex; Moro reflex (putting hands out when in fear) - Rooting (stimulating cheek of baby they turn to that side with open mouth) and sucking reflex *this maintains contact with caregiver PHASE 2 (3-6 months) : - Focusing on familiar people - social responses become more selective - They prefer 2-3 people but are more attached to 2 person, which is the responsive caregiver - The moro, grasp, and rooting reflex drops out - Baby now only grasps clothes (objects) on people they are familiar with ( caregiver) PHASE 3 (6 months - 3 yrs) : - Intense attachment and active proximity seeking - Exclusive attachment to a particular person at 6 months - Separation anxiety = infants cry out when the mother figure leaves the room and warmly greets the mother upon her return - Baby exhibits a fear of strangers at 7 or 8 months - Baby can crawl to actively follow a departing parent (this leads to goal directed behavior) *Cognitive processes are in formation and development of pre-frontal cortex - Babies move toward and away from attachment figures - They will use the caretaker as a secure base from which to explore - By the end of the first year the baby has a general working model of the attachment figure (this is based on the caregivers accessibility and responsiveness) * WORKING MODEL = mental idea ex. mother always comes back when she leaves PHASE 4 (3 yrs - end of childhood) : - Child now considers the caretaker's plans and goals and can visualize the parent's behavior while they are away - The child is more willing to let the parent out of sight

Piaget and Montessori

Piaget, Rousseau and Montessori have similar educational philosophies: learning is done by the child - not taught by the teacher key phrases: "spontaneous invention and discovery" good teaching matches the right materials with the interests of the child bottom line: use the right educational approach for the level of development of the child e.g. use real objects to teach mathematics to children at the concrete operations stage not reasonable to expect abstract thinking from someone who is not already at the level of formal operations difference between Piaget and Rousseau and Montessori: importance of social aspects of learning in order to cognitively handle more than one dimension, need to see things from a different point of view requires others who will draw out this type of thinking in the child not easy to do this with adult -> child education ... need peer-to-peer situations

Preformationism

Popular belief in the middle ages that children were pre-formed mini adults. Preformationistic embryology - tiny, fully formed human is implanted in the sperm or egg at conception

Adult Attachment Type (Mary Main)

SECURE/AUTONOMOUS : - Talk freely about early experiences - Securely attached children - Accepts own feelings that go hand in hand with acceptance of their infants needs/signals DISMISSING: - Seem indifferent to attachment experiences - Insecure-avoidant children - Reject/deny own experiences as well as infants proximity seeking (child overly independent) PREOCCUPIED: - Struggling to win parents approval, stuck in the past - Own neediness makes it difficult to respond to infant's needs - Self-critical and insecure - Seek approval and reassurance from others, yet self-doubt never relieved

4 attachment types (based on strange situation) *How the child behaves when they are reunited, how they react when the mother or caregiver comes back

SECURE: - Distressed when caregiver leaves and diminished play - Happy when caregiver returns, actively greets - Seeks comfort from caregiver when scared or sad - Once reassured, child goes back to explore environment using mother as a base from which to explore *Caregiver : - Reacts quickly and positively to child's needs - Responsive to child's needs, lovingly available when baby needs comforting *As adult have trusting,lasting relationship. Good self-esteem Comfortable sharing feelings Seek out social support INSECURE-AVOIDANT: - Appear Independent, immediately rush off to inspect toys - Do not use mother as secure base - No distress when caregiver leaves - Does not acknowledge return of caregiver (simply ignores) - Doesn't seek or make contact with the caregiver, avoiding her - Suspect that can't count on mother for support therefore react in defensive way. Suffered so many rejections in past that attempt to block out the need for mother to avoid further disappointment *Caregiver : - Unresponsive, uncaring - Dismissive - insensitive, interfering, rejecting Adult might come out overly self-reliant, detached, never trusts others enough or lets guard down to form close relationships Problems with intimacy Invest little emotion in relationship Unable/unwilling to share thoughts and feelings INSECURE-AMBIVALENT : - Clingy and preoccupied with mother's whereabouts, so barely explored - Distress when caregiver leaves - Not comforted by return of caregiver - Push and pull, reach out for mother then push her away angrily (arch their back) - Desperately seek contact but resist it *Caregiver : - Responds to child inconsistently, leaving baby uncertain whether mother is there for them (warm and responsive on some occasions but not others) Adult might be reluctant to come close to others Worry that partner does not love them Distraught when relationship ends INSECURE-DISORAGANIZED (DISORIENTED) : - No attaching behaviors - Often appear dazed, confused, or apprehensive in presence of caregiver - Walk toward mother but freeze in trance-like state and avert face - At a lost as to how to act because wants to approach mother but afraid *Caregiver : - Abusive or neglectful - Responds in frightening or frightened ways

Rousseau's 4 Stages of Development

STAGE 1: INFANCY (birth - 2yrs) - Experience the world through senses -Knows nothing of reason or ideas, simply experience pleasure and pain -Begin to acquire language STAGE 2: CHILDHOOD (2-12 yrs) - walk, talk, and feed themselves - Lack of abstract thought though have intuitive kind of reason STAGE 3: LATE CHILDHOOD (12-15 yrs) - gain physical strength - practice cognitive functions through concrete, useful tasks - lack of abstract thought - Enjoy working with physical things and learning from nature STAGE 4: ADOLESCENCE - Stages 1-3 children were pre-social where they were concerned with what was useful to themselves and not interested in social relationships - Needs others - Become social beings - Can deal with abstract thoughts and take interest in theoretical matters in science and morals - "Second birth" associated with puberty **These stages RECAPITULATE the general evolution of the human species infancy = primitive stage where people dealt with the world directly through their senses childhood = savage era when people learned to build huts, make tools etc.

Sensitive Periods (Montessori)

Sensitive period of ORDER: - first 3 years - strong need for order - children move about and put objects where they belong eg. misplaced umbrella DETAILS: - Between 1-2 years children focus on minute details eg. small insects - Less focus on main objects; more focus on background objects - Attracted to minutest details unlike ornate objects before USE OF HANDS: - Btwn 18 months - 3 years - Constant grasping of objects - Opening and shutting things in containers - Piling objects up WALKING: - "Second birth" b/c transition from passive to active being - Child walks for the sake of walking unlike adult who has a set destination - Walking is done to perfect child's skills eg. walking up and down stairs repeatedly **By picking child up when they are walking, they start to think their efforts are not good enough and get discouraged** LANGUAGE: - Children learn not only words but also meaning and grammar (speech placement - the cat is on the floor vs. cat on floor the) - Masters as many languages as exposed to. Does so unconsciously (3mo-3 yrs) - At critical time children innately prepared to absorb sounds, words and grammar from environment - Language acquisition is fixed independent of outside factors (fixed order where coo then babble then short sentences) - Spontaneous (happens without a teacher) (Sensitive period for language is 3-6 yrs old, no longer absorb words and grammar unconsciously)

Synesthesia

Unity of the senses - sound may involve several senses such as sad tone is dark and heavy - among indigenous people tones and meanings experienced in an inter-sensory form *part of physiognomic perception

Imprinting (Lorenz)

the process by which animals learn the releasing stimuli for their social instincts eg. proximity seeking or following - occurs during a critical period (completely fixed) meaning the young animal will form an attachment to an object only if she is exposed to and follows that object during a specific time early in life (sensitive period = greater flexibility) - Imprinting determines the following response and also later social behavior (mating behavior) ex. jackdaw bird - The critical/sensitive period begins through inner maturational promptings (search for a figure to follow) WHY DOES IT END? Research has shown that it ends with the onset of the fear response. Fear and avoidance of new objects and animals cause the desire to stay close to the figure they have imprinted on

Differentiation

when whole separates into parts with different functions or forms ex: embryo begins and separates into different organs