PSYC 2- Midterm 1

antagonists

antagonists DECREASE NT activity -antipsychotics- block dopamine from receptors

how many neurons are there?

around 85 billion neurons, with around 160 trillion connections between them

surveys

ask about a person's opinions or attitudes

dopamine

associated with reward and pleasurable experiences

terror management theory

awareness of our inevitable death leads to intense fear

glutamate

binds to excitatory receptors; helps form long-term memories

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

binds to major inhibitory receptors; influences muscle tone

amino acids

brain's most abundant NT's ex. glutamate & GABA

dendrites

branchlike extension that receive info. from other neurons

acetylcholine

can behave as both inhibitory & excitatory; supports heart, skeletal muscle, & cognitive function

introspection

careful, systematic observations of one's own conscious experience

cell body (soma)

center of neuron; builds new cell components

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that allow neuron-to-neuron communication

twin studies

compare concordance rates among monozygotic and dizygotic twins -helps to identify the extent to which the disorder is heritable

reticular activating system

connects the brain stem and the cerebral cortex

reliability

consistency of measurement

serotonin

contributes to feelings of happiness & well-being, appetite, & sleep

limbic system

the emotional center of the brain (thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus)

vividness effect

the phenomenon of how vivid or highly graphic and dramatic events affect an individual's perception of a situation

what is psychology?

the scientific study of the mind, brain, and behavior

how have human brains changed over time?

tripled in size, with the greatest increase in the cerebrum

MRI

uses magnetic fields to indirectly visualize brain structure

fMRI

uses magnetic fields to visualize brain activity

CT

uses multiple x-rays to construct 3-dimensional images

reciprocal determinism

we mutually influence each other's behavior

axons

'tails' of the neuron that spread out from the cell body and transmit info

what are astrocytes?

(glial cells) most abundant and increase reliability of neuronal transmission

what are ogliodendrocytes?

(glial cells) promote new connections and produce the myelin sheath around axons

warning signs of pseudoscience

-ad hoc immunizing -lack of self correction -over reliance on anecdotes -exaggerated claims -absence of connection to other research -lack of peer review or replications -talk of "proof" instead of evidence -use of fancy scientific terms that don't make sense

Tutchener Wundt

-analyzed structure of mind by identifying the basic elements -used introspection

central nervous sytem

-brain -spinal cord

case study designs

-can provide existence proofs -can help generate hypotheses -can be misleading -low internal & external validity

brainstem

-connects the cerebral cortex and spinal cord -performs automatic functions that keep us alive -serves as a relay station between the cortex & rest of nervous system

parietal lobe

-contains the somatosensory cortex, which is sensitive to touch, pain, & temperature -helps track objects' locations in space -communicates info. to the motor cortex every time we reach, grasp, or move our eyes

pituitary gland

-controls the other glands in the body -releases hormones that influence growth, blood pressure, & other functions -includes oxycotin, responsible for # of reproductive functions & involved in maternal & romantic love

dominant vs. recessive

-dominant genes mask other genes' effects -recessive genes are expressed only in the absence of a dominant gene

basal ganglia

-forebrain structure that helps control movement -allows us to perform movements to obtain rewards and reinforcement -damage can contribute to Parkinson's disease

what are the four ways neurons change during development?

-growth of dendrites and axons -synaptogenesis: development of additional synapses btwn neurons -pruning: ridding of connections in order to specialize in new ones -myelination: development of myelin sheath

William James

-investigated the function of consciousness -grew out of evolutionary theory that stressed the biological purpose or function of natural processes -emphasized overt, observable behaviors rather than private mental events

temporal lobe

-lower part of cerebral cortex, plays a role in >hearing >understanding language >storing autobiographical memories contains: -the auditory cortex -Wernicke's area

frontal lobes

-oversee & organize most other brain functions (executive functioning) -the body is mapped onto the motor cortex -the prefrontal cortex is responsible for thinking, planning, & language >Broca's area

ethical guidelines for human research

-participants must be judged to be 'at no risk' or 'at minimal risk' -informed consent -all info. is confidential -participants must be free to withdraw at any time -justification of deception -debriefing of subjects afterwards

pons & medulla

-pons: connects cortex to cerebellum and triggers dreams -medulla: regulates breathing, heartbeat, and other vital functions

adrenal glands

-release adrenaline & cortisol -adrenaline boosts energy production in muscle cells, but restricts it in other cells -cortisol regulates blood pressure and cardiovascular function

neuropeptides

-short strings of amino acids that act like neurotransmitters -have specialized functioning (like endorphins for pain relief)

peripheral nervous system

-somatic: conveys info, between CNS and body, controlling & coordinating voluntary movement -autonomic: controls involuntary actions internal organs & glands >sympathetic (fight or flight) >parasympathetic (calms us down)

sexual reproductive glands

-testes in males and ovaries in females -both sexes manufacture testosterone & estrogen

spinal cord

-the thick bundle of nerves that conveys signals between the brain & the body -SENSORY nerves carry info. from body to the brain -MOTOR nerves carry info. from brain to rest of the body -also contains INTERneurons, which allow reflexes to happen

theory vs. hypothesis

-theory: a general explanation -hypothesis: a specific prediction based on a theory which can then be tested -theories are never "proven", but hypotheses can be "confirmed" or "disconfirmed"

what are action potentials?

-this is the neuron "firing," an all-or-none response -originate near cell body & travel down the axon to the axon terminal, triggering NT disease -in between firings, there is a very brief absolute refractory period

naturalistic observation

-watching behavior in real world settings -high in external validity -low in internal validity

psychoanalytic

FREUD! -unconscious processes influence behavior -childhood experiences influence our behavior -controversial

behaviorism

John Watson & B.F. Skinner

cognitivism

Piaget & Vgotsky -focuses on the mental processes involved in different aspects of thinking

illusory correlation

a perceived correlation that does not actually exist

what is science?

a systematic approach to evidence

operational definition

a working definition of what the researcher is manipulating & measuring

empiricism

acquiring knowledge through observation

agonists

agonists INCREASE NT activity -opioids-mimic endorphins -alcohol, xanax- stimulate GABA receptors -prozac, paxil- block serotonin reuptake

occam's razor

all things being equal, the simplest explanation tends to be the right one

demand characteristics

cues that participants pick up allowing them to guess at the researcher's hypotheses

what are the goals of psychology?

describe, predict, explain

Wilhelm Wundt

established the first laboratory for the study of psychology in Germany

James Catell

established the first psychology laboratory in the U.S.

validity

extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to measure

internal validity

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences

external validity

extent to which we can generalize our findings to the real world

statistical significance

finding would have occurred by chance less than 1 in 20 times

adoption & cross-fostering studies

helps differentiate between genetic & environmental effects -adoption: study of adoptees who have biological parents with psychopathology -cross-fostering: study of adoptees who have adoptive parents with psychopathology

psychoactive drugs

impact mood, arousal, or behavior by changing neurotransmitter activity

monoamines

important for fight-or-flight response activation ex. norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin

anandamides

influence eating, motivation, memory, & sleep

norepinephrine

involved in fight-or-flight response activation

family studies

is there a relationship between the amount of shared genes and concordance? -1st degree relatives share 50% of their genes -2nd degree relatives share 25% of their genes

axon terminal

knob at the end of the axons that contains synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters

concordance

likelihood a person will have a disorder if a family member has it

PET

measures consumption of glucose-like molecules to give a picture of neural activity

EEG

measures electrical activity via electrodes placed on skull

self-report

measures or questionnaires assess characteristics such as personality or mental illness

plasticity

nervous system's ability to change over time

heritability

percentage of the variability in a trait across individuals that is due to genes (kahn video remember)

cerebellum

plays a predominant role in our sense of balance and enables us to coordinate movement and learn motor skills

hippocampus

plays a role in spatial memory; damage causes inability to form new memories

amygdala

plays key roles in fear, excitement, and arousal

practical significance

real-world importance

hypothalamus

regulates and controls internal bodily states; controls the pituitary gland

thalamus

relays information from the sense organs to primary sensory cortex

genotype vs. phenotype

set of genes we have vs. our observable traits

synapse

space between neurons through which neurotransmitters travel

halo effect

tendency of ratings of one positive characteristic to spill over to influence the ratings of other characteristics

naive realism

the belief that we see the world precisely as it actually is in truth- seeing is believing