psy exam part 6

Generativity versus stagnation

According to Erikson, resolving the intimacy versus isolation stage prepares adults for the development crisis of the middle adulthood years: generativity versus stagnation. This stage of development has to do with our feelings that we have made significant and meaningful contributions to our society. Middle adulthood is often the time when people become aware of their mortality. They recognize that their time here on Earth is limited.As a result,they begin to think about their accomplishments and effect on society. Erikson believed that if a middle-aged adult feels that he or she has contributed something worthwhile to society, then a sense of generativity has been achieved.Marriage, long-term relationships,child rearing, career accomplishments, and service to the community may all contribute to this sense of having lived a productive life. (Westermeyer, 2004).On the one hand generativity is associated with positive personality characteristics and life satisfaction (Peterson & Duncan, 2007).On the other hand,middle-aged adults who conclude that they have contributed very little to society will experience stagnation, a sense of failure, and an absence of meaningful purpose in life.People cope with feelings of stagnation in a variety of ways. Some remain disenchanted and bitter. Others attempt to change their lives to regain a sense of generativity and identity. Society often perceives such attempts as a midlife crisis.However, the number of people who actually experience such dramatic shifts in their life structure is actually quite small (Wrightsman, 1994).For example, in a 12-year study of people over age 40, Sadler (2000) found that a significant number of middle-aged adults are productive, enjoy their close relationships, and have begun to take risks. They experience what Sadler calls a "second growth" in midlife, characterized by enjoyment of life.

Ego integrity versus despair

At the end of the life span, adults begin to review their lives and judge their satisfaction with the choices they have made and the direction that their lives have taken. Erikson believed that the issue facing people in their 60s and beyond was one of integrity versus despair.When this evaluation is generally positive and satisfying,individuals have achieved a sense of integrity, which allows them to face their eventual death without fear or regret.However, if this life review results in dissatisfaction and a sense of regret over roads not taken, the person is more likely to experience despair or hopelessness stemming from the knowledge that one cannot relive one's life. In such a case, the person may become fearful of death.

Industry versus inferiority

During the elementary school years, children receive a great deal of feedback on their performance. They are in school and usually 6 hours a day, where they receive a steady stream of information on their abilities. Their papers may have stars, red marks, or numbers on them. Children may be grouped acccording to ability. Because children this age can think logically, they can compare their performance on a task with that of their peers. In this way, they form opinions about which activities make them feel industrious, masterful, or competent, as well as ideas about activities or tasks that make them feel inferior or less capable of performing.

Initiative versus guilt

Erikson believed that during the preschool years children's environments encourage the development of either initiative or guilt. When children develop initiative, they are motivated to take the first step, to start something on their own and to be ambitious. Preschoolers are actively exploring their environment through trial and error.At the same time, they start to understand that others have expectations for their behavior, and they learn to read people's reactions to their explorations. From these explorations and observations, they begin to develop schemas of what they "ought to do." If these schemas conflict with what others in their environment expect from them, guilt may develop.

identity versus role confusion

For Erikson, adolescence represents the integration and summation of the previous crises of childhood into an appropriate identity. Teenagers must figure out who they are and what they believe in, what their values are, and how they may be similar to or different from peers and parents. Their search for identity is thought to be very much influenced by both the biological changes of puberty and the newly acquired cognitive ability of abstract reasoning. Teenagers begin to imagine what they want to be and experiment with new roles and responsibilities as they figure out their personal identity. For example, teenagers may try out different styles of clothing or listen to many types of music. They may join different peer groups or try out different college courses to explore various career options. Sometimes adolescents and young adults become so involved in constantly trying out new roles that they fail to form a stable identity. Erikson referred to this condition as role confusion.

Intimacy versus isolation

In Erikson's theory, successful resolution of the identity crisis prepares the young adult for the next developmental crisis: intimacy versus isolation. Having formed a stable identity, the person is now prepared to make a long-term commitment to a partner. Intimacy requires that people refine and modify their identity to accommodate the values and interests of another. In successfully meeting this challenge, neither partner's identity would be sacrificed. For Erikson, intimacy is characterized by cooperation, tolerance, and an acceptance of others' different views and values. This secure sense of intimacy may be expressed through marriage or long-term romantic partnerships, through close friendships, or through work relationships. Some people may lose their sense of identity-or fear losing it-and therefore be reluctant to connect with others. Erikson referred to this stage as isolation. Isolated individuals are easily threatened by close relations with others and hesitate to establish close ties. They are more defensive in the relationships they do form, and they have less tolerance for the varying views and opinions of others.

Autonomy versus shame and doubt

Toddlers struggle with separating from their primary caretaker. They must negotiate an appropriate balance between autonomy, or independence, and dependence. If people in the toddler's environment belittle the child's efforts at independence or encourage dependence by being overly protective, then Erikson believed the child will be more likely to develop shame and doubt.

Trust versus mistrust

infants are totally dependent on others in their environment to meet their needs. An infant whose needs are met is more likely to develop trust in others than one whose needs are not met. Developing a sense of trust also fosters the development of a secure attachment.