PSY230 Study Guide 2

Implicit Racial Bias

- attitudes and stereotypes can operate outside conscious awareness - these implicit cognitions are distinct and independent from explicit (conscious) thought and behavior Tested using Implicit Association Test (IAT) - created by Dr. Tony Greenwald and Dr. Mahzarin Banaji - in front of keyboard --> do task as quick as possible (match picture/word with other descriptors) - how quick are they able to do it? - if harbor a lot of implicit bias: faster when white is paired with good - implicit bias is same across all ages

Montessori

- child-centered (teach themselves) - teachers act as guides (demonstrate then observe) to children's learning - focus on independence and problem-solving - real life skills (setting table, using utensils) - person environment fit: calm, long attention span, academics - mixed age - typically play by themselves - play open-ended games

Guided Participation

- children participate in culturally-valued activities -- this is guided by experienced others (ex: setting the table, helping on the farm, etc.) - learning = observation --> doing

Reggio-Emelia

- co-op schools - child-centered/community-based - innate curiosity drives curiosity - project-based and collaborative --> teacher role - person-environment fit: hands on activities, social, parent-involvement --> required to spend certain number of hours in classroom - curriculum designed around big project that they work on together - children are creative, play well with others, thrive in high social environment

Internalization

- development = internalization of cultural tools (depends on which are available to you) - with language: age 3 -- private speech (talks oneself through a problem); age 7 -- inner speech (think to oneself in words)

Explicit Bias

- explicit stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination has decreased over the past few decades (though it is still pervasive) - explicit racial bias decreases across childhood

Puberty For Transgender Children

- extreme lack of person-environment fit - first step: puberty blockers (like pause button) - second step: hormones (permanent effects)

Self-Concept (Harter)

- "How would you describe yourself?" - external attributes --> internal qualities 1. Categorical (4-7 years) - brown eyes, play baseball, catholic, happy 2. Comparative (8-11 years) - bigger than other, good at school, upset easily - temporary decline in self-esteem 3. Interpersonal Implications (12-15 years) - "I have blonde hair, which is good because boys like blondes" - "I'm very shy, so I don't have many friends" - "I understand people, so they tell me their problems"

The Zone of Proximal Development

- "distance" between what a child can do alone and with scaffolding (with help) - 3 zones: what I cannot do, what I can do with help (zone of proximal development), what I can do (this is in descending order)

Inhibition Tasks

- "head and toes" task -- say head, touch toes -- same as "day/night" task - preschoolers = terrible at this

Class Inclusion

- Classification sort objects based on a set of characteristics - difficulty relating whole class (animals) to subclasses (cats and dogs) - Pre-operational: kids will respond incorrectly - Operational: kids respond correctly (know that animals vs cats are the same thing, a cat is just a subclass of animals)

Scaffolding

- adult provides support at higher level than child could manage on their own - someone more competent providing knowledge of higher-level to child who can't do it independently

Sociocultural Approach

- founded by Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) - study child in context (school, culture, at home, etc.) - mechanism of change (the way children change) = interactions with social world - criticism of Piaget's theory: didn't focus on environment - street math vs school math (written = school = can't answer correctly; street = use practical reasoning; study kids in the right context to really know what they know)

Waldorf

- homelike environment with natural materials to stimulate imaginative play - no reading, writing, technology in preschool version - same teacher for 3+ years - enter as cohort at 2 years until kindergarten - create own stories - person-environment fit: creative, "magic and security" of childhood, art, dance, pretend play - focus on activities child would initiate anyways

Puberty

- hormonal and physcial changes; sexual maturation - time period --> begins late middle childhood to early adolescence - lack of person-environment fit - bodies (person): reproduce does not line up with - society (environment): abstain - females --> marked by menarche (first period)

Social Comparison

- increases around 8-9 years - due to increased time with peers? maybe Ruble: athletic ability, 5-9 years - ball into hidden hoop - told successful same amount of times as each other - 3 groups: relative success (others worse), relative failure (others better), control group (only own score) - 9 years --> rated self relative to others - 5-7 years --> did not matter if others did better or worse

Seeing Gender

- infants as young as 3 months of age detect gender in faces - by 9 months, associate female/male voice with faces - by 2-3 years: sort photographs into gender categories; provide gender labels for unfamiliar faces

Take Aways

- infants notice race and prefer to look at the race of those in their environment - children's explicit race bias seems to peak around 5-6 and then decline throughout middle childhood - BUT... implicit bias stays steady throughout development - with age, children adopt the norm of "colorblindness"

Conservation Tasks

- mass - quantity - liquid - Centration: focus on one dimension at a time (centering) - liquid example video: first girl (pre-operational phase/stage) -- couldn't remember that there's the same amount of liquid in the glasses despite the size/shape difference -- failed to demonstrate conservation; second girl (concrete operational phase/stage) knew there was the same amount of liquid

Play-Based (Progressive)

- most common in US - kids learn through play --- usually structured - emphasis on developing social skills through the activities - learning/play "stations" with some structured activities - person-environment fit: high-energy kids, noise is okay - very chaotic, super loud environments

Language as a Cultural Tool

- most important cultural tool - means of social participation - tool for thinking (structure and organize)

Individual Differences in Puberty Early Onset

Genetics - what age did the same-sex parents go through puberty? - identical twins --> more likely to go through puberty at the same time Ethnicity - is the child African American? (early). Chinese? (late) Weight - is the female child overweight? (early) Underweight? (late) Stress - does the child have a stressful home life/insecure attachment? - applies mostly to girls --> earlier

Instrumental Helping

Vaish et al: 3 year olds saw an actor who: - was harmful to someone - tried (but failed) to be harmful - was accidentally harmful - was helpful DV: who did kids help? - helped: was accidentally harmful, was helpful - intentions > outcomes Piaget would predict that "tried (but failed) to be harmful" and "was helpful" would be who the kids helped because they were not harmful

Racial Bias in Infancy

Xiao et al (2017) - do 3-9 month infants differentially associate happy/sad music with people from their race vs other races? - oldest infants (but not youngest) looked longer at congruent trials, showing early signs of racial bias (happy music with own race, sad with different race) Takes time for racial bias to show up

Dan, father to 12-year old Maia, tells you that he pays his daughter 20 dollars for every "A" grade she receives in school. What should you be thinking? a. Uh oh! Maia is less likely to be interested in school and achieve good grades b. Uh oh! Dan is likely and authoritarian parent c. Great idea! Maia is likely to have high interest in and enjoyment of school. d. Great idea! Maia is likely to get very good grades because Dan provides incentive to her.

a.

Your little brother reports that he does not think he's very good at math after learning that most of his classmates did better than him on the last exam. According to the study by Ruble, your little brother is AT LEAST_______. a. 9 b. 6 c. 12 d. 10

a. 9

What is the first physical component of puberty onset? a. an increase in adrenal androgens b. spermarche (first ejaculation) c. initiation of the HPG (hypothalamus-pituitary-gonads) d. menarche (first period)

a. an increase in adrenal androgens

________ describes a steady decrease in the past 150 years of the average age at which children reach puberty. a. secular trend b. Western trend c. early onset trend d. temporal trend

a. secular trend

Which of the following is NOT an example of a cultural tool? a. language b. color perception c. musical notation d. gestures

b. color perception

Children in the concrete operations stage are able to succeed at conservation tasks because of their ability to: a. categorize b. decenter c. center d. perspective take

b. decenter

When asked what YOU can see in the three mountains task, children in the preoperational stage will answer with what THEY can see. This is referred to as: a. class inclusion b. egocentrism c. centration d. animism

b. egocentrism

Getting a child to empathize with the victim of their antisocial action (ex: the person they hit) is a strategy called_____: a. shame b. induction c. proactive aggression d. moral disengagement

b. induction

Puberty is characterized psychologically by a lack of: a. active forces b. person-environment fit c. evocative forces d. hormonal timers

b. person-environment fit

4 year-old children are most likely in which of Piaget's stages? a. sensorimotor stage b. preoperational stage c. formal operational stage d. concrete operational stage

b. preoperational stage

Imagine you're taking notes in a lecture hall (if your memory stretches back that far) and you are looking up at the screen to read the text on slides, then looking down at your notebook to copy that text. What type of memory are you using? a. procedural memory b. working memory c. long term memory d. short term memory

b. working memory

Adolescents from all of the following demographics EXCEPT________ are likely to go through puberty early. (In other words, 3 out of 4 of the choices are demographics that go through puberty early. Which one is NOT?) a. children whose parents went through puberty early b. overweight girls c. Chinese children d. African-American children

c. Chinese children

Which of the following demographic groups is NOT known to acquire Theory of Mind earlier than average? (i.e., they either acquire it on an average timeline or acquire it late) a. children from individualistic cultures b. children with advanced language c. boys d. children with older siblings

c. boys

Taryn's parents describe her as calm, focused, and able to learn on her own. Which type of preschool might provide Taryn with the best person-environment fit? a. play-based b. eggio-emelia c. montessori d. waldorf

c. montessori

Felix can easily put his own shoes on whereas his little brother Henry can put his shoes on with some assistance from their father. Putting on shoes is ____ Felix's Zone of Proximal Development and _____ Henry's Zone of Proximal Development. a. outside (above); within b. within; within c. outside (below); within d. within; outside (above)

c. outside (below); within

Of Susan Harter's 5 dimensions of self-worth (academics, conduct, athletic skills, peer likability, and appearance), adolescents are most likely to rate ________ as the most important component of their self-esteem. a. peer likability b. athletic skills c. academics d. appearance

d. appearance

Which of the following is NOT an effect of helicopter parenting? a. difficulty problem solving b. feeling safe c. decreased self-efficacy d. feeling unsupported

d. feeling unsupported

The Apache sunrise ceremony is a type of puberty rite in which _____ are celebrated by their communities a. boys and girls b. no answer text provided c. boys d. girls

d. girls

Which of the following is considered a primary sexual characteristic? a. hips widen b. breast growth c. height increase d. growth of the uterus

d. growth of the uterus

Irena thinks her brother is very naughty and should get in a lot of trouble for breaking their father's guitar, even though her brother broke it by accident/ Irena is in the ______ stage of moral reasoning (Piaget) and is probably around ______ years old. a. autonomous; 1-12 b. heteronomous; 10-12 c. autonomous; 4-8 d. heteronomous; 4-8

d. heteronomous; 4-8

Henry has disorganized attachment style because his parents rarely interacted with him and dismissed his bids for attention as an infant and toddler. His parents are likely ______. a. permissive b. authoritarian c. authoritative d. neglectful

d. neglectful

Molly describes herself as a "softy" who tends to give in to her children's every desire because she "loves them so much". From this description alone, what type of parent is Molly? a. neglectful b. authoritarian c. authoritative d. permissive

d. permissive

Pretend Play

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Allows children to practice adult roles and feel in control

Race Preferences in Infancy

Bar-Heim et al. (2006) - participants: 3 month olds (white babies in Israel, black babies in Ethiopia, black babies in Israel) - will infants look significantly longer at own race individuals? - procedure: show them pictures and measure how long they look at own race pictures - infants prefer faces of the races they have experience seeing their environment - black israeli --> no preference

Perspective Taking Task

- pre-operational --> what they see - concrete operational --> what experimenter sees -measures egocentrism (can't perspective take -- overcome this in next stage) in preoperational stage - Egocentrism = someone's inability to understand that another person's view or opinion may be different than their own; unable to imagine that the other person would have a perception of their own - 3 mounds test: the child in the pre-operational phase can't say what adult can see across the table; they will just repeat what they can see from their view of the mounds

Preschool "Philosophies"

- reflects beliefs about how children learn - guides interaction methods between teacher and hcild - child-centered (choose own activity -- self paced) vs teacher-led (pre-plan schedule) - person-environment fit - relationship between teacher and child

Gender Schema Theory (GST) - Bem

- schema: organized clusters of info - society's belief about the traits of females and males --> gender schema --> influences on the processing of social info; influences on self-esteem (acceptable behaviors)

GST - Influences on Self-Concept

- sex-typing: using gender schema to define appropriate behavior for oneself - self-esteem: positive (increase) if it fits the gender schema; negative (decrease) if not

GST - Influences on Information Processing

- sort the following attributes and behaviors into masculine/feminine categories: nightingale, tender, flower, motorcycle, assertive, eagle, etc - results: people who are more sex-typed remembered words in feminine or masculine clusters after they put them in the clusters (ex: girls remembered feminine first then masculine) Research Question: what do children remember about schema-consistent vs. inconsistent info? - Martin and Halverson, 1983 - 5 and 6 year olds - they distorted schema-inconsistent info to be consistent - ex: girl playing with a truck instead of a boy --> changed it to be a boy playing with it

Delayed Gratificaiton

- the "Marshmallow Test" (Mischel and Ebbeson, 1960): can eat it now or wait and I'll bring you another one so you have 2

Selective Attention

- the ability to focus on certain information and not be distracted by other "noise" in the environment - begins to develop around 6-7 years old Bjorklund (2005) - focus on important; filter extraneous - show kids cards with picture on top and bottom half of card - just focus on top half of pictures - older kids were good at remembering what was on top half (better at targets) - young kids not good at it (recalled more lures -- the ones to ignore -- they encode everything)

Cognitive Flexibility

- the ability to shift between sets of rules or tasks Dimensional change card sort (DCCS) task: measures cognitive flexibility - 3-5 year old children - color game: blue boats in front of blue bunnies - shape game: bunnies together, boats together - 3 year olds failed the switch

Moral Reasoning - Piaget

- tied to cognitive development - invariant/discrete stages (in order, one or the other) - tested with vignettes (little stories) and moral dilemmas (not sure what's right or wrong) - tested mostly boys - "Who's naughtier?"

Cultural Tools

- tools created and passed down by members of a group - technical tools: acting on environment (ex: hammer, pencil, phone) - psychological tools: organize thinking (ex: symbolic -- numbers, language, musical notes)

Working Memory

- what we can keep in awareness at a single time - after age 6+ (increases after this age) - Digit Span: can keep about 7 numbers in working memory as we get older

Piaget - Autonomous Stage (10 Years)

... the boy who broke one cup (deviously) - intentions > consequences - cooperation and equality --> higher value on these - rules are alterable (wiggle room sometimes; can break rules if good intentions)

Piaget - Heteronomous Stage (4-8 Years)

...the boy who broke 15 cups (accidentally) - focused on consequences > not intentions - right and wrong (black and white understanding) - rules can't be changed - no grey area - 15 cups > 1 cup

Way to Scaffold

1. hints (verbal, picture) 2. range of answers 3. additional resources (books, visual reminders, other children)

Industry vs Inferiority (Erikson)

6-12 yrs, good: competence, exercise his/her abilities and intelligence in the world, be able to affect world in the way that the child desires bad: inadequacy, low self esteem - 6-12 years - increased competence in socially-valued activities - peer groups are more important - want to win approval of others - take more pride in accomplishments - if they feel competent in less than or equal to 1 thing = industry - of 0 = inferiority

Talking About Race

Apfelbaum et al (2008) - 8-9 years vs. 10-11 years children (86% white) see: a guess who game with limited black people cards - results: younger > older (younger willing to ask about race more)

Body Image: Reactions to Puberty

Girl: bumps in self-esteem and self-awareness; likely to share news of menarche (cohort effects) - early: depression, bullying, substance abuse; sometimes rise in popularity - late: positive emotional outcomes --> fit the "thin ideal" for longer period of time Boys: some uncertainty; unlikely to share spermarche - early: better at sports, more popular, higher self-esteem, substance abuse - late: delayed dating, lower self-esteem Brooks-Gunn et al (1994) - 6-9th grade girls - mother: positive affect (happy, excited) - father: negative affect (grumpy) - girl: embarrassed - positive maternal affect associated with positive body image

Race Preferences in Infancy and Early Childhood

Kinzler and Spelke (2011) - Experiment 1: 10 month white infants - Question: do infants prefer to interact with same race people? - Procedure: "take a toy" task - Experiment 2: 2.5 years white children - Question: do young children prefer to give things to same race people? - Procedure: toy sharing task - Experiment 3: 5 years white children - Question: do young children prefer to associate with same race people? - Procedure: preference task - results: 10 month and 2.5 years did not distinguish between races; 5 years choose white over black

Authoritative Parenting

Parent Characteristics - clear standards for the children - attentive/responsive to kid's needs so they can meet standards - not unreasonable, verbal rather than physical, firm Child Characteristics - competent - high self-esteem - high emotion regulation - better able to control behavior and emotions - feel they can reach expectations of parents

Authoritarian Parenting

Parent Characteristics - exercise power - nonresponsive - "Because I told you so" - cold to needs - high expectations - don't help meet expectations - make threats more often - want obedience Child Characteristics - incompetent - unhappy --> later in life - can't meet standards - boys tend to be more affected than girls (severity might be more)

Neglectful Parenting

Parent Characteristics - focus on own needs - rejects child - not warm, not discipline Child Characteristics - insecure attachment (anxious ambivalent, avoidant, disorganized) - antisocial _ most likely avoidant and disorganized - adolescents: might be more aggressive or violent, substance abuse, risky sexual behavior

Permissive Parenting

Parent Characteristics - indulgent/lenient - low expectations - low on discipline, high on warmth - gives in - doesn't regulate child Child Characteristics - impulsive - low self-control/regulation - don't do too well in school - adolescents --> more misconduct and drug use

The "Puberty Rite"

Sri Lanka --> Tamil ceremony - publicly acknowledged - good thing - celebrated with friends - usually bring gifts - on first day of period, girl is bathed by close relatives - kept in isolation and fed extravagent foods - given another bath after isolation and dressed up in a sari (signifies being a mature woman) and jewelry Ghana --> Dipo ceremony - April each year - takes place over an entire week - in middle --> girls are trained on cooking, cleaning, housekeeping, childbirth - end --> sacred dance (now possible wives) Apache --> Sunrise ceremony - 4 days long -tests of strength, endurance, character (trial of womanhood) - 4th of July - move through stages of life (4 of them) - all night dance for endurance at the end - becomes a woman at the end

Gender Constancy - Kohlberg

Stage 1: Identity - between 2 and 3.5, child uses gender labels for themselves - limited understanding of what gender is - don't understand that gender is stable for life Stage 2: Stability - at 3.5, child knows their sex won't change - boys --> won't grow up to be a mommy - still misled by changes in physical appearance Stage 3: Constancy - between 5-7, child knows gender is constant - people's sex stays the same despite changes in appearance This theory is old in the 21st century - stability is unnecessary

Modern Parenting Trends

Tiger Parenting - authoritarian (little different than average, high levels of negative parenting with strict rules but also support for child) - strict academic focus - especially prominent in Asian and Asian-American mothers - kids usually thrive in Asian/Asian-American - differs cross-culturally in how successful this style is (children more accepting of cultural tradition) - high expectations, may ban some social activities if it takes away from academics - not usually warm or child-centered as with authoritative style Helicopter Parenting - extreme attention to child - can be intrusive - risk aversion --> emotional or physical - want to be involved and avoid all pain/injuries - pros: support, safety - cons: decrease self-efficacy (can't do things on their own), decrease peer communication (parents have managed it for them), decrease problem-solving (parents do it for them) Free Range Parenting - kids explore world at own pace - increase self-esteem - let kids fail when safe to fail - depends on child characteristics - don't really know risks and benefits of this style yet - like permissive style - has internalized enough safety rules