psyc 110 midterm learning ch 7

memory

Memory seems to operate as a chain of associations: concepts, words and ideas are interlinked, so that stimuli such as a person's face will call up the associated name.[4][5] Understanding the relationships between different items is fundamental to episodic memory, and damage to the hippocampal region of the brain has been found to hinder learning of associations between objects

Albert Bandura

http://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

punisher

A Punisher is any aversive stimulus that is used as a consequence to an action for the purpose of decreasing or extinguishing repeated occurrences of that action. In other words, it's what makes up a punishment. For instance, when a child disobeys a rule at home, the parent may follow the child's action with a "punisher" (i.e. being sent to bed early, or losing TV privileges). Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Punisher#ixzz3t8OT85ZV

positive reinforcement

A stimulus which increases the frequency of a particular behavior using pleasant rewards. A doggy treat can pleasantly coerce your new puppy to sit (positive reinforcement) just as a pull to the choke collar can achieve the same affect (negative reinforcement). The difference is that the positive reinforcer is pleasant, but make sure you understand that both increase the frequency of the behavior! Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Positive%20Reinforcement#ixzz3t8Km9bc6 In operant conditioning, positive reinforcement involves the addition of a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior that makes it more likely that the behavior will occur again in the future. When a favorable outcome, event, or reward occurs after an action, that particular response or behavior will be strengthened. One of the easiest ways to remember positive reinforcement is to think of it as something being added.

classical conditioning vs operant conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/classical-vs-operant-conditioning.htm The Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between classical and operant conditioning is to focus on whether the behavior is involuntary or voluntary. Classical conditioning involves making an association between an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about making an association between a voluntary behavior and a consequence. In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical conditioning involves no such enticements. Also remember that classical conditioning is passive on the part of the learner, while operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished. Today, both classical and operant conditioning are utilized for a variety of purposes by teachers, parents, psychologists, animal trainers and many others. In animal training, a trainer might utilize classical conditioning by repeatedly pairing the sound of a clicker with the taste of food. Eventually, the sound of the clicker alone will begin to produce the same response that the taste of food would. In a classroom setting, a teacher might utilize operant conditioning by offering tokens as rewards for good behavior. Students can then turn in these tokens to receive some type of reward such as treat or extra play time.

acquisition

Acquisition refers to the initial stage of the learning or conditioning process. In this stage, some response is being associated with some stimulus to the point where we can say the organism (person, animal, etc.) has "acquired" the response. During this stage the response is strengthened (reinforced) so that it is truly "learned". For example, if you are trying to train a rat to press a lever in response to you ringing a bell (i.e., trying to condition the rat to press the lever when and only when you ring the bell), then once the rat presses the lever in only response to the bell, you can say the response is "acquired". You would then continue to gradually reinforce the lever pressing in response to the bell to make sure the response is strengthened. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Acquisition#ixzz3t0VuJlVi

negative punishment examples

After getting in a fight with his sister over who gets to play with a new toy, the mother simply takes the toy away. A teenage girl stays out for an hour past her curfew, so her parents ground her for a week. A third-grade boy yells at another student during class, so his teacher takes away "good behavior" tokens that can be redeemed for prizes. target behaviour, the reinforcer or the punisher, and the outcome behaviour

positive reinforcement examples

After you execute a turn during a skiing lesson, your instructor shouts out, "Great job!" At work, you exceed this month's sales quota so your boss gives you a bonus. For your psychology class, you watch a video about the human brain and write a paper about what you learned. Your instructor gives you 20 extra credit points for your work. target behaviour, the reinforcer or the punisher, and the outcome behaviour

classical (association)

Association in psychology refers to a connection between conceptual entities or mental states that results from the similarity between those states or their proximity in space or time. The idea stems from Plato and Aristotle, especially with regard to the succession of memories, and it was carried on by philosophers such as John Locke, David Hume, David Hartley, James Mill, John Stuart Mill, and Alexander Bain.[1] It finds its place in modern psychology in such areas as conditioning and in neural network models of memory.[2] learned associations, largely involuntary

B.F. Skinner

B.F. Skinner (1904 - 1990) is best known for developing the theory of Operant Conditioning, which uses reinforcers or consequences to change behavior. According to this theory, the rate at which a certain behavior occurs is determined not by what precedes it, but by the consequence that follows it. For example, when a child puts away his toys, he gets praised by his parent. This positive consequence of the child's behavior will increase the likelihood that he will put away his toys after playing with them. The key element to Skinner's theory is the reinforcer, which may be positive or negative. A positive reinforcer is one whose presence increases the likelihood of the response. A reward like food, money, or verbal praise are considered positive reinforcers. A negative reinforcer is one whose absence increases the likelihood of the response. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=B.F.%20Skinner#ixzz3sw0yfrSL

negative reinforcement examples

Before heading out for a day at the beach, you slather on sunscreen (the behavior) in order to avoid getting sunburned (removal of the aversive stimulus). You decide to clean up your mess in the kitchen (the behavior) in order to avoid getting in a fight with your roommate (removal of the aversive stimulus). On Monday morning, you leave the house early (the behavior) in order to avoid getting stuck in traffic and being late for class (removal of an aversive stimulus). At dinner time, a child pouts and refuses to each the vegetables on her plate. Her parents quickly take the offending veggies away. Since the behavior (pouting) led to the removal of the aversive stimulus (the veggies), this is an example of negative reinforcement. target behaviour, the reinforcer or the punisher, and the outcome behaviour

Delay conditioning

CC--in which the CS is present until the US begins (bell until food) delayed conditioning (forward) - the CS is presented before the US and it (CS) stays on until the US is presented. This is generally the best, especially when the delay is short. example - a bell begins to ring and continues to ring until food is presented. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/conditioning.html#.Vlu56Om5dSU#ixzz3swJfHBwR

Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognitive Learning Theory is a broad theory that explains thinking and differing mental processes and how they are influenced by internal and external factors in order to produce learning in individuals. When cognitive processes are working normally then acquisition and storage of knowledge works well, but when these cognitive processes are ineffective, learning delays and difficulties can be seen. These cognitive processes are: observing, categorizing, and forming generalizations about our environment. A disruption in these natural cognitive processes can cause behavioral problems in individuals and the key to treating these problems lies in changing the disrupted process. For example, a person with an eating disorder genuinely believes that they are extremely overweight. Some of this is due to a cognitive disruption in which their perception of their own weight is skewed. A therapist will try to change their constant pattern of thinking that they are overweight in order to decrease the unhealthy behaviors that are a result of it. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive%20Learning%20Theory#ixzz3swBn1d00

Conditioning

Conditioning is the process through which a stimulus and reaction become associated with one another. In animal training this is the process where the animal associates a reward (often food) with doing a trick or performing an action. If you've ever owned a puppy and trained it to sit or come, you used treats (in addition to a command) to motivate the behavior. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conditioning#ixzz3swDVscEg

Edward Thorndike

Edward Thorndike (1874 - 1949) is known for his work on Learning Theory. He studied how cats learned to escape from a puzzle box, which led him to conclude that the cats solved this problem through a gradual process of learning through trial and error, rather than by using insight. He proved this by plotting how long it took for the animals to escape, and showing that the animal escaped quicker with each trial, thereby producing a gradual learning curve. His work with animals led him to formulate the Law of Effect, which states that when a behavior is followed by a desirable consequence, it becomes associated with that situation so that the behavior becomes more likely to be performed when the same situation is encountered. In the puzzle box experiment, the cat finds itself in a situation where it is trapped in a box. If the cat was able to escape by pushing on the door, then it will likely do the same thing when it is put back in the box. Conversely, if a behavior is followed by an undesirable consequence, then that behavior becomes less likely to be repeated. Thorndike's work later led to the development of Operant Conditioning, a type of learning which involves forming an association between one's behavior and its consequences. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Edward%20Thorndike#ixzz3sw0Bw88O

extinction

Extinction is from conditioning and refers to the reduction of some response that the organism currently or previously produced. In classical conditioning this results from the unconditioned stimulus NOT occurring after the conditioned stimulus is presented over time. In operant conditioning it results from some response by the organism no longer being reinforced (for example, you keep getting your dog to sit on command, but you stop giving it a treat or any other type of reinforcement. Over time, the dog may not sit every time you give the command). Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Extinction%20%28operant%20extinction%29#ixzz3t0WKhunq

Classical Conditioning

First proposed and studied by Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is one form of learning in which an organism "learns" through establishing associations between different events and stimuli. For example, when a neutral stimulus (such as a bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (such as food) which produces some involuntary bodily response all on its own (such as salivating), the neutral stimulus begins to trigger a response by the organism similar (some salivation) to that produced by the unconditioned stimulus. In this way, the organism has "learned" that the neutral stimulus equals something good (just like the unconditioned stimulus). pavlovian/classical conditioning[edit] Classical conditioning is an example of associationistic learning. In his famous experiment, Pavlov paired the sound of a bell with food, and later the dog salivated to the bell alone, indicating that an association had been established between the bell and food Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Classical%20Conditioning#ixzz3sw20p5f1

target behaviour

For example, a smoker wants to quit smoking, that is the behaviour. They want to change their behaviour and learn not to want to smoke. The behavior to be changed is called the Target Behaviour. You are targeting the behaviour that needs to be changed. Another example. ever seen Super Nanny? She changes their behaviour from bad to good because she changes their situation and environment. Example, the child is grumpy because he is tired, so he is put to bed at a reasonable time every night until his grumpiness goes away.

classical conditioning examples

For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus. Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-provoking situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings helps the student learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations, the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm. The first time you hear the song from an ice cream truck it means nothing to you (NS). However, the thought of ice cream (UCS) makes you crave it (UCR) and when you hear the song from the ice cream truck (now the CS), it makes your mo Classical Conditioning can be used for taste-aversion learning, a biological innate part of us that tells an organism to avoid food when it is related to illness. Example: cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy are given a food with a strange flavor, such a licorice before chemotherapy. They relate feeling sick to the licorice and avoid licorice, rather than healthy foods that build up their immune system. In school, before Ms. Stratton makes an announcement over the intercom, you can slightly hear the speaker turn on. When Ms. Stratton is talking, teachers make the class quiet down and be respectful. If a student fails to stop talking, the teacher commonly ends up punishing the student for their bad behavior. Now every time you hear the speaker turn on you stop talking and wait for an announcement to come on. Gerry wanted to teach his pet iguana to wait to be commanded to eat his food, in order to do so he would prick the lizards hand and say eat. Eventually when Gerry would tell the lizard to eat, the lizard would associate the word "eat" with the prick, so when it heard the word eat, he ate in fear of the prick. Before conditioning: Perfume (Neutral stimulus) --> No reaction * During conditioning: Perfume (NS) -> See person you dislike (Unconditioned stimulus) -> Unpleasant feeling (Unconditioned response) * After conditioning: Perfume (Conditioned stimulus) -> Unpleasant feeling (Conditioned response) - Have you looked into the study of Little Albert by Watson & Reyner? That's a really good, although cruel example of classical conditioning. ------- Operant is much simpler, in my opinion. It's based around the consequences of our actions. An example could be your teacher praising you for good homework - Unintentional action: You do good homework - Reinforcement: Your teacher praises you, which makes you feel good about yourself - Deliberate action: You continue to try and do good homework. An example involving a decrease behaviour would be: -Unintentional action: You kick a ball - Punishment: Ball bounces off a wall and hits you in the face - Deliberate action: You pay more attention when kicking balls

higher-order conditioning

Higher Order Conditioning (also known as Second Order Conditioning) is a classical conditioning term that refers to a situation in which a stimulus that was previously neutral (e.g., a light) is paired with a conditioned stimulus (e.g., a tone that has been conditioning with food to produce salivating) to produce the same conditioned response as the conditioned stimulus. Wow...if you understand how a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (conditioning), you understand higher order conditioning because this is really just extending the conditioning one more level...the conditioning is happening not by pairing the stimulus with something that naturally produces a response, but with something that has been conditioned to produce a response. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Higher%20Order%20Conditioning#ixzz3swHNCs1q

Conditioned Stimulus

In classical conditioning, a formerly neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to produce a conditioned response. For example, a dog salivates (UR) from the smell of a bone (US) naturally, without any conditioning. Once some neutral stimulus (for example, a "beep" that the dog would not naturally or normally cause the dog to salivate) has been paired with the bone for some time, the dog will salivate (conditioned response or CR) when the "beep" occurs. Once the beep has the capacity to elicit the salivation, it is now considered a conditioned stimulus (CS). Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conditioned%20Stimulus#ixzz3swDNRIeI

Unconditioned Stimulus

In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (US or UCS) is any stimulus that can evoke a response without the organism going through any previous learning; the response to the US (the unconditioned response) occurs naturally. For example, if you smell a lemon, it might get a sour taste in your mouth and you may salivate. This may occur from the time you are born and can occur without you ever having tasted a lemon before. The lemon, therefore, is a US since it produced the salivation and sour taste (the UR) naturally, without you having any previous experience with lemons. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unconditioned%20Stimulus#ixzz3swCRnUo8

Conditioned Response

In classical conditioning, the conditioned response (CR) is the learned response (reflexive behavior) to a conditioned stimulus (CS). This response is almost identical to the Unconditioned Stimulus except that now the reflexive behavior occurs in response to a conditioned stimulus as opposed to an unconditioned stimulus. For example, a dog salivates (UR) from the smell of a bone (US) naturally, without any conditioning. Once some neutral stimulus (CS) (for example, a "beep" that the dog would not naturally or normally cause the dog to salivate) has been paired with the bone for some time, the dog will salivate (CS) when the "beep" occurs. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Conditioned%20Response#ixzz3swDnmXce

Unconditioned Response

In classical conditioning, there are stimuli that can produce responses all by themselves and without any prior learning. These types of stimuli are called unconditioned stimuli (US or UCS) and they evoke unconditioned responses (UR or UCR), or responses that are completely natural and occur without an organism going through any prior learning. For example, if you smell a lemon, it might get a sour taste in your mouth and you may salivate. This may occur from the time you are born and can occur without you ever having tasted a lemon before. The salivation and sour taste would be unconditioned responses. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Unconditioned%20Response#ixzz3swCnixeY

Operant Behavior

In psychology we often compare and contrast two different types of conditioning or learning: Operant Conditioning and Classical Conditioning. Within each of these are types of learning. Operant behavior (which goes along with operant conditioning) refers to behavior that "operates" on the environment or is controllable by the individual. Operant behavior is done because it produces some type of consequence. For example, you are probably familiar with Pavlov's dog (classical conditioning) in which the dog salivated in response to meet powder. The dog couldn't control the salivation...that's classical conditioning. However, if the dog understood that by coming when called it would receive a treat, then it would be engaging in operant behavior. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Operant%20Behavior#ixzz3swAxFC8q

instinctual drift

Instinctive drift or instinctual drift is the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response. The concept originated with B.F. Skinner's former students Keller Breland and Marian Breland when they tried to teach a raccoon to put tokens into a piggy bank. Although humans, animals, etc., can learn to perform different behaviors, there are times when they stop performing those behaviors in the way they learned and start reverting back to their more instinctual behaviors - this is the basic premise of Instinctual Drift. The animal no longer performs the behaviors it has been taught, but goes back to behaviors that are in its nature. It begins to do what it is driven to do regardless of the resulting punishment. For example, a dog with the nature to bark at visitors thinking they are intruders might have been taught to sit quietly when a guest enters through reward and punishment. Under stress, however, it may have instinctual drift, disregarding the learned behavior and barking at the guest. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Instinctual%20Drift#ixzz3t8cWVRun

John Watson

John Watson (1878 - 1958) is often called the Father of Behaviorism, which emphasizes objective and observable data such as people's behavior and reactions, as opposed to internal process that cannot be observed like mental states, or thought processes. Watson outlined that major features of Behaviorism in an article entitled "Psychology As The Behaviorist Views It," often referred to as the Behaviorist Manifesto. Watson's most famous and controversial experiment is known as the Little Albert Experiment. Little Albert was an 11-month boy who was trained to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud sound. In time, the child began to cry and show signs of distress upon seeing the white rat even without the accompanying sound. This fear was generalized to other furry objects like a rabbit, a dog, and a Santa Claus mask. You can learn more about it on our Learning and Behavior page. Watson is credited for setting the stage for the rise of Behaviorism, which dominated the field of psychology until the 1950's. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=John%20Watson#ixzz3sw0OOORQ

an example

Just about any sport drink can be pointed out as having similar vitamin and mineral compositions yet they might claim to make a person perform better in sports. The unconditioned stimulus is to feel thirst when involved in physically straining experiences. The unconditioned response is to drink some fluid which hopefully has replenishing nutrients. The conditioned stimulus is the sport even before the person truly requires any sort of drink. The conditioned response is to drink the sport drink just because that brand name supposedly makes an athlete perform better(not for reasons of satisfying thirst). Someone else might provide a more effective example because someone might argue that it is still biologically beneficial to be over-hydrated before even beginning to play the sport.

successive approximations

Let's use the definition of "shaping" to explain successive approximations. Our definition of "shaping" is: "a behavioral term that refers to gradually molding or training an organism to perform a specific response by reinforcing any responses that come close to the desired response. For example, a researcher can use shaping to train a rat to press a lever during an experiment (since rats are not born with the instinct to press a lever in a cage during an experiment). To start, the researcher may reward the rat when it makes any movement at all in the direction of the lever. Then, the rat has to actually take a step toward the lever to get rewarded. Then, it has to go over to the lever to get rewarded (remember, it will not receive any reward for doing the earlier behaviors now...it must make a more advanced move by going over to the lever), and so on until only pressing the lever will produce reward. The rat's behavior was 'shaped' to get it to press the lever." In this example, each time the rat is rewarded, it is being rewarded for a "successive approximation", or for acting in a way that gets closer and closer to the desired behavior Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Successive%20Approximations#ixzz3t8VtMxdB

Mirror neurons

Mirror neurons are a type of brain cell that fires when you do an action, and also when you simply watch someone else doing the same action. For example, when you are grabbing a cup of coffee, Motor Neuron A (which also happens to be a Mirror Neuron) fires to tell your hand to reach out and grip the handle of the cup. When you watch your friend pick up his own cup of coffee, Motor Neuron A also fires as if you were also picking up his cup of coffee, even if your hand is not moving at all. frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Mirror%20Neurons#ixzz3tBUkRlqG

Modeling

Modeling is a form of learning where individuals ascertain how to act or perform by observing another individual. Think of it this way, you may know how to tell a joke better because you have watched Jay Leno's standup routine on TV. Or, if you have ever felt uncomfortable at a party and someone gives you the advice of: "When in Rome, do as the Romans do" -- well, the person is really saying: "Model your behaviors and learn how to act by watching how others are performing in the same situation." Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Modeling#ixzz3tBSiUvQY the process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour. Cognition is certainly a factor in observational learning, in which higher animals, espe- cially humans, learn without direct experience, by watching and imitating others. A child who sees his sister burn her fingers on a hot stove learns not to touch it. We learn our native languages and various other specific behaviors by observing and imitating others, a process called modeling. Picture this scene from an experiment by Albert Bandura, the pioneering researcher of observational learning (Bandura et al., 1961). A preschool child works on a drawing. An adult in another part of the room is building with Tinkertoys. As the child watches, the adult gets up and for nearly 10 minutes pounds, kicks, and throws around the room a large inflated Bobo doll, yelling, "Sock him in the nose. . . . Hit him down. . . . Kick him."

negative punishment

Negative punishment is an important concept in B. F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning. In behavioral psychology, the goal of punishment is to decrease the behavior that precedes it. In the case of negative punishment, it involves taking something good or desirable away in order to reduce the occurrence of a particular behavior. One of the easiest ways to remember this concept is to note that in behavioral terms, positive means adding something while negative means taking something away.

negative reinforcement

Negative reinforcement is a term described by B. F. Skinner in his theory of operant conditioning. In negative reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by stopping, removing, or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive stimulus. Aversive stimuli tend to involve some type of discomfort, either physical or psychological. Behaviors are negatively reinforced when they allow you to escape from aversive stimuli that are already present or allow you to completely avoid the aversive stimuli before they happen.

what is Garcia Effect so strong?

The ability to develop a taste aversion is considered an adaptive trait or survival mechanism that trains the body to avoid poisonous substances (e.g., poisonous berries) before they can cause harm. The association reduces the probability of consuming the same substance (or something that tastes similar) in the future, thus avoiding further poisoning. It is an example of classical conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning.

Observational learning

Observational Learning In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura's studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed. Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning: A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media.

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning is a type of learning in which a behavior is strengthened (meaning, it will occur more frequently) when it's followed by reinforcement, and weakened (will happen less frequently) when followed by punishment. Operant conditioning is based on a simple premise - that behavior is influenced by the consequences that follow. When you are reinforced for doing something, you're more likely to do it again. When you are punished for doing something, you are less likely to do it again. For more detailed information about operant conditioning, take a look at the B.F. Skinner Foundation located at: http://www.bfskinner.org/Operant.asp Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Operant%20Conditioning#ixzz3sw9xxklr

Operant conditioning

Operant Conditioning is a type of learning in which a behavior is strengthened (meaning, it will occur more frequently) when it's followed by reinforcement, and weakened (will happen less frequently) when followed by punishment. Operant conditioning is based on a simple premise - that behavior is influenced by the consequences that follow. When you are reinforced for doing something, you're more likely to do it again. When you are punished for doing something, you are less likely to do it again. For more detailed information about operant conditioning, take a look at the B.F. Skinner Foundation located at: http://www.bfskinner.org/Operant.asp Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Operant%20Conditioning#ixzz3t89uDn1h Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. For example, when a lab rat presses a blue button, he receives a food pellet as a reward, but when he presses the red button he receives a mild electric shock. As a result, he learns to press the blue button but avoid the red button. The History of Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that it was not really necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior. Through the first part of the 20th-century, behaviorism had become a major force within psychology. However, it was the ideas of John B. Watson that dominated early on. Watson focused on the principles of classical conditioning, once famously suggesting that he could take any person regardless of their background and train them to be anything he chose. Where the early behaviorists had focused their interests on associative learning, Skinner was more interested in how the consequences of people's actions influenced their behaviour. Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day. His theory was heavily influenced by the work of psychologist Edward Thorndike, who had proposed what he called the law of effect. According to this principle, actions that are followed by desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated. Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise - actions that are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. If you tell a funny story in class and everybody laughs, you will probably be more likely to tell that story again in the future. Conversely, actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be weakened and less likely to occur again in the future. If you tell the same story again in another class but nobody laughs this time, you will be less likely to repeat the story again in the future. Skinner distinguished between two different types of behaviors: respondent behaviors and operant behaviors. Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee. You don't have to learn these behaviors, they simply occur automatically and involuntarily. Operant behavior, on the other hand, are those under our conscious control. Some may occur spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions that then influence whether or not they occur again in the future. Our actions on the environment and the consequences of those action make up an important part of the learning process. While classical conditioning could account for respondent behaviors, Skinner realized that it could not account for a great deal of learning. Instead, Skinner suggested that operant conditioning held far more importance. Skinner had often invented many different devices during his boyhood and he put these skills to work during his studies on operant conditioning. He created a device known as an operant conditioning chamber, most often referred to today as a Skinner box. The chamber was essentially a box that could hold a small animal such as a rat or pigeon. The box also contained a bar or key that the animal could press in order to receive a reward. In order to track responses, Skinner also developed a device known as a cumulative recorder. The device recorded responses as a upward movement of a line so that response rates could be read by looking at the slope of the line. Components of Operant Conditioning Some key concepts in operant conditioning: Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers: Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases. Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment: Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.

operant conditioning in everyday life

Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences. Key concepts in operant conditioning are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment and negative punishment. Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement is giving something pleasant after a behavior. This increases the probability that the behavior will continue. Examples are: Having a job and going to work every day to receive a paycheck. Receiving praise after a musical performance would increase the amount that you perform. A teacher complimenting students when they answer correctly will increase that behavior. At a gym, customers receive a discount if they work out a certain number of times and eat healthy. In the Skinner Box experiment, a rat got food as a reward for acceptable behavior, such as pressing a lever. Negative Reinforcement Negative reinforcement is taking away something unpleasant as a result of the behavior that is acceptable. This is also meant to increase the behavior. Examples are: It is very noisy outside so you turn on the television to mask the noise. Turning on the radio decreased the unpleasant noise. A teacher exempts student from the final test if they have perfect attendance. So, the teacher is taking away something unpleasant to increase behavior. At a store, a child throws a tantrum because he did not get a candy bar. Dad finally gets him one. He stopped the tantrum so he took away something unpleasant and Dad's behavior of getting candy bars will increase. In the Skinner box experiment, a loud noise continuously sounded inside the cage until the rat did what Skinner wanted him to do. When he did, the noise stopped, so the unpleasant noise was taken away. In a biology class, students who made an "A" on the test did not have to dissect a frog. Positive Punishment Positive punishment is used to decrease a behavior and is presenting something unpleasant after the behavior. Examples are: An employee exhibits bad behavior at work and the boss criticizes him. The behavior will decrease because of the boss's criticism. When a student misbehaves in class, she receives a time out. A child gets a spanking when he puts his hand in the cookie jar. When a child does not out his clothes in the hamper, he has to do ten extra minutes of chores. In an experiment, the subject received a slight electric shock when they got an answer wrong. Negative Punishment Negative punishment is also used to decrease a behavior and is removing something pleasant after the behavior. Examples are: An employee is habitually late for work so begins losing the privilege of listening to music while working. The behavior will decrease because of losing a privilege. A child doesn't put his bike away so the parents lock it up for a certain time. The parents took away something pleasant to decrease behavior. Ted gets a $500 fine and suspension of his driving license for driving under the influence. Money and his license were removed to decrease behavior. A family has a "swear jar." Every time someone swears, they have to put a dollar in the jar. This is taking away money, which is something pleasant, and decreases the behavior of swearing. Kevin trashes his sister's room and Mom told him he could not go camping with his friends. As you can see with these different examples, operant conditioning can be used to control behavior using positive and negative actions. Read more at http://examples.yourdictionary.com/operant-conditioning-examples.html#Yv0aMjJI0SSKRsJM.99

positive punishment

Positive punishment is a concept used in B. F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning. The goal of punishment is to decrease the behavior that it follows. In the case of positive punishment, it involves presenting an unfavorable outcome or event following an undesirable behavior. The concept of positive punishment can difficult to remember, especially because it seems like a contradiction.

prosocial behaviour

Prosocial behaviors are those intended to help other people. Prosocial behavior is characterized by a concern about the rights, feelings and welfare of other people. Behaviors that can be described as prosocial include feeling empathy and concern for others and behaving in ways to help or benefit other people. In The Handbook of Social Psychology, C. Daniel Batson explains that prosocial behaviors refer to "a broad range of actions intended to benefit one or more people other than oneself - behaviors such as helping, comforting, sharing and cooperation." http://psychology.about.com/od/pindex/g/prosocial-behavior.htm

punishment

Punishment is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to any change that occurs after a behavior that reduces the likelihood that that behavior will occur again in the future. While positive and negative reinforcement are used to increase behaviors, punishment is focused on reducing or eliminating unwanted behaviors. Punishment is often mistakenly confused with negative reinforcement. http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/punishment.htm

operant (consequences)

Refer to specific consequences that follow a behaviour Operant conditioning (also, "instrumental conditioning") is a learning process in which behavior is sensitive to, or controlled by, its consequences. For example, a child may learn to open a box to get the candy inside, or learn to avoid touching a hot stove. In contrast, classical conditioning causes a stimulus to signal a positive or negative consequence; the resulting behavior does not produce the consequence. For example, the sight of a colorful wrapper comes to signal "candy", causing a child to salivate, or the sound of a door slam comes to signal an angry parent, causing a child to tremble. The study of animal learning in the 20th century was dominated by the analysis of these two sorts of learning,[1] and they are still at the core of behavior analysis.

reinforcer

Reinforcement is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur. Note that reinforcement is defined by the effect that it has on behavior - it increases or strengthens the behavior. For example, reinforcement might involve presenting praise (the reinforcer) immediately after a child puts away her toys (the response). By reinforcing the desired behavior with praise, the girl will be more likely to perform the same actions again. Types of Reinforcement Reinforcement can include anything that strengthens or increases a behavior, including stimuli, events and situations. In a classroom setting, for example, types of reinforcement might include praise, getting out of unwanted work, token rewards, candy, extra playtime and fun activities. There are two major categories of reinforcement: Primary reinforcement, sometimes referred to as unconditional reinforcement, occurs naturally and does not require learning in order to work. Primary reinforcers often have an evolutionary basis in that they aid in the survival of the species. Examples of primary reinforcers include food, air, sleep, water and sex. Genetics and experience may also play a role in how reinforcing such things are. For example, while one person might find a certain type of food very rewarding, another person may not like that food at all. Secondary reinforcement, also known as conditioned reinforcement, involves stimuli that have become rewarding by being paired with another reinforcing stimulus. For example, when training a dog, praise and treats might be used as primary reinforcers. The sound of a clicker can be associated with the praise and treats until the sound of the clicker itself begins to work as a secondary reinforcer. In operant conditioning, there are two different types of reinforcement: Positive reinforcement involves the addition of something to increase a response, such as giving a bit of candy to a child after she cleans up her room. Negative reinforcement involves removing something in order to increase a response, such as canceling a quiz if students turn in all of their homework for the week. By removing the aversive stimulus (the quiz), the teacher hopes to increase the occurrence of the desired behavior (completing all homework). The Strength of the Response How and when reinforcement is delivered can affect the overall strength of a response. This strength is measured by the persistence, frequency, duration and accuracy of the response after reinforcement is halted. In situations when the presentation of reinforcement is controlled, such as during training, the timing of when a reinforcer is presented can be manipulated. During the early stages of learning, continuous reinforcement is often used. This schedule involves reinforcing a response each and every time it occurs. Once a behavior has been acquired, it is often a good idea to switch to a partial reinforcement schedule. The four main types of partial reinforcement are: Fixed-ratio schedules: Reinforcing a behavior after a specific number of responses have occurred. Fixed-interval schedules: Reinforcing a behavior after a specific period of time has elapsed. Variable-ratio schedules: Reinforcing the behavior after an unpredictable number of responses. Variable-interval schedules: Reinforcing the behavior after an unpredictable period of time has elapsed. http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/reinforcement.htm

spontaneous recovery

Spontaneous recovery is a term associated with learning and conditioning. Specifically, spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a response (a Conditioned Response; CR) that had been extinguished. The recovery can occur after a period of non-exposure to the Conditioned Stimulus (CS). It is called spontaneous because the response seems to reappear out of nowhere. Let's look at an example. Let's say I condition (teach/train) a rat to press a lever whenever I ring a bell. Then I teach the rat to press the lever when I flash a light and not when I ring the bell. Once I've accomplished this, we can say that the first conditioned response (pressing the lever when I ring the bell) has been extinguished. But then one day, the rat starts to press the lever when I ring the bell and not when I flash the light. In this situation, there was spontaneous recovery of the response that was previously extinguished. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Spontaneous%20Recovery#ixzz3t87dDHxc

stimulus discrimination

Stimulus Discrimination is when we learn to respond only to the original stimulus, and not to other similar stimuli. The concept of Stimulus Discrimination follows from the idea of Stimulus Generalization, which is when we respond not only to the original stimulus, but also to other similar stimuli. For example, whenever you come home from work, the first thing you do is feed your dog. As a result, your dog gets excited as soon as he hears your car pulling up at the driveway, barking and running to the door. Eventually, he begins to get excited as soon as any family member arrives in their car, thinking that he will get fed as well. Everytime he hears any car pull up at the driveway, he starts barking and running to the door. That is Stimulus Generalization. But if none of the other family members ever feed the dog as soon as they arrive home, your dog eventually learns that it is only the sound of your car pulling up at the driveway that's worth getting excited about. That is Stimulus Discrimination, because he learns to distinguish only the specific sound that means food is coming, and learns to ignore all other car sounds as not relevant to his getting fed. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stimulus%20Discrimination#ixzz3t89BtYtj

stimulus generalization

Stimulus Generalization is when an organism responds to a new stimulus in the same way as a previously encountered stimulus, based on similarity of the stimuli and the organism's history of reinforcement with the previous stimulus. For example, imagine a very young boy encountering different breeds of dogs for the first time. When he sees a Labrador retriever and he responds "dog!", his parents reward him with praise and he learns that the animal is indeed a dog. When the child sees a Shih Tzu and he responds "dog!", he is also rewarded with praise. The boy responds the same way to both types of dog stimuli, and each response generates the same result. In this way the child learns to call all dog breeds "dogs," even though they are of different sizes and have different types of fur, etc. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stimulus%20Generalization#ixzz3t87vxmcW

Little Albert Experiment

The "Little Albert" experiment was a famous psychology experiment conducted by behaviorist John B. Watson and graduate student Rosalie Raynor. Previously, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov had conducted experiments demonstrating the conditioning process in dogs. Watson was interested in taking Pavlov's research further to show that emotional reactions could be classically conditioned in people. The participant in the experiment was a child that Watson and Rayner called "Albert B.", but is known popularly today as Little Albert. 1920 - Watson - classical conditioning on a 9 month old baby - white rat was paired with a loud clanking noise resulting in crying and fear of rat Around the age of nine months, Watson and Rayner exposed the child to a series of stimuli including a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey, masks and burning newspapers and observed the boy's reactions. The boy initially showed no fear of any of the objects he was shown. The next time Albert was exposed the rat, Watson made a loud noise by hitting a metal pipe with a hammer. Naturally, the child began to cry after hearing the loud noise. After repeatedly pairing the white rat with the loud noise, Albert began to cry simply after seeing the rat. Watson and Rayner wrote: "The instant the rat was shown, the baby began to cry. Almost instantly he turned sharply to the left, fell over on [his] left side, raised himself on all fours and began to crawl away so rapidly that he was caught with difficulty before reaching the edge of the table." Elements of Classical Conditioning in the Little Albert Experiment The Little Albert experiment presents and example of how classical conditioning can be used to condition an emotional response.

Garcia Effect

The Garcia Effect (aka, conditioned taste aversion) is an aversion or distaste for a particular taste or smell that was associated with a negative reaction (such as nausea or vomiting). This effect was discovered by John Garcia while he was studying effects of radiation on mice. He noticed that rats would avoid a new food when it was initially presented around the time of radiation exposure, which causes nausea and a general feeling of sickness. The Garcia effect occurs in patients undergoing treatment for cancer who are exposed to radiation as treatment. It can also happen in humans when a bad reaction occurs as a result of ingesting a particular food or drink, either from food poisoning or overindulgence. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Garcia%20Effect#ixzz3t8Uc0UfZ

Law of Effect

The Law of Effect, as stated by psychological theorist Thorndike, deals with what is called "stimulus-response" reaction that is exhibited by living creatures. Stimulus-response means exhibiting a reaction to some form of reward. This law is based on the observation of the effects that rewards have on animal behavior in test conditions. For example, an animal can be taught to push a lever to receive a bite of food as a reward. When the animal receives a treat for its behavior, it becomes more willing to continue to perform the behavior. In this example, you can see the effect the reward has the animal's behavior. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Law%20of%20Effect#ixzz3sw1TcL8S Thorndike's Law of Effect is a theory in behaviorism that explains how organisms learn and develop behaviors. Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) was a behaviorist whose theories on learning were crucial in the development of operant conditioning. Thorndike was best known for his use of puzzle boxes in his experiments with cats. He would put a cat in a puzzle box and a piece of fish outside. The cat needed to use a lever to open the box to get to the fish. He noticed that once the cats discovered that the lever worked in their mission to get to the fish they would continue using the lever and increase in their speed of finding and using it. This is what lead Thorndike to develop his Law of Effect theory. It essentially states that behaviors that elicit favorable results (like a cat getting fish) are more likely to be repeated in the future because the consequence was pleasant. In conjunction, behaviors that elicit unpleasant or unfavorable results are more likely to stop and not be repeated in the future. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Thorndike%27s%20Law%20Of%20Effect#ixzz3sw1ehoyb

observational learning

The process of acquiring information by observing others. Learning to tie your shoe by observing another individual perform the task would be an example of observational learning. (learning from watching others and changing thinking about things) Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Observational%20Learning#ixzz3swAlPMwG

rewards

The reward system is a group of neural structures that are critically involved in mediating the effects of reinforcement. A reward is an appetitive stimulus given to a human or some other animal to alter its behavior. Rewards typically serve as reinforcers. A reinforcer is something that, when presented after a behavior, causes the probability of that behavior's occurrence to increase. Note that, just because something is labelled as a reward, it does not necessarily imply that it is a reinforcer. A reward can be defined as reinforcer only if its delivery increases the probability of a behavior.[4] Reward or reinforcement is an objective way to describe the positive value that an individual ascribes to an object, behavioral act or an internal physical state. Primary rewards include those that are necessary for the survival of species, such as food and sexual contact.[5] Secondary rewards derive their value from primary rewards. Money is a good example. They can be produced experimentally by pairing a neutral stimulus with a known reward. Things such as pleasurable touch and beautiful music are often said to be secondary rewards, but such claims are questionable. For example, there is a good deal of evidence that physical contact, as in cuddling and grooming, is an unlearned or primary reward.[6] Rewards are generally considered more desirable than punishment in modifying behavior.[7]

Behaviourism

The school of thought that stresses the need for psychology to be an objective science. In other words, that psychology should be a science based on observable (and only observable) events, not the unconscious or conscious mind. This perspective was first suggested and propagated by John Watson in 1913, who wanted psychology to study only observable behaviors and get away from the study of the conscious mind completely. Watson's primary rationale was that only observable events are verifiable and thus, are the only events that can be proven false. This is an extremely important concept for science; without it, how can you ever find out what is true, false, real, or fake. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Behaviorism#ixzz3svyOFrcx

Social Cognitive Theories of Learning

The social cognitive theory states that we learn behaviors through observation, modeling, and motivation such as positive reinforcement. Some influential psychologists of this theory were N.E. Miller and Albert Bandura. They found that this type of social learning was strengthened if the observer identified with their "model." This meant that children were more likely to repeat behaviors they had seen other children their age do, although they might model adults as well. Learning is also stregthened if someone models a behavior he or she has seen rewarded. This leads to a motivation for the person to model the behavior in order to get a similar reward. http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/sociallearning.htm Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Social%20Cognitive%20Theory#ixzz3t8d9httb

Which schedule creates the highest rate of responding?

The variable ratio schedule produces both the highest rate of responding and the greatest .. (psych teachers notes)

shaping

This is a behavioral term that refers to gradually molding or training an organism to perform a specific response (behavior) by reinforcing any responses that are similar to the desired response. For example, a researcher can use shaping to train a rat to press a lever during an experiment (since rats are not born with the instinct to press a lever in a cage during an experiment). To start, the researcher may reward the rat when it makes any movement at all in the direction of the lever. Then, the rat has to actually take a step toward the lever to get rewarded. Then, it has to go over to the lever to get rewarded (remember, it will not receive any reward for doing the earlier behaviors now...it must make a more advanced move by going over to the lever), and so on until only pressing the lever will produce reward. The rat's behavior was "shaped" to get it to press the lever. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Shaping#ixzz3t8VWHE8E https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaping_(psychology)

other example

UCS, thunderstorm, UCR, plane crash, CS, hearing thunder, CR, anxiety Before Conditioning For example, a stomach virus (UCS) would produce a response of nausea (UCR). In another example a perfume (UCS) could create a response of happiness or desire (UCR). during Conditioning For example a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a certain food such as chocolate (CS). Also perfume (UCS) might be associated with a specific person (CS). after Conditioning For example a person (CS) who has been associated with nice perfume (UCS) is now found attractive (CR). Also chocolate (CS) which was eaten before a person was sick with a virus (UCS) is now produces a response of nausea (CR).

Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions. In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior, but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of a desirable outcome or the application of a negative outcome can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviours. http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html *** Operant Conditioning in the Classroom In the conventional learning situation operant conditioning applies largely to issues of class and student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill performance. A simple way to shape behavior is to provide feedback on learner performance, e.g. compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation. A variable-ratio produces the highest response rate for students learning a new task, whereby initially reinforcement (e.g. praise) occurs at frequent intervals, and as the performance improves reinforcement occurs less frequently, until eventually only exceptional outcomes are reinforced. For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to answer questions in class they should praise them for every attempt (regardless of whether their answer is correct). Gradually the teacher will only praise the students when their answer is correct, and over time only exceptional answers will be praised. Unwanted behaviors, such as tardiness and dominating class discussion can be extinguished through being ignored by the teacher (rather than being reinforced by having attention drawn to them). Knowledge of success is also important as it motivates future learning. However it is important to vary the type of reinforcement given, so that the behavior is maintained. This is not an easy task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to behave.

positive punishment examples

You wear your favorite baseball cap to class, but are reprimanded by your instructor for violating your school's dress code. Because you're late to work one morning, you drive over the speed limit through a school zone. As a result, you get pulled over by a police officer and receive a ticket. Your cell phone rings in the middle of a class lecture, and you are scolded by your teacher for not turning your phone off prior to class. target behaviour, the reinforcer or the punisher, and the outcome behaviour

classical (association)

classical (association)

ivan pavlov

classical conditioning behaviourism Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936) is best known for his work describing the psychological phenomenon of Classical Conditioning. From his work studying digestion in dogs, he observed that the dogs would salivate at the mere sight of food. Pavlov originally discovered the idea of conditioning by accident - he noticed that dogs began to salivate even before they were presented with food. He later tested the concept using what became his most famous experiment. In that experiment he conditioning dogs to salivate in response to the sound of a bell. He did this by ringing a bell as he presented food, at which the dogs would respond by salivating. After several trials of the bell and food presented together, Pavlov rang the bell alone without presenting food and the dogs gave the usual salivary response. Salivation in response to the ringing of the bell is known as a "conditioned response" Pavlov's work lay the foundation for Behaviorism, which dominated the field of psychology from the 19th century until the first half of the 20th century. He also introduced many conditioning terms, including Conditioned Response, Unconditioned Response, Conditioned Stimulus, Unconditioned Stimulus, and more. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ivan%20Pavlov#ixzz3svzo5wAY

Cognitive learning

http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-cognitive-psychology.html Cognitive Learning Theory is a broad theory that explains thinking and differing mental processes and how they are influenced by internal and external factors in order to produce learning in individuals. When cognitive processes are working normally then acquisition and storage of knowledge works well, but when these cognitive processes are ineffective, learning delays and difficulties can be seen. These cognitive processes are: observing, categorizing, and forming generalizations about our environment. A disruption in these natural cognitive processes can cause behavioral problems in individuals and the key to treating these problems lies in changing the disrupted process. For example, a person with an eating disorder genuinely believes that they are extremely overweight. Some of this is due to a cognitive disruption in which their perception of their own weight is skewed. A therapist will try to change their constant pattern of thinking that they are overweight in order to decrease the unhealthy behaviors that are a result of it. Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Cognitive%20Learning%20Theory#ixzz3tBTKsYox

Aggression

http://psychology.about.com/od/aindex/g/aggression.htm In psychology, the term aggression refers to a range of behaviors that can result in both physical and psychological harm to oneself, other or objects in the environment. The expression of aggression can occur in a number of ways, including verbally, mentally, and physically. Psychologists distinguish between different forms of aggression, different purposes of aggression, and different types of aggression.

schedules of reinforcement

http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/schedules.htm

taste-aversion learning

http://psychology.about.com/od/classicalconditioning/f/taste-aversion.htm

Extrinsic Motivation

http://psychology.about.com/od/eindex/f/extrinsic-motivation.htm Extrinsic motivation refers to behavior that is driven by external rewards such as money, fame, grades, and praise. This type of motivation arises from outside the individual, as opposed to intrinsic motivation, which originates inside of the individual.

difference-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation

http://psychology.about.com/od/motivation/f/difference-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.htm

intrinsic-motivation

http://psychology.about.com/od/motivation/f/intrinsic-motivation.htm Intrinsic motivation refers to behavior that is driven by internal rewards. In other words, the motivation to engage in a behavior arises from within the individual because it is intrinsically rewarding. This contrasts with extrinsic motivation, which involves engaging in a behavior in order to earn external rewards or avoid punishments.

bobo doll experiment

http://www.simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html The Bobo doll experiment was the collective name of experiments conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961 and 1963 when he studied children's behavior after watching an adult model act aggressively towards a Bobo doll. There are different variations of the experiment.

reinforcers and punishers (primary & secondary

http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html Reinforcer is a term used in operant condition to describe any event (stimulus, object...anything) that strengthens the frequency of the behavior that precedes it. For example, if I paid you one dollar every time you said hello to me (and we're assuming you like getting the dollar) we may expect the frequency of you saying hello to me to increase. This is because you were being reinforced for saying hello (by getting the dollar). In this case the the dollar works as a reinforcer. Punishment, also known as Positive Punishment, is any stimulus that represses a behavior. It is important to note that punishment is not the same as negative reinforcement. Is failing a test negative reinforcement or punishment? If it motivates you to study more it is negative reinforcement (i.e., it increases the behavior of studying). However, if you feel that studying is actually hurting your performance (due to, for example, test anxiety) you will perceive that failing the test was due to studying too hard. Next time, you will not study (i.e., decrease your behavior) so that you will not be punished for it. Now you just need to convince your professor that bad grades are actually causing you to study less. Negative Punishment refers to the removal of a reinforcer (a desirable stimulus or opportunity) in response to an unwanted behavior, in order to decrease the probability of that behavior occurring again. Putting a misbehaving child in "time out" is one example of negative punishment. The parent, teacher, or guardian takes away control, toys, free time, and other privileges from the child when he or she misbehaves so that the child will stop the bad or unwanted behavior. Another example would be fines for speeding, in which money is taken from someone to get them to slow down in the future. primary This is a term used in conditioning, and it refers to anything that provides reinforcement without the need for learning to an organism. This means that the reinforcer is naturally reinforcing to the organism. For example, water is naturally reinforcing because organisms don't need to learn to be reinforced by it, they naturally get reinforced especially in times of being thirsty. secondary :Unlike primary reinforcers which are naturally reinforcing, secondary reinforcers are reinforcing only after the organism has been conditioned to find it reinforcing. Some stimulus that does not naturally provide reinforcement is paired with a primary reinforcer so that the organism begins to associate the secondary reinforcer with the primary reinforcer. For example. If you recall the Pavlov's dog case, the dog naturally salivated to the presence of meat powder. The meat powder serves as a primary reinforcer. But then pairing a sound with the meat powder over and over again, the sounds became reinforcing to the dog because it had been associated with the primary reinforcer (meat powder). Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Secondary%20Reinforcer#ixzz3tUzkdSmw Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Primary%20Reinforcer#ixzz3tUzY1jJ8 Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Negative%20Punishment#ixzz3tUzLE800 Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Punishment%20%28Positive%20Punishment%29#ixzz3tUzBhKyL Read more: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Reinforcer#ixzz3tUyla8BU

how does shaping work?

https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/learning-7/operant-conditioning-47/shaping-198-12733/ In shaping, behaviors are broken down into many small, achievable steps. rewarding positive things punishing negatives

Cognitive Learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language