PSY Chapter 1 Modules 1 - 4: Psychologists at work. PG 3 - 43
LO 3 - 3: What research methods do psychologists use?
- Archival research uses existing records, such as old newspapers, online databases, or other documents, to test a hypothesis. In naturalistic observation, the investigator acts mainly as an observer, making no change in a naturally occurring situation. In survey research, people are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes. The case study is an in-depth interview and examination of one person or group. - These descriptive research methods rely on correlational techniques, which describe associations between variables but cannot determine cause-and-effect relationship.
Humanistic Perspective
- Carl Rogers - Abraham Maslow - the approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior.
Conscious Vs. Unconscious Thoughts
- Conscious: forces of which we are fully aware - Unconscious: forces that are not accessible to the conscious mind.
Free will or Determinism
- Free will: Idea that behavior is caused primarily by choices that are made freely by the individual. -Determinism: Idea that people's behavior is produced primarily by factors outside of their willful control.
LO 3 - 4: How do psychologists establish relationships in research studies? cause-and-effect?
- In a formal experiment, the relationship between variables is investigated by deliberately producing a change-called the experimental manipulation-In one variable and observing changes in the other variable. - In an experiment, at least two groups must be compared to assess cause-and-effect relationships. The group receiving the treatment (The special procedure devised by the experimenter0 is the experimental group. The second group (which receives no treatment) is the control group. There also may be multiple experimental groups, each of which is subjected to a different procedure and than compared with others. - The variable that experimenters manipulate is the independent variable. The variable that they measure and expect to change as a result of manipulation of the independent variable is called the dependent variable. - In a formal experiment, participants must be assigned randomly to treatment conditions, so that participant characteristics are distributed evenly across the different conditions. - Psychologists use statistical tests to determine whether research findings are significant.
Individual Differences or Universal Principles
- Individual differences: a person's unique and special qualities. - Universal principles: factors that underlie the behavior of all humans.
Behavioral perspective
- John B. Watson - B. F. Skinner - The approach that suggests that observable, measurable behavior should be the focus of study.
Nature Vs. Nurture
- Nature: genetically determined, inherited. - Nurture: Influences of the physical and social environments in which a person is raised.
Observable Actions or Internal Mental Processes
- Observable Actions: objective behavior that can be seen by outside observers. - Internal Mental: unseen processes involved in thinking.
LO 4 - 1: What major issues confront psychologists conducting research?
- One of the key ethical principles followed by psychologists is that of informed consent. Participants must be informed, before participation, about the basic outline of the experiment and the risk and potential benefits of their participation. - Although the use of college students as participants has the advantage of easily availability, there are drawbacks, too, for instance, students do not necessarily represent the population as a whole. the use of nonhuman animals as participants may also have cost in term of the ability to generalize to humans, although the benefits of using animals in research have been profound. - Experiments are subject to a number of biases, or threats. experimenter expectations can produce bias when an experimenter unintentionally transmits cues to participants about her or his expectations regarding their behavior in a given experiment condition. Participants expectations can also bias an experiment. Among the tools experimenters use to help eliminate bias are placebos and double-blind procedures.
LO 2 - 4: What is the future of psychology likely to hold?
- Psychology will become increasingly specialized, will pay greater attention to prevention instead of just treatment, will become more and more concerned with the pubic interest, and will take the growth diversity of the country's population into account more fully.
LO 2 - 3: What are psychology's key issues and controversies?
- Psychology's key issues and controversies center on how much of human behavior is a product of - nature or nurture, - conscious or unconscious thoughts, - observable actions or internal mental processes, - free will or determinism, - and individual differences or universal principles.
LO 3 - 2:What role do theories and hypotheses play in psychological research?
- Research is psychology is guided by theories (broad explanations and perditions regarding phenomena of interest) and hypotheses (theory-based perditions stated in a way that allows them to be tested).
Psychodynamic Perspective
- Sigmund Freud - the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control
LO 3 - 1:What is the scientific method?
- The scientific method is the approach psychologists use to understand behavior. It consists of four steps: Identifying questions of interest, formulating and explanation, carrying out research that is designed to support or refute the explanation, and communicating the findings. - To test a hypothesis, researchers must formulate an operational definition, which translates the abstract concept of the hypothesis into the actual procedures used in the study.
LO 2 - 1: What are the origins of psychology?
- Wilhelm Wundt laid the foundation of psychology in 1879, when he opened his laboratory in Germany. - Early perspectives that guided the work of psychologists were structuralism, functionalism, and gestalt theory.
LO 2 - 2: What are the major Approaches in Contemporary psychology?
- the neuroscience approach focuses on the biological components of the behavior of people and animals. - The psychodynamic perspective suggests that powerful, unconscious inner forces and conflicts about which people have little or no awareness are the primary determinants of behavior. - Cognitive approaches to behavior consider how people know, understand, and think about the world. -The humanistic perspective emphasizes that people are uniquely inclined toward psychological growth and higher levels of functioning and that they will strive to reach their full potential.
LO 1-2: What are the major specialties in the field of psychology?
1) Behavioral neuroscientists: Focus on the biological basis of behavior, and experimental psychologists study the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world. 2) Cognitive Psychology: An outgrowth of experimental psychology, studies higher mental processes, including memory, knowing, thinking, reasoning, problem solving, judging, decision making, and language. 3) Developmental Psychologists: Study how people grow and change throughout the life span. 4) Personality Psychologist: Consider the consistency and change in an individual's behavior, as well as the individual differences that distinguish ones person's behavior from another's. 5) Health Psychologists: Study psychological factors that affect physical disease, whereas clinical psychologists consider the study, diagnosis, and treatment of abnormal behavior. Counseling psychologists focus on educational, social, and career adjustment problems. 6) Social Psychology: Social psychology is the study of how peoples thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others. 7: Cross-Cultural Psychology: examines the similarities and differences in psychological functioning among various cultures. - Other increasingly important fields are evolutionary psychology, behavioral genetics, and clinical neuropsychology.
Five major perspectives of psychology
1) Neuroscience 2) Cognitive 3) Behavioral 4) Humanistic 5) Psychodynamic
Subfields of Psychology
1: Behavioral Genetics 2: Behavioral Neuroscience 3: Clinical Psychology 4: Clinical Neuropsychology 5: Cognitive Psychology 6: Counseling Psychology 7: Cross-Cultural Psychology 8: Developmental Psychology 9: Educational Psychology 10: Environmental Psychology 11: Evolutionary Psychology 12: Experimental Psychology 13: Forensic Psychology 14: Health Psychology 15: Industrial/Organizational Psychology 16: Personality Psychology 17: Program Evaluation 18: Psychology of Woman 19: School Psychology 20: Social Psychology 21: Sport Psychology
Informed Consent
A document signed by participants Affirms that they have been told about the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve
Placebo:
A false treatment without any significant chemical properties.
Hypothesis
A prediction, stemming from a theory, stated in a way that allows it to be tested.
Functionalism
An early approach to psychology that concentrated on what the mind does - the functions of mental activity - and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments.
Experimental group
Any group participating in an experiment that receives a treatment.
Scientific Method
Approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest.
Behavioral Neuroscience:
Behavioral Neuroscience is the subfield of psychology that focuses on how the brain and the nervous system, as well as other biological aspects of the body, determine behavior. -
Variables
Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way.
Theories
Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. - Provide a framework for understanding the relationships among a set of unorganized facts or principles Example: diffusion of responsibility - With more bystanders in an emergency situation, the smaller the share of the responsibility each person feels - Developed by Bibb Latané and John Darley
Experimental Manipulation
Change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation.
Correlational Research
Correlation coefficient - Represents the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. - Value can range from +1.00 to -1.00 - Positive - As the value of one variable increases, so will the value of the other variable - Negative - As the value of one variable increases, value of the other variable will decrease - Lack of relationship - Value near 0 indicates no relationship Disadvantage - Inability to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships
Double-blind procedure:
Double-blind procedure: Keeping experimenter and participant blind to the nature of the drug administered
Archival research
Existing data are examined to test a hypothesis -Census documents -College records -Online databases -Newspaper clippings Advantage: Inexpensive Disadvantage: Problems with using existing data Data may not be in a form that allows the researcher to test a hypothesis fully
Experimental bias:
Factors that distort the way the independent variable affects the dependent variable - Experimenter expectations - Participant expectations
Personality Psychology
Focuses on consistency in people's behavior over time and traits that differentiate one person from another.
Control Group
Group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment.
Case Study
In-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or a small group of people. - Often include psychological testing. Advantage - can use insights to improve our understanding of people in general. Disadvantage - unique individuals make it impossible for generalizations.
Experiment
Investigation of the relationship between two (or more) variables by: - Producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects on the second variable
naturalistic Observation
Investigator observes some naturally occurring behavior. - Does not make a change in the situation Advantage: Sample of what people do in their natural habitat Disadvantage: Inability to control any factors of interest
Behavior and Mental Processes
It encompasses not just what people do but also their thoughts, emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and even the biological activities that maintain bodily functioning.
Module 1 - Psychologists at work
LO 1 - 1 what is the science of psychology? LO 1 - 2 What are the major specialties in the field of psychology? LO 1 - 3 Where do psychologists work?
Module 2 - A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future
LO 2 - 1: What are the origins of psychology? LO 2 - 2: What are the major Approaches in Contemporary psychology? LO 2 - 3: What are psychology's key issues and controversies? LO 2 - 4: What is the future of psychology likely to hold?
Module 3 - Research in Psychology
LO 3 - 1:What is the scientific method? LO 3 - 2:What role do theories and hypotheses play in psychological research? LO 3 - 3: What research methods do psychologists use? LO 3 - 4: How do psychologists establish relationships in research studies? cause-and-effect
MODULE 4 - Critical Research Issues.
LO 4 - 1: What major issues confront psychologists conducting research?
Treatment
Manipulation implemented by the experimenter.
Random Assignment to Condition
Participants are assigned to different experimental groups or conditions on the basis of chance.
Debriefing
Participants receive an explanation of the study and the procedures that were involved.
Survey research
People are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes Advantage: can infer how a larger group would respond, if a representative sample is surveyed Disadvantage: results will be inconsequential if the sample is not representative - Survey respondents may not want to admit to holding socially undesirable attitudes
LO 1-3: Where do Psychologists work?
Psychologists are employed in a variety of settings. Although the primary sites of employment are private practice and colleges, many psychologists are found in hospitals, clinics, community mental health centers, and counseling centers.
LO 1-1: What is the science of Psychology?
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, encompassing not just what people do but also their biological activates, feelings, perceptions, memory, reasoning, and thoughts.
Significant Outcome
Statistically meaningful results Makes it possible for researchers to feel confident that they have confirmed their hypotheses.
Developmental Psychology
Studies how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death.
Cognitive perspective
The approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world.
Determinism
The idea that people's behavior is produced primarily by factors outside of their willful control.
Psychology:
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Independent Variable
The variable that is manipulated by an experimenter.
Dependent Variable
The variable that is measured Expected to change as a result of changes in the independent variable. - Dependent on the actions of the research participants that are taking part in the experiment.
Operational definition
Translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed.
Structuralism
Wundt's approach, which focuses on uncovering the fundamental mental components of consciousness, thinking, and other kinds of mental states and activities
Clinical Psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Program Evaluation
a form of applied research that includes a number of research activities designed to evaluate programs from planning to completion
Introspection
a procedure used to study the structure of the mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus.
gestalt (geh SHTALLT) psychology
an approach to psychology that focuses on the organization of perception and thinking in a "whole" sense rather than on the individual elements of perception
Sport Psychology
applies psychology's principles to improving sport performance and enjoying sport participation
Forensic Psychology
area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system
Cross-Cultural Psychology
examines the similarities and differences in psychological functioning among various cultures.
Psychology of Woman
focuses on issues such as discrimination against women and the causes of violence against women
Counseling Psychology
focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems
School Psychology
identify and help students who have problems that interfere with learning
Replication Research
repetition of a study or experiment to see if the same results will be obtained in an effort to demonstrate reliability of results
Behavioral Genetics
seeks to understand how we might inherit certain behavioral traits and how the environment influences whether we actually display such traits.
Experimental Psychology
studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world
Industrial/Organizational Psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
Neuroscience perspective
the approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions.
Free Will
the idea that behavior is caused primarily by choices that are made freely by the individual.
Cognitive Psychology
the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
Social Psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Educational Psychology
the study of how students learn, the effectiveness of particular teaching techniques, the social psychology of schools, and the psychology of teaching
Evolutionary Psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection - Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species book 1859
Environmental Psychology
the study of the relationship between behavior and the physical environment
Health Psychology
the subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of physical illness and the maintenance of health.
Clinical Neuropsychology
unites the areas of neuroscience and clinical psychology, focuses on the origin of psychological disorders in biological factors.
