Psy 330
Describe the adverse effects of LSD. What is the true incidence of adverse effects of LSD?
Flashbacks
What may account for the reported decrease in hunger after smoking?
smoking increases your metabolism rate, so when you stop smoking your metabolism rate decreases or less energy utilization by the body
Ethnic differences in men and womens drinking
socioeconomic and regional differences acculturation national or tribal differences genetic differences
Hallucination
something you believe is truly happening
phosphene
spots, disks, streaks of lighting, glowing blue arcs, and even checkerboard patterns.
Who was the advocate for the recreational use of LSD?
Timothy Leary
psychotomimetic
"Mimicking psychosis" Produces hallucinations and altered reality, a state similar to psychosis. This term implies that the drug produces dangerous effects and a form of mental disorder.
What does Siegel say is the typical pattern of use of hallucinogenic substances in animals?
Infrequent, unstructured, and intermittently in animals
Describe the evidence as to whether a "safe" cigarette really exists.
- "Safer" does not mean safe , not clear how much safer these low tar and nicotine cigarettes were - Some early studies show that those who smoked lower yield cigarettes for years were at less risk for cancer and heart disease that those who smoke high yield brands - Studies also show that people who switched from high to low ended up compensating by inhaling for longer periods of time.... So defeated the safety in it. - Electronic cigarettes are advertised as safer, but no companies actually submitted them to the FDA for review!
Does Hart & Ksir consider tobacco a drug even though the Supreme Court in 2000 ruled that the FDA (Food & Drug Admin.) did not have the power to regulate tobacco? What happened in 2009 regarding regulation of tobacco?
- Hart and Ksir consider tobacco a drug because it delivers nicotine, a known psychoactive chemical! - In 2009, Obama signed the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco control Act, which authorized the FDA to regulate tobacco products themselves in specific ways. The FDA began studying and proposing new regulations for a wide variety of products.
What is the medical concerns of chewing tobacco and is it generally considered safer than cigarette smoking?
- Increased risk of cancer of the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus. Leukoplakia- whitening, thickening, hardening of tissue in the mouth. - It is healthier than smoking but still not healthy
Describe the criticism that Hart & Ksir levels at the Chasnoff and Louis articles on the use of marijuana during pregnancy.
- It misinterprets several previous findings to draw its conclusions. It stated an increase in risk for anencephaly which has no significant difference. Also, overinterpretation of animal studies. Overstates data on cognition as well. Cognitive performance of marijuana- exposed children does not differ from the control subjects. They said that the researchers exaggerated the potential negative consequences of prenatal marijuana exposure and put women and their children at greater risk for stigmatization and legal consequences.
What happened in 2006 with respect to tobacco companies and the nicotine content in cigarettes?
- Major blow to the "healthier cigarette" when the U.S. gov. Obtained a conviction against nine tobacco companies and two tobacco industry trade organizations for racketeering and fraud. - One charge was for purposefully manipulating nicotine levels to increase nicotine dependence - Second charge for tobacco companies promoting low tar and nicotine as safer alternatives, when their own evidence claims to be misleading
What is the most common type of smokeless tobacco? How is it used? What are its advantages?
- Moist snuff - Sold in a can, a small pinch is dipped out of can and placed beside the gum , often behind the lower lip - Advantages- unlikely to cause lung cancer, less expensive, may be more socially acceptable since not blowing smoke all around
What happened in 1988 in the attempt to produce a "safer" cigarette? Why did the Reynolds company drop its attempt to market an electronic cigarette?
- Reynolds tried to market a non cigarette cigarette, packaged like cigarettes and looked like a plastic cig. The product contained catalytic crystals coated with tobacco extract but no actual tobacco so when lit they produced no smoke but allowed user to absorb some nicotine. - Dropped its attempt because FDA couldn't accept that this was a traditional agricultural product, rather than a nicotine "Delivery device" something that would have to be regulated as a drug. - He was unable to find a LEGAL way to sell the product so was forced to drop
What is an important rule that is a requirement for tobacco companies and what is covered by the rule?
- Rule claims for "modified health risk" are now prohibited until such claims can be clearly demonstrated--in other words a seller cannot claim that e-cigarettes or hookahs are safer than regular cigarettes. - Also all tobacco products will be regulated in a manner similar to drugs, in that companies will have to apply to the FDA, describing products and intended uses
Why is the scientific study of the behavioral effects of alcohol difficult?
- made difficult by the importance of the placebo effects -culture passes along a rich set of ideas of how alcohol is supposed to affect people -changes after people drink are due to pharmacological effects of having alcohol in the system
Understand the production and approximate alcohol content of the major beverage types (wine, beer, stilled spirits, liqueurs).
-12 oz of beer with about 5% alcohol -5 oz of wine with 12% of alcohol -1.5oz of distilled spirits with about 40% alcohol -alc/vol
What is the lethal dose of nicotine and how fast does death occur? What is the cause of death?
-60 mg is a lethal dose -death follows intake within a few minutes -cause of death: suffocation resulting from paralysis of the muscles used respiration -blocking effect of nicotine on the cholinergic system that normally activates the muscles
How is alcohol removed from the body?
-90% occurs in the liver with the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase
What is the percentage of smokers who quit and who say that they quit without any formal treatment program?
-90% quit without any formal treatment program -there are 40 million former smokers in the US
What are the three important facts that Hart addresses with respect to gender differences in alcohol-related accidents?
-BAC legal limit to drive is .08? -80% of injured drivers who have been drinking are male 1. Any given car is more likely to have a male than a female driver 2. Men might take more chances when they're driving even when they are sober 3. Male drivers are more likely than female drivers to have been drinking
What happened on December 5, 1919? What happened on February 20,1933?
-Dec: the 18th amendment was ratified by 36 states -ratified by 36 states by Dec. 5 of that year. So ended an era.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
-FAS: facial and developmental abnormalities associated with the mother's alcohol use during pregnancy -experience growth retardation, abnormal features in face and head, small head, small eyes, CNS abnormality, mental retardation -bad vision, abnormal fingerprints, eye and ear defects, heart murmurs, undescended testicles, birthmarks -seen in less than 10% of babies whose mothers drink heavily -most cause of mental retardation in the world
Psilocybin
-Taken orally -Contains Schedule I chemical -100 times less potent than LSD -Has similar effects to LSD; cross-tolerance to LSD & mescaline -Long-term effects: no subsequent drug abuse, no persisting perceptual disorders, no prolonged psychosis or long-term impairment in functioning-
DMT
-Unique in that tolerance doesn't develop to psych. effects -Is it found naturally in brain? Yes, in small amounts -Found in many plants -Schedule I -Snuffed, smoked, intravenous administration (not oral) -Effects dissipate within 1 hour (LSD effects can last hours)
Describe what is meant by the "Disease Model" of alcohol dependence.
-a central part of their belief system is that alcohol dependence is a progressive disease characterized by a loss of control over drinking and that the disease can never be cured -people who don't have the disease might drink and even become intoxicated, but they dont lose control over alcohol -there is suspicion that the dependent drinker is different even before the first drink is taken -the only treatment is to arrest the disease by abstaining from drinking
What reasons are there to explain why it is so difficult for many people to quit smoking?
-a pack-a-day smoker puffs at least 50,000 times a year -that's a lot of individual nicotine "hits" reinforcing the smoking behavior
Describe the effects of alcohol toxicity.
-acute and chronic -acute is car accidents -alcohol poisoning, hangovers, chronic disease states, liver disorders, brain damage, heart disease, cancer
Describe the process of metabolizing the alcohol in the body. What is the major factor determining the rate of alcohol metabolism?
-alcohol -> alcohol dehydrogenase -acetaldehyde -> aldehyde dehydrogenase (disulfiram blocks this enzyme) -acetyl coenzyme A -energy + CO2 -50-85% of Asian populations have a different form of aldehyde dehydrogenase which is inefficient at breaking down acetaldehyde -symptoms are nausea, hives, heart palpitations -(alcohol dehydrogenase converts alcohol to acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde is then converted rapidly by aldehyde dehydrogenase to acetic acid.) -the major factor determining the rate of alcohol metabolism is the activity of the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase -coffee and exercising have no effect on this enzyme so sobering up just takes time
Describe the relationship between alcohol and suicide.
-alcohol is involved in 1⁄3 of all suicides
What is the effect of chronic alcohol use on the effectiveness of other drugs the individual might take? Why might these effects occur?
-as long as there is alcohol in the system, alcohol gets preferential treatment and the metabolism of other drugs is slower than normal -when heavy alcohol stops, other drugs metabolize more rapidly -to obtain therapeutic levels of other drugs metabolized by this enzyme system, it is necessary to administer less drug to a chronic heavy drinker and more to one who has recently stopped drinking -alcohol increases the activity of one of the two enzyme systems responsible for its own oxidation
Who typically experiences low-level poisoning when smoking cigarettes?
-beginner smokers and small children behind barns and in alleys -symptoms: nausea, dizziness, and a general weakness
Describe what the term "blackout" means.
-blackouts- state dependent memory? -only anecdotal evidence -alcohol induced blackouts -generally anterograde amnesia -2 types: -En bloc -no recall despite cues -have distinct onset -immediate and remote memories intact -fragmentary -more common than En bloc blackouts -can recall some parts of events if cued
Describe the chronic disease states that alcohol use may cause.
-brain damage -loss of brain tissue -the ventricles (internal spaces) are enlarged, and the fissures (sulci) in the cortex are widened -wernicke-korsakoff syndrome: chronic mental impairments produced by heavy alcohol use over a long period of time -liver disorders -alcohol is used as fuel for the liver when present, instead of fatty acids -cirrhosis: an irreversible, frequently deadly liver disorder associated with heavy alcohol use -not all cirrhosis is caused by alcohol, but most is -it is the 7th leading death in the US -heart disease -heavy drinkers are more likely to suffer from high blood pressure and strokes -red wine is better for your heart -cancer -cancer in the mouth, tongue, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, lung, pancreas, colon, and the rectum -direct tissue irritation and nutritional deficiencies and the induction of enzymes that activate other carcinogens -increases the rate of tumor growth -the immune system -infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumonia, yellow fever, cholera, and hepatitis B -factor in AIDS -alcohol use isn't a good idea for people who are HIV+ -moderate drinking has been associated with a decrease in heart attacks
Describe the answers to the question "Why are some people able to drink in moderation all their lives, whereas others repeatedly become intoxicated, suffer alcohol-related problems, and continue to drink excessively?
-cognitive and genetic factors -if alcohol abusers do lose control, it might be because they have come to believe that they will lose control if they drink -alcohol use provides a social excuse for behaving in such ways that would otherwise be considered inappropriate and it is enough for one to believe that one has drunk alcohol for such behaviors to be released -inheritance plays a strong role -alcohol dependence runs in families and can be attributed to children learning from their parents -most children of alcohol abusers don't become alcohol dependent- they just have a greater risk
Describe the withdrawal symptoms of chronic alcohol use and the stages of the abstinence syndrome.
-detoxification: an early stage treatment in which the body eliminates the alcohol or other substances Stages: 1. Tremors, excessively rapid heartbeat, hypertension, heavy sweating, loss of appetite and insomnia 2. Hallucinations- auditory, visual, tactile, or a combination of these; and rarely, olfactory signs 3. Delusions, disorientation, delirium, sometimes intermittent and usually followed by amnesia 4. Seizure activity -medical treatment is usually sought in stage 1 or 2 -delirium tremens: alcohol withdrawal syndrome that includes hallucinations and tremors -Tremors are one of the most common physical changes associated with alcohol withdrawal and can persist for a long period after alcohol intake has stopped -symptoms include anxiety, insomnia, feelings of unreality, nausea, vomiting, and many other symptoms -withdrawal from heavy alcohol use can be life threatening when seizures start developing
What does the regional differences in alcohol use reflect?
-differences in per capita sales reflect differences in the degree of urbanization as well as some of the regional cultural differences -example, the district of Columbia is urban, and a large population of the population of nevada lives in reno or las vegas
What are the factors that can affect the distribution of alcohol through the body?
-different distribution depending upon proportional levels of body fat: doesn't tend to be deposited in fatty tissue: overweight person -higher BAC -gender -age -distributed throughout the body -crosses blood-brain barrier -crosses placental barrier
Understand the history and effectiveness of temperance and prohibition movements in the United States.
-got people to drank less hard alcohol -states passed the prohibition law to not drink spirits but then some would repeal them -people were buying and selling alcohol illegally -organized crime became more organized and more profitable as a result of prohibition -it reduced overall alcohol intake -deaths and hospital visits declined -death and hospital visits were high during prohibition, but were low after prohibition and before it -prohibition was repealed because it weakened respect for law and order -this increased alcohol sales until after WWII
Describe the relationship between alcohol and homicide
-half of those who committed homicide were under the influence of alcohol -a similar proportion of homicide victims were drinking alcohol before they were killed -homicide is more likely to occur when drinking is involved
Describe the relationship between alcohol and assault and other crimes of violence
-heavy drinkers are more likely to engage in such behaviors -highly likely that have been consuming alcohol before the act
What are the behavioral effects of smoking cigarettes?
-helps people stay awake and to focus attention, as well as relaxation -smokers are able to sustain their attention to a task requiring rapid processing of information from a computer screen much better if they are allowed to smoke before beginning the task
What is a safe BAC?
-if your rate of intake equals your rate of metabolism, you will maintain a stable BAC -below .05% BAC
What are the negative physiological effects of smoking cigarettes?
-increases heart rate and blood flow which raises the oxygen need of the heart but not the oxygen supply -increases platelet adhesiveness which increases the tendency to clot -increases EEG toward an arousal pattern
Describe the effects of maternal smoking cigarettes on the developing fetus.
-infants born to smokers are half a pound lighter than non-smokers -the more the mom smokes during pregnancy, the greater the reduction in birth weight -babies of smokers are smaller and have smaller heads -women who give up smoking within the first 4 months of being pregnant, their babies are normal size -more abortions and miscarriages -has long-lasting effects on the intellectual and physical development of the child (differences in body size, neurological problems, reading and math skills, and hyperactivity at various ages -if dad smokes, baby has facial malfunctions -babies have an increased risk for nicotine dependence -cigarettes are the same magnitude as "crack babies" -less oxygen to baby
What does the term "time-out" mean with respect to drinking alcohol?
-is a term referring to the notion of drinking indicates a time out from responsibilities, school, work, and seriousness -focusing on the here and now -this explains why some people are violent after drinking and some are helpful to others
What are the disadvantages in using alcohol as an anesthetic?
-it decreases the CNS -alcohol metabolizes slowly -the dose effective in surgical anesthesia is not much lower than the dose that causes respiratory arrest and death -alcohol makes blood slower to clot
Describe what a hookah is.
-large, ornate water pipes, imported to the US from Egypt and other Arab countries -burning charcoal is put into the pipe bowl, and a piece of flavored tobacco (shisha) is placed on a screen over the charcoal -the smoke is drawn through a tube into a water reservoir by mouthpieces
Describe the behavioral effects of alcohol.
-low dose of alcohol disrupts blood levels, complex, abstract, and poorly learned behaviors -at higher doses of alcohol, better learned and simpler behaviors are also affected -if the alcohol feeling is "just right", most people experience euphoria, a happy feeling -reduction of anxieties, concern, and judgement -the effects depend on the BAC
Describe the adverse health effects of smoking cigarettes.
-lung cancer -cardiovascular disease -chronic obstructive lung disease
Describe the gender differences (if any) in alcohol use
-males are more likely to drink than females -58% of males and 46% of females report dranken in the past month -males binge drink more than females in the past month (30% of males vs. 16% of females) -10% of males and 3.5% of females report heavy drinking (binge drinking on 5 or more separate days during the past month) - the average female has a higher proportion of body fat and therefore, for a given eight, has less volume in which to distribute the alcohol
Describe the relationship between alcohol and date rape
-most significant date rape drug is alcohol -most college women who report being raped happens after drinking alcohol
What are some alternative ways that a cigarette smoker can ingest nicotine without smoking a cigarette?
-nicotine chewing gum -nicotine skin patches -nicotine lozenges -nicotine inhaler or nasal spray -prescription of the drug bupropion (zyban)
Describe the neural mechanism by which nicotine works on areas outside the central nervous system. Can this mechanism account for the some of the effects of the drug?
-nicotine mimics acetylcholine by acting at several nicotinic subtypes of cholinergic receptor site. -nicotine is not rapidly deactivated, and continued occupation of the receptor prevents incoming impulses from having an effect, thereby blocking the transmission of information at the synapse -thus, nicotine first stimulates and then blocks the receptor
Describe the scientific findings about alcohol use and sexual behavior.
-no substance has been closely related to sexuality as alcohol is -many people say alcohol's ability to enhance sexual pleasure is a great benefit -on the other hand, the use of alcohol is linked with risky behavior as well as increased likelihood of sexual assault -men with high BAC are unable to attain or maintain an erection and is evidence that it can lead to more permanent impotence in men -at least some of the subject arousal that men experience after drinking is a psychological reaction to the belief that alcohol enhances sexuality -in men, psychological measures of penile tumescence are correlated with self reports of arousal whereas with women there is no consistent relation between self-reported arousal and vaginal blood volume -whenmen believe that a woman has been drinking, they rate her as being more interested in sex and more sexually available -people are more likely to have sex on a date when they drink on the date -men and women are more willing to engage in unprotected sex when given alcohol -when men drink, they are more likely to be aroused by violent films whereas if they dont drink, they are not aroused -less blame is assigned to the perpetrator if he has been described as drinking before the rape, and more blame is assigned to the victim if she has been drinking -alcohol impairs information processing in a way that they are more likely to attend to what's right in front of them at that time
How does alcohol affect the peripheral nervous system? Describe the physiological effects of alcohol.
-one effect of alcohol on the CNS is the dilation of peripheral blood vessels -this increases heat loss from the body but makes the drinker feel warm -one action of alcohol on the brain is to decrease the output of the antidiuretic hormone ADH responsible for retaining fluid in the body -this increases urine flow in response to alcohol -can lower blood pressure in some individuals -chronic abusers of alcohol can develop a variety of hormone-related disorders including resticulat atrophy and impotence in men and impaired reproductive functioning in women
How are the withdrawal symptoms generally treated?
-optimal treatment of patients during early stages involves the administration of a benzodiazepine, such as chlordiazepoxide or diazepam
Describe what "secondhand smoke" is and is it harmful?
-secondhand smoke: cigarette smoke inhaled from the environment by nonsmokers -secondhand smoke is found to be a carcinogen and estimated that passive smoking is responsible for several thousand lung cancer deaths each year -secondhand smoke is responsible for 7,300 lung cancer deaths and 34,000 heart diseases each year
What is the estimation of the number of deaths due to smoking (2014 report)? What is the estimate of deaths resulting from all types of cancer due to smoking?
-smoking caused 20 million deaths over a 50 year period -among all cancers, smoking is related to half, or 160,000 premature deaths per year
peyote effects
-sometimes called Mescal Button or the Divine Cactus -The cactus flowers occur sporadically, and is indigenous to Mexico and Southwestern United States -principal active ingredient is the hallucinogen mescaline. Proven to be 1000-3000 times less potent than LSD -The buttons of the cactus are either dried and eaten or used in tea. Not the same as mescal beans or mescal liquor -Mescal beans may produce some hallucinogenic effects but are highly toxic - Dried buttons remain psychoactive indefinitely - It is reported to trigger states of deep introspection and insight that have been described as being of a metaphysical or spiritual nature. Hallucinations are envisioned with rich visual or auditory effects. - Usual dose is 3mg/kg that produces potent intoxication - 1.5% mescaline - Up to 8 to 10 hour duration ***SCHEDULE 1*** illegal unless part of native american church
What are the factors that can affect alcohol use?
-stomach contents -volume and rate of intake and concentration -body size and gender -metabolism
Describe the symptoms of a hangover from alcohol use. What are the causes?
-symptoms: upset stomach, fatigue, headache, thirst, depression, anxiety, and general malaise. only cures are an analgesic for the headache, rest, and time. -upset stomach and fatigue is due to the fact that alcohol is a gastric irritant -cause irritation of stomach lining -accumulation of acetaldehyde contributes to the nausea and headache -symptoms are reactions to congeners -congeners are natural products of the fermentation and preparation process, some which are quite toxic -symptoms of a withdrawal from a short term or long term dependence on alcohol -some people continue to drink to escape the pain (which just expands symptoms out over a period of time)
What is the mechanism of action for the CNS effect of alcohol?
-the exact mechanism is not clear -alcohol enhances the inhibitory effects of GABA at the GABA-A receptor -alcohol has many other effects on the brain making it hard to pin down a single mechanism -alcohol alters functions of neurotransmitters, receptors, and transporters -at higher doses, alcohol blocks the effects of the excitatory transmitter glutamate at some of its receptors, enhancing its overall inhibitory actions -alcohol also produces a variety of effects of dopamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine neurons
Why is Benjamin Rush important in understanding the history of alcohol and how it is viewed? What did he do?
-the first writings indicating a negative view of alcohol are attributed to him -he is one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence -he noticed a correlation between heavy drinking and jaundice (liver disease), madness and epilepsy (seizures during withdrawals) -hard liquor damaged the drinkers morality, leading to a variety of antisocial, immoral, and criminal behaviors -he introduced "addiction" -temperance movement: rush proposed that everyone should avoid distilled spirits because they were toxic; which people began to partake in -prohibition: laws prohibiting all sales of alcoholic beverages in the US from 1920 to 1933 -prohibition law: restricted access to alcohol beverages -it reduced overall alcohol intake -prohibition was repealed because of income taxes -the prohibition of alcohol worked in that it reduced alcohol availability, alcohol use, and related problems -even at its best, it did not allow us to close all jails and mental hospital
What factors affect the behavioral effects of alcohol?
-the rate at which BAC rises is a factor in determining behavioral effects -the more rapid the increase, the greater the behavioral effects -a higher BAC is necessary to impair the performance of a chronic, heavy drinker than to impair a moderate drinker's performance Performance differences might reflect only the extent to which experiences drinkers have learned to overcome the disruption of NS functioning -the CNS in the regular drinker develops a tolerance to alcohol -it is established that the neural tissue becomes tolerant to alcohol, and tolerance can apparently develop even when the alcohol intake is well spaced over time
Why does tolerance develop to nicotine?
-the tolerance from nicotine results from the fact that either nicotine or the tars increase the activity of the liver microsomal enzymes that are responsible for the deactivation of drugs
Describe the relationship between alcohol use and different cultures.
-white people drink the most (current use) -Asians drink the least (current use, heavy use, and binge use) -American Indian or Alaska Native have highest binge use and highest heavy alcohol use
Describe the regional differences in the US with respect to alcohol use
-whites are more likely to drink than blacks, northerners more than southerners, younger adults more than older adults, non-religious more than religious, Catholics and Jews more than Protestants, urban more than rural, large cities more than small cities, college student education but than high school or grade school education -half the U.S. consumption comes from beer -New Hampshire and the district of Columbia have the highest sales -New Hampshire have highest sales in beer -the district of Columbia has highest sales in wine
Are the "prevention" programs adopted among colleges and universities helping to decrease excessive alcohol use?
-yes -in 2016, 1⁄3 of college students report binge drinking, which is down from about 40% in 2000
Is there an effective non-drug program for quitting smoking? Explain
-yes and no -in programs some people do well and some don't; one program might not work and another one will -combining counseling and pharmacological treatments increases the odds of quitting
Describe the relationship between alcohol use and alcohol-related accidents and individual characteristics (e.g. age, gender, problem drinkers).
-younger drivers are more than their share of alcohol related accidents -men are more likely than women -the majority of alcohol related accidents are caused by individuals who are not problem drinkers -anyone who drinks and drives is a partential threat
What is the difference between the term "binge drink"
-drinking so much within about 2 hours that blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels reach 0.08 g/dL, the legal limit of intoxication -for women this typically occurs after 4 drinks and for men about 5 -children may reach these levels after fewer drinks -young people consume more than 90% of alcohol by binge drinking
Vivid image patterns
1. A grating or lattice 2. A cobweb 3. A tunnel, funnel, or cone 4. A spiral - These types also appear in fever deliriums, insulin hypoglycemia, and hypnogogic states (drifting off to sleep)
What were the conclusions of the Surgeon General's report on whether cigarette smoking is addictive?
1. Cigarettes and other forms of tobacco are addicting 2. Nicotine is the drug in tobacco that causes addiction 3. The pharmacological and behavioral processes that determine tobacco addiction are similar to those that determine addiction to drugs such as heroin and cocaine
Historically, what has cannabis been used for?
1. For fiber used in making ropes and cloth 2. Non-Psychoactive medical use 3. Use focused mainly on its psychological effects
Detoxification stages
1. Tremors, excessively rapid heartbeat, hypertension, heavy sweating, loss of appetite and insomnia 2. Hallucinations- auditory, visual, tactile, or a combination of these; and rarely, olfactory signs 3. Delusions, disorientation, delirium, sometimes intermittent and usually followed by amnesia 4. Seizure activity
Hallucinogenic effect stages
1. Vivid images 2. complex & meaningful images of people, animals, & places
Intermediate familial subtype
19% of U.S. alcoholics. Nearly half have close relatives who are alcoholics. typically began drinking by 17 and became alcoholics in their early 30s.
Functional subtype
19% of U.S. alcoholics. generally middle-aged, working adults who tend to have stable relationships, more education, and higher incomes than other alcoholics. They tend to drink every other day, often consuming five or more drinks on drinking days.
Young antisocial subtype
21% of U.S. alcoholics. 26 years old, on average. More than half have antisocial personality disorder. They tended to start drinking at 15 and became alcoholics by 18 -- earlier than other subtypes. They are more likely to smoke tobacco and pot. The young antisocial subtype and the young adult subtype don't overlap.
Young adult subtype
32% of U.S. alcoholics rarely seek help for alcohol dependence. About 24 years old, they became alcoholics by age 20, on average. They drink less frequently than other alcoholics, but they tend to binge drink when they drink. This is the largest subtype.
What percentage of inhaled nicotine is absorbed?
90%
What is the role of shamans in early hunter gatherer societies?
A Shaman was a person who became a specialist in the spiritual plants. They have access to, influence in, the world of spirits, especially in tribal societies.
Peyote
A cactus that produces the hallucinogen mescaline. -is a small, spineless, carrot-shaped cactus, Lophophora williamsii Lemaire -Mostly subterranean, with only the pincushion-like top appearing above ground -Long pre-Columbian history of use among Mexican Indians, who used the plant ceremonially
Describe what a flashback is and why was the term replaced by the term "hallucinogen persisting perception disorder"?
A flashback: a nondrug state, reexperiencing of one or more of the perceptual alterations that occurred during psychedelic intoxication, being replaced because it has multiple meanings.
What is ayahuasca and how does it produce its psychoactive effects?
A psychoactive tea. The main psychoactive component is DMT and is prepared by combining the vine Banisteriopsis caapi with leaves of psychotria viridis, which contains DMT. - Produces psychoactive effects: the vine banisteriopsis capi contains harmaline, a MAO inhibitor. The MAO inhibiting properties of harmaline preventing the degrading of oral DMT, which allows DMT to reach the brain.
What is snuff?
A smokeless tobacco. Powder form ingested through nose.
Describe the abuse and dependence of cannabis.
Abstinence syndrome can be observed following abrupt cessation of several days of smoked marijuana. Are there withdrawal symptoms associated with cannabis use? If so, describe these symptoms. Withdrawal is not life threatening but can be unpleasant. Withdrawal includes: negative mood, disrupted sleep, decreased food intake, and in some cases aggressive behaviors Does tolerance develop? If high levels are used regularly over sustained period of time, tolerance can develop to marijuana related effects: cognitive-impairing, physiological, and subjective effects. May develop more readily to marijuana-related cognitive effects than to heart rate and subjective effects.
Describe the behavioral effects of cannabis and its abuse potential.
Abuse potential: less than 10% of users will become addicted. Lower abuse potential than other legally available psychoactive drugs. THC is the main component that is thought to be responsible for consumption of this drug.
What are the acute and long-term subjective effects of the psychoactive mushroom?
Acute: intense changes in mood, perception, and thought Long term- not as much research: research did show no subsequent drug abuse, persisting perception disorders, or other long-term impairment of functioning.
Describe the most common adverse reactions to ingesting psychoactive mushrooms.
Acute: strong feelings of dysphoria and anxiety & headache
Atypicals
Amanita Muscaria Salvinorin A
Describe in general the early (1500s) uses of tobacco.
Amerindians put tobacco into tubes made from reeds , started a fire at one end and "Drank the smoke." Powdered tobacco was sometimes put into mouth or ingested through nose. The leaves were used to treat wounds and the powder was thought to have several medical benefits. Tobacco had several medical uses. "Cured" the queens migraines.
How was PCP characterized around the year 1960?
As an anesthetic for monkeys, a medically safe but psychologically troublesome anesthetic for humans, and a psychedelic different from LSD and mescaline.
Why is DMT ineffective when taken orally? What is the remedy?
Because it is metabolized by monoamine oxidase before reaching the brain. The drug is usually snuffed, smoked, or injected.
Anticholinergic
Belladonna Mandrake Henbane
Cannabinoid receptors
CB1 (in brain) CB2 (in spleen, peripheral sites)
Is there such a thing as "Marijuana Madness? Where did this phrase come from? Is there a relationship between marijuana use and psychosis? If so, describe the relationship and the behaviors observed.
Came from reefer madness in 1936 when ppl thought marijuana was related to psychosis. There is no clear evidence for a casual relationship between cannabis and psychosis.
Describe the physiological effects of cannabis.
Cardiovascular- increases heart rate in dose-dependent fashion. Blood pressure is variable, some studies show slight increases and others report no effect. No evidence that smoking has permanent adverse effect on CV system.
Describe chronic problems that are associated with cannabis use.
Chronic: Positive correlation between smoking and chronic bronchitis but not shortness of breath. Suggests far lower risks of lung dysfunction of heavy users when compared to tobacco users.
What was an early attempt to produce a "safer" cigarette?
Companies advertised their new safe cigarettes as being lower in tar and nicotine -sales of filter cigarettes took off
Describe the chemistry of cannabis
Complex chemistry. 400 chemicals in marijuana but only 70 are cannabinoids.
What is the pattern of use of tobacco in animals? Do animals seek it out like they do some hallucinogenic substances (as described in Ch. 3)? If so, why? If not, why not?
FIND MORE Most instances of tobacco use among animals have occurred in situations where humans provided it ● Animal use is so much like our own once they get a hold of the drug
Describe the Marijuana Act of 1937. What powers did it have regarding Marijuana use? What effect did it have on marijuana use? Is it still in effect today?
Did not outlaw cannabis or its preparations, but it taxed the grower, the distributor, seller, and buyer and made it administratively almost impossible for anyone to have anything to do with it. Almost immediately there was a decrease in crimes under the influence of marijuanna. The price increased.
when was LSD first synthesized, and by who?
Dr. Albert in 1938
What is state-dependent learning? Recognize examples.
Events experienced or learned in one drug state are highly dependent on the same or similar physiological state for recall ○ Charlie only remembered his friend when he was drunk
What were the effects when psychonauts removed their blindfold goggles?
Every system was bombarded with enhanced inputs, as the brain's mechanism for filtering information was suppressed by the drugs. Senses fused as subjects heard colors, saw sounds, and felt their visions. Altered perceptions of real and imaginary events were worn together as they experiences the full glory of what was going on inside and outside of their brain.
Describe the subjective effects of cannabis. Do these effects vary between novice users and experienced users? Is there an expectation effect?
Experienced users: increased rating of euphoria, high, mellowness, hunger, and stimulation after smoking. Know what they are expecting. Infrequent smokers: similar but more intense: some may report negative effects such as mild paranoia and hallucinations.
What percentage of people 12 and over reported using LSD in the last month?
For past year use: 0.6% of people aged 12 years of older in 2015 had used LSD: 1.5 million people. About .1% of population.
Describe Harry Anslinger's role in developing the US's perception of cannabis in the 20th century.
From 1930-1962, he served as the commissioner of the US bureau of Narcotics. He wanted to convince the public that marijuana was bad and caused crime.
entheogen
Generating the divine within. Used to describe substances (e.g. scared mushrooms) that are thought to create spiritual or religious experiences
Describe the absorption , distribution, and elimination of cannabis.
Half life of 19 hours, but metabolites formed in the liver have a half life of 50 hours. After one week, 25-30% of THC still remain in the body. Complete elimination takes 2-3 weeks. - The high lipid solubility of THC means that it is taken up and stored in fatty tissue to be released slowly. Excretion is through the feces.
How fast is LSD metabolized?
Half of the LSD in the blood is metabolized every three hours. LSD is metabolized in the liver
Describe in general the effects Hoffman experienced
He had difficulty in speaking coherently, field of vision swayed before him, and objects appeared distorted like images in curved mirrors. All acoustic perceptions.
What are the effects observed with high doses of THC on animals' learning and memory?
High doses produce difficulty with learning and negative symptoms for animals
Describe the effects of cannabis on appetite and talking.
Increase appetite, decrease talking
What do brain-imaging studies reveal about the cognitive performance?
Increased activity in the hippocampus and decreased activity in the left anterior cingulate and left lateral prefrontal cortex in smokers compared to the control. 1.subtle brain activation differences may have little impact on behavior 2. Major behavior of interest- cognitive performance- should be examined carefully. ● No scientific study demonstrating meaningful brain differences btwn users and control
What is the relationship between the pattern of use of smoking cigarettes and the percentage of nicotine in tobacco?
If nicotine content is varied, people tend to adjust their smoking behavior, taking more puffs and inhaling more deeply when given low-nicotine cigarettes, and reporting no satisfaction if nicotine is removed!
what does animism have to do with drugs?
If the plant contains a spirit, then eating the plant transfers that spirit to the person who eats it, and the spirit of the plant can speak to the consumer, make her feel the plant's joy or provide her with special powers.
Describe the psychological effects of hallucinogenic drugs that the psychonauts reported.
Imagery was characterized by a central bright light, this light created a tunnel- like perspective for the visions. The forms then became more geometric as the experiment progressed. Black- and white images began to take on colors. The colors started to pulsate, moving toward the center of the tunnel or away from the bright light. Some images rotated like pinwheels, while others darted across the visual field. Geometric forms appeared and also cloned themselves. Then complex images started appearing of real scenes including childhood memories, emotional events, and recent memories. The images appeared in lattice- tunnel arrangements and moved in explosie or rotational configurations.
Describe the medical use of cannabis. What health conditions has cannabis been found to have an effect? Has cannabis been given FDA approval to treat these conditions? Is there any formulation or preparation of cannabis that the FDA has approved to treat these conditions?
In 1900's cannabis was used for medical reasons, with the Marijuana tax act of 1937, the use for medical reasons declined. But in 1971, it was used with glaucoma patients who had their intraocular pressure measured before and after smoking and smoking reduced the fluid. FDA approved oral THC for treating nausea & appetite stimulation in patients with AIDS
Describe the difference between wild and caged primates in the use of tobacco and the possible reasons for the difference.
In natural habitats, primates may ignore the psychological benefits of the plant because they don't need them but they use the plant when they are utilizing the medicinal properties. The caged primates may use tobacco to get intoxicated to relieve depression by producing a state of mental exhilaration or happiness.
ecstacy lethal effects
In one study - 87 ecstasy-related deaths, 8 related to heart or circulatory system, 4 caused by liver damage 9 caused by swelling of brain 30 caused by overheating 14 caused by suicide or accident 22 deaths - cause not determined
Basic categories of hallucinogens
Indole Catechol Deliriants Anticholinergic Atypicals
Is there a correlation between the psychedelic effect of LSD and other psychedelic drugs and the degree to which these chemicals bind to serotonin receptors?
LSD and other psychedelic drugs act by stimulating the serotonin-2A. High correlation btwn the psychedelic chemicals binding to this receptor in rat brains and their potency in producing psychedelic effects in humans.
What organ is LSD not likely to found in people using LSD?
LSD is usually taken by mouth and rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tracts. Following ingestion, the brain contains less LSD than any of the other organs in the body (NOT SELECTIVELY TAKEN UP BY THE BRAIN).
Describe MDMA and its effects, both positive and negative.
MDMD- increases sociability and euphoria. Increased blood pressure, pulse and body temp. Decreases appetite and sleep. More negative or depressed moods following MDMA administration. Ppl perform equally to those who do not do MDMA. Damage to brain cells.
What does the term 'tobacco shamanism' mean in the context that Siegel uses the term?
Tobacco shamanism- relatively old pattern of drug use for our species, dating back to eight thousand years.
Describe the various preparations of cannabis and the THC content in each. Distinguish between hashish and sinsemilla.
Marijuana cigarettes made from leaves- 1% Marijuana cigarettes made from the flowering buds- 20% THC Hashish- concentrated resin from the plant- 65% THC Sinsemilla-- "without seeds" a method of growing so more flower is produced with no seeds
Catechol
Mescaline (peyote) Amphetamine derivatives (DOM, MDA, MDMA)
According to Hart & Ksir why was the public slow or resistant to believe that there was little evidence between marijuana use and crime?
Most people have never heard of marijuana and the claims before Anslinger and the press. Also, the great depression which made everyone sensitive to new influences.
What is the ingredient in tobacco that is the principle pharmacological reward for smoking tobacco, even for monkeys?
Nicotine
Is there a correlation between PCP and violence?
No. not warranted.
What are the mediation treatments for Cannabis Use Disorder?
Oral delta-9-THV (dronabinol) - as been shown to reduce symptoms associated with cannabis
Delirants (Dissociative anesthetics)
PCP KEtamine
What is a more common adverse effect? Describe this effect
Panic reaction: the intensity can range from a mild case of increased anxiety to a full-blown panic attack.
Dr. Nora Volkow
People who addicted to drugs showed lower increases in dopamine Fire when they get exposed to the condition stimulus : condition stimulus = dopamine Drug abuser gets conditioned to: dealer, people they are around, feelings after drug, Triggers neural adaptations in the pathways Those with mental illness use because it temporarily relieves some of their symptoms, with repeated administration it will lead to down regulation making symptoms worse
Describe peyote and its active ingredient.
Peyote: a small, spineless, cactus, Lophophora williamsii- Lemaire. Mescaline is the primary psychoactive ingredient.
Describe what absinthe is and the effects of drinking it
Popular blue-green liquor that was prepared from a distillate of wormwood and aromatic herbs and spices. Alcohol content was high and varied between 45 and 75% ○ Also contains thujone, wormwood chemical similar to active ingredient in marijuana ○ Strong enough to cause hallucinations, convulsions and seizures ■ One drinker bit pieces of his friends face off
mead
Prepared from fermented honey and water, widely used in the Mediterranean region and was a standard offering to the ancient gods
Describe the long-term effects (or their absence) of psilocybin and how was this data collected?
Researches analyzed 8 double-blind experimental studies. Suggests that psilocybin produces predictable effects when the drug is administered to healthy individuals.
What is the active ingredient in the psychedelic mushroom?
Psilocybin
In extrapolating findings from animals to humans in terms of the effects of MDMA, what questions should be asked when trying to evaluate drug-related data?
Recreational users do not use as much as the researchers administered the animals
Describe the evidence from medical research that is encouraging examination of psychedelics as being a possible treatment for medical and psychological issues
Research found that a single dose of LSD decreased problem drinking. In the 50's and 60's LSD was used for anxiety and schizophrenia. Last decade: more research in therapeutic benefits. MDMA decreases symptoms of PTSD and ayahuasca reduces symptoms of depression, psilocybin facilitates tobacco smoking cessation and decreases depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer.
What are the two main types of cannabis?
Satvia and indica
Ecstacy allowance
Schedule 1 in US Schedule 3 in Canada and Egypt Portugal less than 1 gm not criminal offense
What is the pharmacology of PCP? What is the neural mechanism of PCP in the brain?
Selectively blocking the NMDA subtype of glutamate receptor. PCP is a selective NMDA receptor antagonist.
Describe the issue discussed about the question of determining causation with respect to question #23 above. Did they arrive at a conclusion about this issue? Why or why not?
Some studies have found correlation but people were more likely to admit to having experienced at least one psychotic symptom. It could also be that psychosis causes people to smoke. They found that there is no clear evidence for a casual relationship between cannabis and psychosis
Schedule 2 drug
Substance has a high potential for abuse, has a currently accepted medical use in the U.S. with severe restrictions, and abuse may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence.
Schedule 1 drug
Substance has a high potential for abuse, has no medical use in the U.S., and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision.
Schedule 4
Substance has a low potential for abuse as compared to Schedule III, has currently accepted medical use in the U.S., and abuse may lead to limited physical and psychological dependence.
Schedule 5
Substance has a low potential for abuse as compared to Schedule IV, has currently accepted medial use in the U.S., and abuse has a narrow scope for physical and psychological dependence
Schedule 3
Substance has a potential for abuse (less than Schedule I or II), has currently accepted medical use in the U.S., and may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence.
What is the basis for LSD (d-lysergic acid Diethylamide) and how is it synthesized?
Synthesized from ergot alkaloidds extracted from the ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea. This mold grows on grain, especially rye and eating infected grain results in an illness which causes headaches, vomiting, diarrhea, and gangrene.
Describe the mechanism of action of cannabis. What receptors are involved in cannabis' effect on the CNS?
THC and other cannabinoids bind to CB1 and CB2. CB2 found outside the brain (in spleen) and in the immune cells. CB1 are found primarily in the brain: effect coordinating body movements, aspects of memory storage, integration of higher cognitive functions, and reward.
Describe how and why THC is extracted from the plant.
THC doesn't dissolve well in water, so THC needs to be extracted from the plant. Traditional method : soaking the plant material in ethanol which could be filtered and evaporated, leaving behind hash oil Now most comercial extraction facilities use liquid carbon dioxide to produce oils or other forms known as "budder" "wax" or "shatter"- THC 70-80%
Distinguish between THC and CBD.
THC- most pharmacologically active. CBD- nonpsychoactive cannabinoid & antiseizure medication
Describe the "Good Friday Experiment" and its results.
The ability of psilocybin to induce meaningful religious experiences was investigated. 20 christian seminary students were assigned to two groups. One received psilocybin, the other received nicotinic acid. Then the students attended a good friday religious service. Psilocybin occasioned a mystical experience whereas nicotinin acid did not. But was not a blind study. They found that psilocybin acutely increased mystical experiences.
Describe the first sign of LSD intoxication in an individual
The autonomic signs are some of the first to appear: dilated pupils, elevated temperatures, increased blood pressure, and increase in salivation
Describe the meaning of the statement, "In the experimental chamber, the film for the projector must come from the psychonauts."
The continuum of energy depends on the arousal state, as arousal increases the imagery appears more vividly, when arousal is increased further imagery may appear to be projected on a sensory field outside of the body, especially if sensory inputs are reduced (blindfolded)
Describe the early history of cannabis and its use.
The earliest reference is in a pharmacy book in 2737 BC by a Chinese emperor. He encouraged use for medical uses. Social use of the plant spread to the Middle East and North Africa by AD 1000. In the eastern Mediterranean area, a legend developed around a religious group that committed murder for political reasons. Stories of this group became popular as told by Marco Polo in 1299.
Describe the frequency and pattern of tobacco use by primates in the wild.
The frequency of tobacco use by primates in the wild is low. When is does occur, the animals go for weak doses of nicotine
What is one of the most prominent LSD-related effects?
The modification of perception, particulary of visual images. Others include altered sense of time, changes in the perception of one's own body, and some alterations of auditory input.
Describe the factors involved in learned taste aversions within the context of feeding behavior of animals in the wild.
The negative consequences of bitterness or sickness act to punish the animal for its choices and will cause the animal to reject future opportunities based on certain cues. Visually dominant feeders, birds, may learn to associate sight with the visceral events that occur as a result of this type of feeding. Mice and rats rely more on flavor. Taste aversion learning becomes a lifesaving mechanism.
What does PCP have to do with the police beating of Rodney King in Los Angeles?
The police officers said he was using PCP but he wasn't. The associations between PCP and violence are not warranted.
Describe the effects experienced in soldiers and civilians when the US military experimented with LSD and other psychedelics
The soldiers believed they were losing their minds. Some suffered long term psychiatric disturbances and others had difficulty adjusting to their usual lives. The situation of the drug use, and the users level of experience can greatly influence the effects experienced.
What is the current status of attempts to legalize marijuana use? What are the issues involved?
Today, support for legalization is at its highest with 60% of Americans being in favor. But it is still a schedule 1 drug. States can make it legal but not at the federal level. Marijuana use is not driving the legalization trend. Many factors are at play for the increase in attitude shift: 1. Increase in scientific research showing it is not toxic 2. Economy of US plummeted in 2007 and millions of dollars spent on illicit drug us (legalizing weed would reduce a lot of prison numbers & arrests) 3. The media and showing the illicit drug use problem, legalizing would decrease illicit use
Describe tolerance when using LSD.
Tolerance develops rapidly, usually within 3-4 days if the drug is taken daily on multiple occasions. Cross-tolerance: LSD, mescaline, psilocybin. NO physical dependence to psychedelics.
Describe the time-course for the effects of nicotine ingestion (smoking tobacco).
Until the animal is tolerant, the effects are unpleasant. As tolerance increases, there is a decrease in unpleasant effects. Nicotine increases the general locomotor activity and learning. When nicotine wear off, withdrawal= restlessness, irritability, insomnia, and hunger
Describe the psychoactive effects of ingesting natural and synthetic mescaline.
Vivid color and visual effects. Pupil dilation, pulse rate and blood pressure increase ,and elevation in body temperature. EEG arousal.
How was beer made in early Neolithic times?
Wild wheat and barley were soaked in water to make gruel. ○ If left out in the open, the grain did not spoil, instead natural yeast in the air converted it to a dark, bubbling brew that made whoever drank it feel good
Can a person get enough of the psychoactive ingredient in chewing tobacco?
Yes
Among high school seniors, has there been a decline in the percentage reporting current cigarette smoking? What may account the shift in the number reporting current cigarette use?
Yes there has been a dramatic decline since 2000, due to replacement by e cigarettes
Is vaping marijuana safer the smoking marijuana? Why or why not?
Yes! It avoids the combustion of the substance and the inhaling of smoke which contains carbon monoxide and other dangerous by-products of combustion.
Describe synesthesia
a "mixing of senses" in which sounds may appear as images, or the visual picture might alter in rythem with music.
Pseudohallucinations
a false perception that you know it not real
Indole
a particular chemical structure found in serotonin and LSD LSD Psilocybin DMT Ayahuasca
Describe the absorption of cannabis.
absorbed in the blood stream and distributed first to the brain, then to the rest of the body. Within 30 minutes, much is gone from the brain. Peak mood-altering and cv effects occur within 5-10 minutes.
What is the difference between the term "heavy drinking"
alcohol use as binge drinking on 5 or more days in the past month -heavy is not equivalent to binge
Untrained observers
could not distinguish between real from false (true hallucination)
Trained psychonauts
remained firmly grounded in objective reality and knew that they projections were unreal (pseudohallucination)
sidestream smoke
smoke arising from the ash of the cigarette or cigar
ow was beer made in early Egypt?
discovered the basic process of brewing and learned to excel in the art of making wine as well as beer ○ Grain is first steeped in water to start germination that renders the starches soluble, process known as malting ○ Malt is then treated with hot water in a vessel, forming a porridge like mash (converts the starches of the malt into fermentable sugars. The mash is boiled, cooled and put into fermentation vessel)
Describe the cognitive effects of cannabis long-term
following a sufficient period of abstinence (greater than one month), regular marijuana use produces minimal effects on cognition
Entactogen
generating empathy and openness. Used to describe substances such as MDMA that are said to enhance feelings
cannabinoid receptor CB1
if stimulated produces - Euphoria - Impaired short term memory and sense of time - receptors more abundant than opioid receptors - Greatest concentration - basal ganglia, cerebellum, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, nucleus accumbens
cannabinoid receptor CB2
if stimulated produces - Immunosuppressant activity - Not psychoactive
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)
individual developmental abnormalities associated with the mother's alcohol use during pregnancy -fetus has a risk of not being born at all
Nicotine
is a psychoactive alkaloid that is most commonly administered through smoking or chewing the leaves of the tobacco plant
Tobacco
is an annual or bi-annual growing 1-3 meters tall with large sticky leaves that contain nicotine. Native to the Americas, tobacco has a long history of use as a shamanic inebriant and stimulant.
Indica
is more sedating
Sativa
is more uplifting
Describe the evidence that nicotine is the primary reinforcing agent in smoking tobacco.
monkeys will work very hard when their only reward consists of regular intravenous injections of nicotine
What is anandamide and what does it do?
natural substance produced in the body that has marijuana-like effects when administered to animals
The nucleus forms the basic structure of the .... neurotransmitters
norepinephrine and dopamine
Is it a myth that quitting smoking causes a person to gain weight? Why or why not?
not a myth, smoking increases your metabolism rate, so when you stop smoking your metabolism rate decreases or less energy utilization by the body. They also like carbohydrate-rich snacks the most
Describe acute problems that are associated with cannabis use.
physiological- increase in heart rate
Describe the cognitive effects of cannabis short-term
the amount of time that is required to complete cognitive tasks is increased (slowed cognitive processing), performance on immediate recall tasks in decreased (disrupted short term memory), premature responding is increased (disrupted inhibitory control), performance on tracking tasks is decreased (loss of sustained concentration or vigilance) and disrupted visuospatial processing.
Animism
the belief that objects attain certain characteristics because of spirits
Describe the quality of evidence about the effects of LSD and other psychedelic drugs. Why does the quality of evidence vary?
the quality varies because they dont take place in the same time period, so they contain different agents
Chronic severe subtype
the rarest subtype, accounting for about 9% of U.S. alcoholics. This subtype mainly includes men, has the highest divorce rate, and frequently includes users of illicit drugs.
What is the 'poison-partner' effect and why is it seen as adaptive?
● Adult rats will avoid consuming a novel flavor that was first experiences in the presence of a sick rat ○ Helps future rats avoid poisoning
What are the behaviors cats exhibit when they ingest catnip? Is it pleasurable for the cat? Do cats become 'addicted' to catnip? Do some cats not become addicted? Why?
● Behavioral 1st stage- is to sniff ● Behavioral 2nd stage- lick and sometimes chew the leaves, chewing interrupted when the cat momentarily stares into space with a blank expression then quickly shakes its head from side to side. ● Behavioral 3rd stage- cat will rub against the plant with its chin and cheek. ● Behavioral 4th stage- "head over" roll with rubbing of the entire body (extremely sensitive cats may flip from side to side by rolling over on their backs) ● At higher doses= head twitching violently, salivate profusely, and sexual stimulation ● Pleasurable behavior for the cat ● Some cats react to cat nip and some do not, those that do have the chance of becoming addicted ○ Because of genetics (some inherit a gene that guides the reaction to catnip)
Describe the experiment and the results Siegel did on monkeys (Alex, Claude, & Lucy) in his lab when he examined the role of environment on the pattern of use of hallucinogenic substances.
● Both experiments were in the dark, didn't smoke the lettuce cigarettes in the dark but they did do the DMT in the dark ... Lucy and claude ● Darkness, calmness and solitude are the most common times for humans to engage in hallucinogens so he wanted to replicate this with monkeys and he found that under the right conditions DMT intoxication was as useful to a monkey as it is to a human, share the same motivation to light up our lives with chemical glimpses of another world ● Three monkeys as subjects, placed in a box that was a large metal cage and had a steel tube connected to a smoking machine that delivered smoke from burning cigarettes. ● Box placed in light proof and soundproof chamber, isolating it from all visual and auditory contact ● Each monkey could live alone in the box for 10 days and were given lettuce cigarettes (alex hardly puffed, claude puffed once every day, but not alot and lucy refused to puff any) ● 6 months later, they were placed in the box again but with DMT cigarettes ○ Alex- Alex smoked on the second day and had a bad trip ○ Claude- Day 3 he smokes some, Day 4 he smoked a whole cigarette, day 8 he smoked two, the trips amused him ○ Lucy-took her 8 days to try it but then enjoyed DMT
Describe the results of the experiment Siegel did on free-roaming elephants. What were the differences Siegel found (if any) between these elephants and the results he obtained with the 3 captive elephants (question 7 above)?
● Captivity may influence intoxication for comfort ● So with free roaming elephants, Feeding and drinking decreased as did bathing and physical contacts with the others ● Ear flapping increased and the elephant would lie down for long period of time ● Alcohol brought out the individual personality of each animal ● Aggressive elephants became more aggressive and submissive ones became meeker ● When whole herd presented with the alcohol the aggressive ones prevented the submissive ones from drinking Overall for lab animals the stress of captivity and confinement will persuade many to become alcoholic, when similar conditions occur in free roaming social colonies they drive animals to alcohol
What are the behavioral effects in animals and in humans of ingesting psilocybin mushrooms 'magic mushrooms'?
● Cause less disruption in the behavior of cattle, sheep, and goats. ● Smaller animals receive larger doses and show more dramatic effects ○ Dogs eating then running in circles, head-twitching, yelping, not responding to humans ● Primates love or hate them. Rhesus monkeys became disoriented and confused ● Humans have different attitudes ○ Some mycophiles, some mycophobes
Describe the origins of 'Lomechusa-mania' in ants and why Siegel argues that it can be a true fable for our species.
● Come from Lasius falvus (yellow ant) and Lomehusa (beetle). The ants get addicted to the beetle's secretion which allows more beetles to move into the colony, which dwindles the ant population. "Lomeschusa-mania"- a case of severe addiction= a decline in the ant society ○ True fable for our species to contemplate regarding the presence of hallucinogenic drugs in the modern workplace.
What conclusions did Siegel reach regarding elephants' preference for alcohol?
● Elephants are the animals that once shared Paradise with man ● In noah's ark a pair of elephants is leading the long file ● They prefer alcohol in times of stress... so in confinement or when in the wild stressed from poaching and deforestation] ● Helps them ease the pain of consciousness
Describe the procedure and results of Ellison's experiment on how social environment facilitates alcoholism.
● Ellison studied colonies of rats living for as long as 7 months in large and spacious environments. Each colony consisted of a burrow area for housing, a behavioral arena w activity wheels and climbing ropes and a feeding area ● Stable colonies of rats raised with unlimited access to water and 10% alcohol consumed less alcohol than rats reared in isolation cages ● But the colony rats developed some uncannily familiar patterns , they congregated at the fluid spouts where social drinking was facilitated ○ Peak drinking occurred at hours just before eating and sleeping ● Observed days of considerable drinking and days of not ... "party" phenomenon ● Unique subgroup developed into the colony, these were extreme consumers of alcohol.... Several were exclusively drinking alc and some always drank water
What are the behavioral effects in animals and in humans of ingesting ergot fungus?
● Grazing animals showed agitation and muscle spasms. Staggering in stiff, bounding movements, their eyes jerk back and forth, and eventually they fall. ● Farmers have tasted this grain ○ A blissful experience, giving men a reason to live in joy; a religious experience
What are the behavioral effects in animals and in humans of ingesting Amanita muscaria?
● Head twitching by deer, squirrels, or chipmunks. Canadian Caribou show the greatest effects. ○ The caribou that ingest the fly agaric, run with an awkward side-to-side head shaking of their hindquarters. "Dance of death" because this will lure wolves or any enemies away from their young ● Ingesting in humans can lead to death. Eating even one will induce twitching, trembling, slight convulsions and numbness in the limbs
Describe Siegel's laboratory and the procedure he used to chronicle the psychological effects of users' experience. Also, describe the training the "psychonauts" received.
● His lab furnished to resemble a living room, but the walls were blank. ● The procedure he used to chronicle the psychological effects of users' experience ● Psychonauts were men and women who had top physical and mental condition and experienced in LSD. They all logged hours learning a new verbal code on how to describe their mental imagery (trained to say what they saw on the trip) ○ psychonauts were trained to describe images in precise language and define color to its wavelength and to recognize images even if they were 8 milliseconds ○ For ex, training related to a tunnel category, he showed them hundreds of different slides of tunnels so that the subjects would have a broad concept of the tunnel form ○ He coded certain categories so when the psychonauts were tested they could code what they saw
What is the link between urine, mushrooms, and Siberia reindeer?
● Human urine and fly agaric mushrooms contain the muscimole metabolite which both have intoxicating effects on the reindeer ○ Makes the reindeer run around, make noise, head twitch, and isolate themselves
Describe how Siegel attempted to determine what animals were seeing when they were under the influence of THC. What were the results? How did these results compare to what humans "see"?
● Pigeons were trained to watch a screen and respond with keys, They saw blue geometric patterns. ○ This was the same thing that humans saw!
Describe the relationship between the dose of Cannabis animals are willing to ingest on their own and the effects of low versus high dose.
● Reactions to cannabis are not all-or-none. The dose is critical! ● Effects of cannabis on animals or people is dependent on the dosage ● Low dosage produce intoxicating effects ● Higher doses produce greater difficulty in movements and a generalized sedation with insensibility to pain
What does Siegel say caused Steven's "bad trip" on cocaine?
● Slight shift in the delicate balance between dosage, set and setting ● Steven experienced a seizure from doing cocaine, then a month later decided to take more coke... his brain remembered the seizure he had , so the brain acts as if it was already kindled and the next roar of fire will occur with a much lower dose of coke.
Describe the behavioral effects of hallucinogenic substances on the following species: spiders, Siamese fighting fish, and rats & mice.
● Spiders: mescaline and peyote causes them to mess up their webs ○ Low doses of LSD- improved their ability ○ High doses of LSD- irregular angles and shapes ● Siamese fighting fish: LSD and hallucinogenic drugs cause the fish to fight in an empty tank, thinking they have an opponent ● Rats & mice: Have advanced nervous systems which causes them to be more confused by the drugs ○ Staggered and looking around ○ With LSD they will attack any object in front of them
What factors appear to control the amount of alcohol consumed by laboratory animals?
● Stress ● Genetic strain ○ For ex) alcohol preferring rats, known as AA rats, belong to a genetic line that prefers alcohol because they have a more active basal metabolic rate, higher food intake and a higher energy requirement than rats that do not drink as much ● Social rearing conditions ○ Strains of mice that have been bred for preference (drinker mice) ir aversion (non drinker mice) to alcohol. ○ When non drinker mice are housed for 7 weeks w adult drinker mice, the non drinker voluntarily increased alcohol consumption ○ Conversely, when drinker mice are housed w adult non drinkers, the youngsters drink less
What are the differences between tame, laboratory-raised rats and wild Norway rats in the pattern and frequency of alcohol consumption? What explanation for the differences does Siegel propose?
● Tame domesticated lab rats can be forced to drink extremely high concentrations of alcohol continually over long periods of time, but at the end of the experiment they will usually return to their normal preferences for low alc concentration or water ● Wild norway rats, may become increasingly partial to strong alcohol and continue to drink it (one theory is that the wild ones are under great stress because not used to captivity and alcohol reduces stress)
hallucinatory constants
● The images tended to appear in lattice-tunnel arrangements and move into explosive or rotational configurations ● The theme is distinctly to humans - the geometric forms are common among all hallucinogen users
Describe the relationship between drug flashbacks and state-dependent memory.
● The state-bound memories can be evoked not only by melodies, imagery, and other symbols from the content of the experience, but also by simply inducing the particular level of arousal that prevailed during the initial experience.
What results did Siegel obtain when he studied the effects of hallucinogenic drugs cross culturally? What was Siegel's explanation for the results?
● There is a universal experience with hallucinogenic drugs ● Because we are all homo sapiens and are wired the same way. ○ The structure and function of our CNS is the same
Describe the procedure and results of the experiment Siegel carried out on 3 Asiatic captive elephants to see if elephants find alcohol attractive if they are not hungry?
● These elephants were part of a trained animal show, they were housed between performances in a small barn, chained to a barn wall but had access to alfalfa, grain fruit and water and a fifth choice of alcohol. ● All elephants preferred the 7% solution of alcohol (same concentration found in fermented fruits and grains eaten by elephants in asia and africa) ● In stronger solutions, ethanol can produce a burning taste, making higher concentrations unpleasant ... even when one of favorite flavors added to buckets they never drank anything stronger than 10% ● These elephants showed dramatic effects when given unlimited access to 7% solution ● They never refused the alcohol