Psy week 6

For each statement, select which of the two theories of color vision it fits with best. opponent-process trichromatic Perceiving purple is a result of receiving messages from two types of cells: those that perceive red and those that perceive blue.

trichromatic

There are three types of cone cells, one for each primary color.

trichromatic

binaural cue:

two-eared cue to localize sound

The vibration of the ________ causes the ossicles to move.

tympanic membrane

Light energy with very high amplitude would be perceived as ________.

very bright

pinna:

visible part of the ear that protrudes from the head

The property that differentiates the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that we can see from the part we cannot see is ________.

wavelength

perception:

way that sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced

sensation:

what happens when sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor

Weber's law

Ernst Weber's discovery that the difference threshold is a constant fraction of the original stimulus and bigger stimuli require larger differences to be noticed

________ cues require only one eye.

Monocular

Congenital deafness is ________.

Something your born with

________ does not explain how we hear high frequencies.

Temporal theory

signal detection theory

The ability to identify a stimulus when it is embedded in a distracting background is called signal detection theory.

________ describes the conversion of sensory stimulus energy into neural impulses that allow for perception.

Transduction

The opponent-process theory is supported by ________.

after images

Cues that require two ears are referred to as ________ cues.

binaural

inner ear

cochlea and basilar membrane

tympanic membrane:

eardrum

Participants in Daniel Simons' and Christopher Chabris' study were asked to watch people pass a basketball. Because they were focused on doing so, the didn't see a gorilla walk across the screen. This phenomenon is called ________.

inattentional blindness

cochlea

is a fluid-filled, snail-shaped structure that contains the sensory receptor cells (hair cells) of the auditory system

trough:

lowest point of a wave

subliminal message

message presented below the threshold of conscious awareness

frequency:

number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period

temporal theory

of pitch perception asserts that frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron.

Middle ear

ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes

deafness:

partial or complete inability to hear

linear perspective:

perceive depth in an image when two parallel lines seem to converge

priming:

the process by which recent experiences increase a trait's accessibility.

sensory adaptation

the reduction in sensitivity after prolonged exposure to a stimulus

mere-exposure effects:

the result of developing a more positive attitude towards a stimulus after repeated instances of mere exposure to it.

The most visible part of the ear is the

pinna

blind spot:

point where we cannot respond to visual information in that portion of the visual field

visible spectrum:

portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that we can see

Which part of the ear is most involved in motion and balance?

semicircular canal

________ is what happens when information is detected by a sensory receptor, like when Maggie's optic nerves pick up a light flashing in the distance.

sensation

________ is what happens when information is detected by a sensory receptor, like when Sharif's auditory nerves pick up a sound in the distance.

sensation

binocular disparity:

slightly different view of the world that each eye receives

interaural timing difference:

small difference in the time at which a given sound wave arrives at each ear

cornea

transparent covering over the eye

The audible range for humans is ________.

20-20,000 Hz

What part of the eye contains photoreceptor cells?

Retina

Amplitude

height of a wave

________ occurs when sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced.

Perception

How can temporal and place theories both be used to explain our ability to perceive the pitch of sound waves with frequencies up to 4000 Hz?

Pitch of sounds below this threshold could be encoded by the combination of the place and firing rate of stimulated hair cells. So, in general, hair cells located near the tip of the basilar membrane would signal that we're dealing with a lower-pitched sound. However, differences in firing rates of hair cells within this location could allow for fine discrimination between low-, medium-, and high-pitch sounds within the larger low-pitch context.

Amanda has a severe hearing loss and recently received a cochlear implant. The implant has several electrodes that are surgically placed into her inner ear. The electrodes differ slightly in length so that each electrode stimulates a different area in the cochlea. Electrode #1 stimulates a certain area when a sound at 5000Hz is presented. Electrode #2 stimulates a different area when a sound at 6000Hz is presented. Electrode #3 stimulates yet another spot when a sound at 7000Hz is presented, etc. This manner of encoding pitch is most like which strategy used by listeners with normal hearing?

Place theory

Which theory holds that the pitch we hear is determined by the particular location on the cochlea where the hair cells vibrate the most?

Place theory

This activity will introduce you to some common monocular cues. Take a guess as to which monocular cue enables you to interpret depth in the following images. For this image, select the monocular cue that lets you know that the animal is closer than the mountain. Note that for this picture, multiple cues may apply, but only one correct answer will be presented.

Position

Which of the following is most likely if a sound source is to your left?

The sound will be slightly louder at the left ear than at the right ear

Perception is ________.

A way for sensory information to be organized, interpreted and experienced

________ refers to the minimum amount of stimulus energy required to be detected 50% of the time.

Absolute threshold

The electromagnetic spectrum includes ________.

All are correct. (xray, infrared light, radio waves)

Research indicates that sensorineural hearing loss is usually caused by ________.

Exposure to loud noise

What is amplitude?

Height of a wave

Temporal theory cannot be used to account for why we hear higher pitched sounds because ________.

Individual neurons cannot fire fast enough

electromagnetic spectrum:

all the electromagnetic radiation that occurs in our environment

The loudness of a sound is determined by the ________ of sound waves.

amplitude

signal detection theory:

change in stimulus detection as a function of current mental state

basilar membrane:

thin strip of tissue within the cochlea that contains the hair cells which serve as the sensory receptors for the auditory system

A sound's purity is called its ________.

timbre

The quality of a sound that is affected by frequency, amplitude, and timing of the sound wave is known as ________.

timbre

opponent-process theory of color perception:

color is coded in opponent pairs: black-white, yellow-blue, and red-green

The Ishihara test evaluates

color perception by assessing whether individuals can discern numbers that appear in a circle of dots of varying colors and sizes.

trichromatic theory of color perception:

color vision is mediated by the activity across the three groups of cones

iris:

colored portion of the eye

Hearing loss resulting from damage to the bones of the middle ear is called ________ hearing loss.

conductive

Hearing aids might be effective for treating ________.

conductive hearing loss

________ operate best under bright light conditions.

cones

The retina ________.

contains photoreceptors

afterimage:

continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus

transduction:

conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential

vestibulo-ocular reflex:

coordination of motion information with visual information that allows you to maintain your gaze on an object while you move.

binocular cue:

cue that relies on the use of both eyes

monocular cue:

cue that requires only one eye

lens:

curved, transparent structure that provides additional focus for light entering the eye

hertz (Hz):

cycles per second; measure of frequency

absolute threshold:

minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time

Stare at the white dot for 30-60 seconds and then move your eyes to a blank piece of white paper. What do you see? This is known as

negative afterimage, and it provides empirical support for the opponent-process theory of color vision.

Perception

of the same senses may vary from one person to another because each person's brain interprets stimuli differently based on that individual's learning, memory, emotions, and expectations.

monaural cue:

one-eared cue to localize sound

Afterimages caused by staring at a blue image then looking away makes you perceive yellow.

opponent-process

Neurons in the retina are excited by one color but inhibited by another color.

opponent-process

The ________ carries visual information from the retina to the brain.

optic nerve

outer ear

pinna and tympanic membrane

Which correctly describes the process of hearing?

pinna, auditory canal, tympanic membrane, ossicles, cochlea, auditory nerve

frequency of a sound wave is associated with our perception of that sound's

pitch.

The fact that the base of the basilar membrane responds best to high frequencies supports the ________ theory of hearing.

place

sensation is a physical process, whereas perception is

psychological.

Mason has a cochlear implant. He is able to hear because the implant

receives incoming sound information and directly stimulates the auditory nerve to transmit the information to the brain

If you were to stare at a green dot for a relatively long period of time and then shift your gaze to a blank white screen, you would see a ________ negative afterimage.

red

Timbre

refers to a sound's purity, and it is affected by the complex interplay of frequency, amplitude, and timing of sound waves

Ménière's disease:

results in a degeneration of inner ear structures that can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus, vertigo, and an increase in pressure within the inner ear

Hearing aids are ineffective in treating ________, which is caused by damage to the hair cells in the cochlea that impairs the transmission of signals about sound to the brain.

sensorineural hearing loss

When the hearing problem is associated with a failure to transmit neural signals from the cochlea to the brain, it is called

sensorineural hearing loss

When Martha first visits her Aunt and Uncle's house, the smell of fish is overwhelming, but after an hour, she doesn't even notice it's there. What explains this?

sensory adaptation

hair cell:

auditory receptor cell of the inner ear

Auditory receptor cells are embedded within the ________, which is found in the ________.

basilar membrane; cochlea

________ depth cues require the use of both eyes.

binocular

Using the different images that each eye receives in order to perceive depth is called using ________ cues.

biocular

Inattentional ________ refers to the failure to notice something that is completely visible due to a lack of attention.

blindness

optic nerve:

carries visual information from the retina to the brain

Which of the following best describes how you perceive a 16,000 Hz tone?

a specific section of the the basilar membrane will fire maximally to signal the pitch of the tone

depth perception:

ability to perceive depth

According to the trichromatic theory of color vision, ________ in the retina are responsive to red, green, and blue.

Cones

stapes:

middle ear ossicle; also known as the stirrup

The stimuli for hearing, or audition, are (1), which have several physical characteristics. The physical characteristic of amplitude or height of sound waves is transformed into the subjective experience of (2), which is measured in units called (3). The frequency (cycles per second) of sound waves is transformed into the subjective experience of (4), which for humans range from about 20 to 20,000 Hertz (HZ), the unit of measure for frequency.

(1) Soundwaves (2) Loudness (3) Decibels (4) Pitch

The hue that we perceive (red, green, etc.) depends on the (1) [Select] of the light, whereas the brightness of the light depends on [Select] (2).

(1) wavelength (2) amplitude

peak:

(also, crest) highest point of a wave

The organ of Corti on the ________ within the ________ changes vibrations into impulses that travel to the auditory nerve.

1) Basilar membrane 2) cochlea

The visible spectrum includes light that ranges from about ________.

400-700nm

Color is not a physical property of our environment. What function (if any) do you think color vision serves?

Color vision probably serves multiple adaptive purposes. One popular hypothesis suggests that seeing in color allowed our ancestors to differentiate ripened fruits and vegetables more easily.

If you live in a city with lots of buildings, walls, and straight lines, you will probably perceive the lines in the Müller-Lyer illusion as being

Different lengths

What area of the eye controls the size of the pupil?

Iris

For this image, select the monocular cue that lets you know that the red cube is closer than the blue one. Note that for this picture, multiple cues may apply, but only one correct answer will be presented.

Light and shadow

For this image, select the monocular cue that indicates that the part of the pier going from left to right in the center of the picture is farther away than the part that is in the lower part of the picture. Note that for this picture, multiple cues may apply, but only one correct answer will be presented.

Linear perspective

Why do you think humans are especially sensitive to sounds with frequencies that fall in the middle portion of the audible range?

Once again, one could make an evolutionary argument here. Given that the human voice falls in this middle range and the importance of communication among humans, one could argue that it is quite adaptive to have an audible range that centers on this particular type of stimulus.

Why do you think other species have such different ranges of sensitivity for both visual and auditory stimuli compared to humans?

Other species have evolved to best suit their particular environmental niches. For example, the honeybee relies on flowering plants for survival. Seeing in the ultraviolet light might prove especially helpful when locating flowers. Once a flower is found, the ultraviolet rays point to the center of the flower where the pollen and nectar are contained. Similar arguments could be made for infrared detection in snakes as well as for the differences in audible ranges of the species described in this section.

For this image, select the monocular cue that lets you know that the man is closer than the car. Note that for this picture, multiple cues may apply, but only one correct answer will be presented.

Reletive size

Given what you've read about sound localization, from an evolutionary perspective, how does sound localization facilitate survival?

Sound localization would have allowed early humans to locate prey and protect themselves from predators.

When you hear a tone of 200 Hz, the hair cells in the cochlea begin vibrating 200 times per second. This is the idea behind the ________.

Temporal theory of hearing

Compare the two theories of color perception. Are they completely different?

The trichromatic theory of color vision and the opponent-process theory are not mutually exclusive. Research has shown they apply to different levels of the nervous system. For visual processing on the retina, trichromatic theory applies: the cones are responsive to three different wavelengths that represent red, blue, and green. But once the signal moves past the retina on its way to the brain, the cells respond in a way consistent with opponent-process theory.

Please generate a novel example of how just noticeable difference can change as a function of stimulus intensity.

There are many potential examples. One example involves the detection of weight differences. If two people are holding standard envelopes and one contains a quarter while the other is empty, the difference in weight between the two is easy to detect. However, if those envelopes are placed inside two textbooks of equal weight, the ability to discriminate which is heavier is much more difficult.

Did you read the second "the" in the sentence in the image? You probably didn't, because your brain doesn't expect to have "the" a second time and skips over it so that the sentence works in the context of what you are familiar with. This is an example of

Top down processing

________ involves the conversion of sensory stimulus energy into neural impulses.

Transduction

While you may not notice the change in the music's volume while at a party, you would definitely notice the change if you were trying to study in a quiet library. This supports the idea that the difference threshold is a constant fraction of the original stimulus, also known as ________.

Webers Law

optic chiasm:

X-shaped structure that sits just below the brain's ventral surface; represents the merging of the optic nerves from the two eyes and the separation of information from the two sides of the visual field to the opposite side of the brain

Which of the following correctly matches the pattern in our perception of color as we move from short wavelengths to long wavelengths?

Yellow to orange to red

congenital deafness:

deafness from birth

just noticeable difference:

difference in stimuli required to detect a difference between the stimuli

Decreased sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus is known as ________.

difference threshhold

place theory of pitch perception:

different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencies

Light energy with very low amplitude would be perceived as ________.

dim

A wavelength is measured by the ________ between one wave peak and the next wave peak.

distance

cochlear implant:

electronic device that consists of a microphone, a speech processor, and an electrode array to directly stimulate the auditory nerve to transmit information to the brain

conductive hearing loss:

failure in the vibration of the eardrum and/or movement of the ossicles

inattentional blindness:

failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a lack of attention

sensorineural hearing loss:

failure to transmit neural signals from the cochlea to the brain

The ________ is a small indentation of the retina that contains cones.

fovea

Pitch is determined by the ________ of sound waves.

frequency

Failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a lack of attention is called ________.

inattentional blindness

For this image, select the monocular cue that best indicates that the duck is behind the bars. Note that for this picture, multiple cues may apply, but only one correct answer will be presented.

interposition

________ is an example of a monocular cue.

interposition

top-down processing:

interpretation of sensations is influenced by available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts

Sensation

is input about the physical world obtained by our sensory receptors, and perception is the process by which the brain selects, organizes, and interprets these sensations. In other words, senses are the physiological basis of perception.

wavelength:

length of a wave from one peak to the next peak

photoreceptor:

light-detecting cell

retina:

light-sensitive lining of the eye

Müller-Lyer illusion

lines appear to be different lengths although they are identical. (a) Arrows at the ends of lines may make the line on the right appear longer, although the lines are the same length. (b) When applied to a three-dimensional image, the line on the right again may appear longer although both black lines are the same length.

Cocking your head would be most useful for detecting the ________ of a sound.

location

incus:

middle ear ossicle; also known as the anvil

malleus:

middle ear ossicle; also known as the hammer

fovea:

small indentation in the retina that contains cones

pupil:

small opening in the eye through which light passes

interaural level difference:

sound coming from one side of the body is more intense at the closest ear because of the attenuation of the sound wave as it passes through the head

temporal theory of pitch perception:

sound's frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron

cone:

specialized photoreceptor that works best in bright light conditions and detects color

rod:

specialized photoreceptor that works well in low light conditions

vertigo:

spinning sensation

You walk by the same billboard on the way to school each day, but have never actually looked at it. When asked to guess which billboard it was from a selection of billboards, you somehow identify the right one because

subliminally processed

place theory of pitch perception

suggests that different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencies.

bottom-up processing:

system in which perceptions are built from sensory input

synesthesia:

the blending of two or more sensory experiences, or the automatic activation of a secondary (indirect) sensory experience due to certain aspects of the primary (direct) sensory stimulation.

What is wavelength?

the distance from one wave peak to the next