PSYC 215 - Chapter 5

Hanging out with small groups of similar others was safe and a successful ___ strategy Avoidance of potentially dangerous outsiders still used in modern times, but signals of "___" have changed Still use visual signals, like skin color, variation in appearance (race) Person called Black in North America might be considered White in ___ Early North America Irish were considered a different race than Whites. We don't really think that anymore Shows it's not really race, or religion, or ideologies, or politics, etc... just ___ membership alone Humans are very very ___/group-y, and conflict occurs across these lines In the 70s, 80s, social scientists noticed reported levels of bias were decreasing over time Levels of bias decreasing? Most scientists did __ actually think so "____": Concepts are more tightly or loosely linked in our minds. This is functional and reflects how we ___ information Develop somewhat automatically over the course of our lifetimes Cultural stereotypes Schemas- Ways of organizing information Stereotypes- ___ for social groups Quick and convenient summaries of groups Research indicates they have a basis in ___ (Jussim, 2015) that are then exaggerated and can persist long after truth has changed But like any summary, often lead to ___ when applying to individuals Example: Mean age in class Problems arise with __ upon stereotypes Especially when we have an opportunity to form more individuated impression ___: We don't update our stereotypes

evolutionary otherness Brazil group tribal not Spreading activation organize Schemas truth error overreliance Subtyping

Therefore, women who exhibit traits that are valued in society but that defy gender stereo- types, such as by being ambitious or assertive, often are viewed in especially ____ terms, In contrast to the effects of contact in reducing many other intergroup biases, however, all this contact between women and men often does little to ____ sexist beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. It may surprise you to learn that, overall, stereotypes of women tend to be ___ positive than those of men (Eagly et al., 1994). However, the positive traits associated with women are ___ valued in important domains such as the business world than the positive traits associated with men. Ambivalent sexism consists of two elements: ____, characterized by negative, resentful feelings about women's abili- ties, value, and challenge to men's power (e.g., "Women seek special favors under the guise of equality"), and ____, characterized by affectionate, chiv- alrous feelings founded on the potentially patronizing belief that women need and deserve protection Benevolent sexism is associated in particular with negative reactions toward women who ___ traditional gender roles and stereotypes. For example, Allison Skinner and others (2015) found that, depending on the context, hostile and benevolent sexism each predicted ___judgments of the driver in an accident if the driver was said to be a woman rather than a man. Kristen Salomon and colleagues (2015) found that being the target of either type of sexism triggered ___ cardiovascular responses in the women in their study. Among their most intriguing findings was that people from countries with the greatest degree of economic and political inequal- ity between the sexes tended to exhibit the ___ hostile and benevolent sexism. For example, Julie Stankiewicz and Fran- cine Rosselli (2008) examined almost 2,000 advertisements depicting women from 58 popular magazines in the United States and found that ___ of them featured women as sex objects.

harsh re- duce more less hostile sexism benevolent sexism defy more negative negative most half

As perceivers, we routinely sort each other into groups on the basis of gender, race, age, and other common attributes in a process called ____ With so many things to pay attention to in our social worlds, we can save time and effort by using people's group ___ to make inferences about them. Categorizing people leads us to ___ the differences between groups and to ___ the differences within groups studies have shown that people see racially ambiguous faces as ___, and they trigger more negative ___ association, if the faces are labeled racially black than white Markus Kemmelmeier and Lysette Chavez (2014) found that white Americans perceived Barack Obama's face as darker if they were relatively ___ in racism. Even young children show these kinds of effects: Yarrow Dunham and others (2013) found that children were more likely to categorize a racially ambiguous face as black than white if it is expressing ___. The fact is, however, that numerous biologists, anthropologists, and psychologists note that there is more genetic variation within races than between them and emphasize that race is more of a ___ conception than a genetic reality Along these lines, Diana Sanchez and others (2015) found that after a brief __ with a racially ambiguous other student, white students became less likely to see race as a fixed, biological entity, an effect that endured when the students' attitudes were assessed again two weeks later. Melissa Williams and Jennifer Eberhardt (2008) found that people who tend to think of race as a stable, biologically deter- mined entity are less likely to interact with racial ___ members and are more likely to accept racial inequalities than are people who see race as more socially de- termined. Other research has found that biracial individuals are more ___ to some effects of stereotypes if they think of race as stable and biological

social categorization. memberships overestimate underestimate darker implicit high anger social interaction outgroup vulnerable

In one study involving in-depth interviews with 600 women in and around Paris, France, an astonishing __% reporting having been sexually harassed while using public transportation (Palet, 2015)! A more thorough analysis, however, indicated that both male and female professors tended to include more pieces of information raising ___ (e.g., "she has a somewhat challenging personality," "she might make a good colleague") for female than for male candidates. Moreover, these seemingly minor doubts made a significant ___ in the evaluations of people reading these letters. Sex discrimination during the ___ school years may pave the way for diverging career paths in adulthood. Then, when equally qualified men and women compete for a job, gender considerations enter in once again, as business professionals and others favor men for so-called ___ jobs (such as a manager for a machinery company) and women for so-called ___ jobs (such as a receptionist) Even when women and men have comparable jobs, the odds are good that the women will be paid ___ than their male counterparts and will be confronted with a so-called ____ that makes it harder for women to rise to the highest positions of power in a business or organization They are seen as more ____ if they present themselves with stereotypically masculine rather than feminine traits, yet when they do this, they are also perceived as less ___—a per- ception that may ultimately cost them the position or career advancement they were seeking These researchers found that men and women were judged more harshly for a mistake made on a job traditionally held by the ___ sex than for the same kind of mistake on a job in which their gender was the majority. In another study Brescoll and others (2012) found that men were perceived as less masculine if they worked for a ___ super- visor in a traditionally masculine occupation. Laurie Rudman, Kris Mescher, and Corinne Moss-Racusin (2013) found in a series of experiments that women liked men described as caring about issues of gender equality and women's rights, but both these women and other men judged these supportive men in more ___ ways compared to men who were less supportive of women, perceiving them to be relatively weak and questioning their sexuality.

100 slight doubts difference early masculine feminine less glass ceiling competent socially skilled and attractive other female feminized

A series of studies by Thierry Devos and others demonstrated how various ethnic minority groups such as Latino Americans, Asian Americans, and African Americans are not seen as truly ____, but some ___ factors—such as presenting individuals with examples of positive stereotypic traits of one of these groups—can reduce this tendency Diana Sanchez and Julie Garcia (2012) reported a number of ways in which racial categorization is also affected by people's ____ status. F Groups that we identify with—our country, religion, political party, even our hometown sports team—are called ___, whereas groups other than our own are called ____. W One consequence is that we exaggerate the ___ between our ingroup and other outgroups, and this exaggeration of differences helps to form and reinforce ___. Another consequence is a phenomenon known as the ____, whereby perceivers assume that there is a greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of one's own group. To people outside the group, outgroup members even look ___: People are ___ accurate in distinguishing and recognizing the faces of members of racial outgroups than of ingroups Indeed, the more familiar people are with an outgroup, the less likely they are to perceive it as ___. Second, people often do not en- counter a ___ sample of outgroup members. Research using brain imaging or cognitive methods has found that as soon as we categorize an unfamiliar person as a member of our ingroup or an outgroup, we immediately process information about them differently at even the most ____ levels. The students processed faces more ___ (that is, they integrated the features of the faces into a global repre- sentation of the overall face) when they had been categorized as being from their ingroup than they did when they had been categorized as members of the outgroup. Jay Van Bavel, William Cunningham, and their colleagues (2008; 2011; Van Bavel et al., 2014) have found related results in a series of studies, revealing greater activa- tion in particular areas of perceivers' brains, such as the fusiform face area and the ___ cortex, upon exposure to unfamiliar faces labeled as ingroup members than outgroup members ( Perceivers may not only process outgroup faces more superficially but also sometimes process them more like ____ animals than like fellow humans.

American situational social and economic ingroups outgroups differences stereotypes outgroup homogeneity effect alike less homogeneous representative basic holistically orbitofrontal objects and lower- order

Participants received a phone call that was a wrong number By voice, clear caller was Black or White Explained trying to reach mechanic from payphone since car broke down on freeway and had no more change to make another call (this was done in late 60s) Asked for help to call his garage, gave number What do you think happened? Whites helped Black and White callers ___ (by calling mechanic) WHEN they listened long enough to get asked for help BUT: Hung up on Black callers ___ before they could ask for help (Gaertner & Bickman, 1971) Women were less likely to protest against a sexually discriminating policy following exposure to ___ than hostile sexism (which increased likelihood of protest) (Becker & Wright) Countries with greater benev sexism have ___ gender disparities at all levels (economic and political equality) Both Black and White people die ____ in more prejudiced areas (Leitner, Hehman, Mendoza-Denton, & Ayduk, 2016, Psych Sci) ___ infant mortality disparities in more prejudiced areas (Orchard & Price, 2017, Soc Sci & Med) When Asian women primed to think of their gender, did ___ When primed to think of ethnicity, did ___ (Shih et al., 1999) ___ (Allport): Simple regular contact will reduce stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination implicit bias training >> not seen as ___.

EQUALLY earlier benevolent greater more Greater worse better Contact Hypothesis effective

In a classic dem- onstration, ____ (1947) showed participants a picture of a subway train filled with passengers. In more than half the sessions, the final participant's report indicated that the black man, not the white man, held the ___. In a more recent demonstration of a similar point, Yoshi- hisa Kashima and others (2013) had Australian students read a story about an Australian Rules Football player. Although the first student in the chain was likely to communicate both stereotype-consistent and stereotype-inconsistent informa- tion, as the story went from person to person the stereotype-inconsistent infor- mation was progressively ___ out stereotypes can create ___ the whites' racial stereotypes and prejudice actually __ the interview performance of the black candidates. Since the black candidates' interview performance tended to be objectively worse than that of the white candidates, it seemed to ___ the interviewers' negative stereotypes— but this poor performance was caused by the interviewers, not the interviewees. This can help perpetuate negative stereotypes by, for example, people failing to recognize how a poor performance by a member of a stereotyped group may be due to the effects of these ____ rather than a lack of actual ability. On the other hand, when people see others acting in ways that seem to contradict a stereotype, they may be more likely to think about ___ factors in order to explain the sur- prising behavior. If we encounter someone's be- havior that clearly contradicts our ste- reotypes and we can't easily explain it away as due to some situational factor, we may unwittingly pull out another trick to preserve our stereotypes: We consider the action or the person a mere ___ to the rule. Some- times just being aware of stereotypes in one's culture is enough to cause these effects. Moreover, stereotypes can be activated without our ____. In a very influential line of research, Patricia Devine (1989) distinguished be- tween ___ processes in stereotyping. She argued that people have become highly aware of the content of many stereotypes through ____ from their culture.

Gordon Allport and Leo Postman razor screened self-fulfilling prophecies hurt confirm stereotypes situational exception awareness automatic and controlled socializa- tion

____ has played an important role in many of these changes. We also look to our ___ to get a sense of the local norms around us, including norms about stereotypes and prejudice Although they can create resistance and backlashes, laws and policies that require ___ change can—if done right, with no suggestion of compromis . Laura Barron and Mikki Hebl (2013), for example, recently found across a series of studies that laws that make employment discrimination against gays illegal (which many states in the United States do not currently have) do make a ____ difference in individuals' attitudes and behaviors. ____ (2011) has conducted some fascinating field studies show- ing the power of peer and cultural influences. In one study, students in several high schools were trained to be "peer ___" who would confront expressions of inter- group prejudice. These students not only engaged in more antiprejudice behaviors, but these behaviors ___ to their friends. Paluck (2009) also examined the role of the media in promoting positive norms in an unusual year-long field experiment in ____, which has been the site of ter- rible war, genocide, and intergroup con- flict, particularly between the Hutus and Tutsis. At the end of the year, those Rwandans who listened to the soap opera promoting positive ___ norms had significantly more positive feelings about intergroup cooperation, trust, and interaction Our ancestors did not encounter individuals of other "races" Hunter/gatherer societies Slow moving, mostly stayed in same area for many generations (several hundred km) Yet outsiders (mostly other tribes) still dangerous Disease Steal resources Kill men, take women Appearance-based signals of "outsiderness" used to identify danger, otherness, trigger own-group favoritism

Popular culture peers behavior significant and positive Elizabeth Levy Paluck leaders spread Rwanda intergroup

In fact, social psychologists today are studying a wider variety of types of stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination than ever. It is prob- ably no coincidence, for example, that as our population ages and people tend to live longer, more researchers are studying ____—prejudice and discrimina- tion targeting the elderly European American par- ticipants who thought the defendant was guilty were significantly more likely to recommend the death penalty if the defendant was described as having ___ education or money than if he was highly educated and had a good deal of money. some forms of these bi- ases appear to be considered more acceptable by many people. Among these are prejudice based on ____ Lisa Rosenthal and others (2015), for example, found that fifth and sixth grade children who experienced weight-based bullying were more likely to show ___ health outcomes two years later, even after statistically controlling for any physical and mental health differences that ex- isted at the beginning of the study. Even though the job-relevant skills and experiences were identical, the applicant with the experience in the gay campus organization was about 40% ___ likely to be invited for an interview than the other applicant. Social psychologists often refer to these targets as ___—individu- als who are targets of negative stereotypes, perceived as deviant, and devalued in society because they are members of a particular social group or because they have a particular characteristic in a study by Jennifer Crocker and her col- leagues (1991), black students who received negative interpersonal feedback from a white student suffered less of a blow to their self-esteem if they could easily attribute the white student's negative reaction to ___ than if they could not. On the other hand, the self-esteem of black students was actually reduced by positive feedback from a white student if they could suspect that this feedback may have been due to their __. Indeed, a recent meta-analysis by Michael Schmitt and others (2014) of hundreds of correlational and experimental studies involving nearly 150,000 participants supports this point, that perceiving that one has been discriminated against and that the discrimination is likely to be experienced frequently is associated with ___ effects on one's self-esteem, depression, anxiety, and life satisfaction. Even simply anticipating interacting with someone who one thinks is prejudiced can trigger cardiovascular ___ responses (Sawyer et al., 2012). It is understand- able, therefore, that when people who have a stigmatized status that they can ___ during an interaction with someone, such as a history of mental illness, they often prefer to do so, but even the act of hiding it during the interaction can itself be ___ and lead to negative effects and outcomes (

ageism little weight and based on sexuality. negative less stigmatized racism race negative stress hide stressful

Studies have shown, for example, that many individuals (even as young as 6 years old) automatically but nonconsciously associate black men, people of low socioeconomic status, and people from various countries with ___ such as apes, rats, and dogs Indeed, this ten- dency may be so deeply rooted that we can see it play out in the brain. Lasana Harris and others have found that when people perceive or think about members of particular stigmatized ____, their patterns of brain activity suggest that they are responding to these outgroup mem- bers more as they would to ___ than to fully human individuals who are capable of their own agency and mental states Consistent with this idea are the results of experiments that demonstrate that when people's basic motivations of self-protection are activated—people are more prone to exhibit ___ toward outgroups or to be especially ___ to see possible outgroup members as part of one's ingroup William Swann and Michael Buhrmester (2015) use the term ____ to describe the sense of "oneness" that people may feel with a group. In general, when we are feeling threatened or uncertain, we become especially motivated to ___ our identification and closeness with an ingroup, which can make us feel more safe and secure According to this perspective, favoring ingroups over outgroups is one important way that people preserve their ____ and, by doing so, try to attain a kind of ___. Male students in an experi- ment by Russell Webster and Donald Saucier (2011), for example, expressed significantly __ discrimination toward gay men if they had just written about what they thought would happen to them when they die than if they had writ- ten about the pain of going to the dentist. people with a ____ have a desire to see their ingroups as dominant over other groups and tend to support cultural values that contribute to the oppression of other groups. Research in numerous coun- tries throughout the world has found that ingroup identification and outgroup ____ can be especially strong among people with a social dominance orientation (

animals out- groups objects prejudice hesitant identity fusion reaffirm cultural worldviews immortality more social dominance orientation derogation and dehumanization

Samuel Gaertner and John Dovidio (1986; Hodson et al., 2010) proposed the related concept of ____, which concerns the ambivalence between individu- als' sincerely fair-minded attitudes and beliefs, on the one hand, and their largely unconscious and unrecognized prejudicial feelings and beliefs, on the other hand. In addition, some scholars today use the term ___ to characterize the everyday, typically subtle but hurtful forms of discrimination that are experienced quite frequently by members of targeted groups For example, several studies have found that white participants playing the role of jurors may be more likely to convict a ____ defendant for a crime when the evidence is rather ambiguous, and thus one can justify either a guilty or not-guilty verdict for reasons having nothing to do with race. If, on the other hand, race seems to be an important aspect of the case, then this bias may be ___ or even reversed That is, people establish their ____ of not being racist by demonstrating—to others or even to themselves—that they have good friends from the racial or ethnic group in question or they have behaved in ways that were quite fair to members of this group . Indeed, Anna Merritt and others (2012) found that people sometimes go out of their way to try to establish such ___, such as by rating an African American job candidate more positively, if they anticipate being in a situation later in which they might be judged as racist. . The teachers reported being more troubled, and recommended more severe discipline, after the ___ round of misbehavior if he apparently was black than white although these biases are often very difficult to see, they are present in abundance, across a multitude of settings, ranging from the everyday to the profound. Jennifer Eberhardt and others (2006) examined more than 600 death-penalty-eligible trials from Philadelphia and found that in cases involving a white victim and a black male defendant, the more the defendant's physical appearance was stereotypically black, the more likely he would be sentenced to ___. Jill Viglione and others (2011) found in a sample of more than 12,000 adult black women imprisoned in North Carolina that black women with lighter skin color received on average about ___ less prison time than black women with darker skin

aversive racism microaggression black than a white eliminated moral creden- tials credits second death 12%

As individuals experience such feelings of guilt repeatedly, they begin to develop ex- pertise at recognizing the situations and stimuli that tend to trigger these failures, and therefore they can exert more ___ over them. Just as people who are internally motivated to control prejudice tend to be- come more successful at self-regulation than people who are motivated for exter- nal reasons, antiprejudice messages that are designed to appeal more to people's ____ motivations may be more effective than messages that seem more exter- nally focused. To study this issue, Lisa Legault and others (2011) developed a pair of prejudice-reduction brochures. One of these brochures was designed to appeal to internal motivations. The researchers found that these stu- dents exhibited significantly ___ prejudice if they received the brochure that appealed to internal motivations to control prejudice than if they received no brochure. On the other hand, the students who received the brochure appealing to external factors exhibited significantly ____ prejudice than the students who received no brochure Being exposed to and thinking about examples of group members that are ___ with the ste- reotype (Columb & Plant, 2011). Learning about the ___ that exists among the people in a group (Brauer & Er-rafiy, 2011; Brauer et al., 2012). Being induced to take the perspective of a person from a ___ group (Maister et al., 2015; Peck et al., 2013; Todd et al., 2012 Being encouraged to pay attention to or confront instances of ___ (Becker & Swim, 2011; Dickter & Newton, 2013; Gulker et al., 2013). Believing that prejudice can be learned and unlearned and is therefore ___ rather than a fixed, unchanging reality (Carr et al., 2012; Neel & Shapiro, 2012). Learning that race is more ambiguous and ___ determined than simply a genetic, fixed category (Williams & Eberhardt, 2008). Taking multicultural views that recognize but also ___ group differences, that reveal new ways of thinking, and that acknowledge how different groups have in- fluenced each other throughout history, as opposed to pretending to not notice dis- tinctions between groups (Apfelbaum et al., 2008; Holoien & Shelton, 2012; Plaut et al., 2009; Rattan & Ambady, 2012; Rosenthal & Levy, 2013; Tadmor et al., 2012). Thinking of ___ as an approach that is inclusive of everyone, includ- ing the majority group (Plaut et al., 201 Exposure to images and individuals that reflect the ___ within social groups, for example, can help weaken stereotypes and com- bat their automatic activation.

control internal less more inconsistent variability stereotyped discrimination malleable socially value multiculturalism diversity

First, through a combination of biological and social factors, a ____ of labor between the sexes has emerged over time, both at home and in the work setting. Second, since people behave in ways that fit the roles they play, men are more likely than women to wield ___ power. Third, these behavioral differences provide a continuing basis for ____, lead- ing us to perceive men as dominant and women as domestic "by nature," when in fact the differences may reflect the roles they play. Studies have shown, for example, that female college students who had just watched a set of commercials in which the female characters were portrayed in ____ fashion tended to express lower self- confidence, less independence, and fewer career aspirations, and even performed more poorly on a ___ test, than did those who viewed stereotype-irrelevant or counter-stereotypical ads Indeed, graphic images of muscu- lar and lean male models have become increasingly prevalent of late. More and more cases come to light every year of boys and young men copying star athletes by taking __ and other drugs that can make them look more like their role models but that can seriously threaten their health Stereotypes of groups influence people's percep- tions and interpretations of the behaviors of group members. This is especially likely when a target of a stereotype behaves in an ___ way; perceivers reduce the ambiguity by interpreting the behavior as ___ with the stereotype Both the black and the white boys judged the behaviors as more mean and threatening if the behaviors were performed by ___ boys than if they were done by white boys, thereby seeming to confirm racial stereotypes Stereotypes can be reinforced also through the ___, a tendency for people to overestimate the link between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated

divi- sion physical, social, and economic social perception stereotypical math steroids ambiguous consistent black illusory correlation

Young children distinguish men from women well before their ___ birthday, often identify themselves and others as boys or girls by ___ years of age, form ___ beliefs and pref- erences about stories, toys, and other objects soon after that, and then use their stereotypes in judging others and favoring their own gender in intergroup situa- tions Gerianne Alexander (2003) proposed that children's preferences about sex- based toys, although partly due to gender socialization, also have ___ roots. Yet the parents of girls rated their babies as softer, smaller, and more finely featured. The fathers of boys saw their sons as stronger, larger, more alert, and better coordinated In another study, Emily Mond- schein and others (2000) found that mothers of 11-month-olds ___ their infants' crawling ability if they were girls but ___ it if they were boys. mothers of daughters were more likely to ___ the child about getting hurt, whereas mothers of sons were more likely to __ the child's risky playing. I mothers and fathers were more likely to react to a toddler's risk-taking behavior with anger and a focus on discipline if it was a ___, and with safety and the sense that the child could learn not to engage in such behavior if it was a ___. According to Alice Eagly's (Eagly & Wood, 2012; Koenig & Eagly, 2014) social role theory, although the perception of sex differences may be based on some real differences, it is magnified by the ____ social roles men and women occupy.

first 3 gender-stereotypic neurobiological and evolutionary underestimated overestimated caution encourage boy girl unequal

The second key point is that in each of the cases described in the previous several paragraphs, it would be ___ to be sure that racism was behind any one person's specific behavior. Schol- ars call racism that operates unconsciously and unintentionally ___. By far the most well known of these measures is the Implicit Association Test (IAT), first developed and tested by ___ and others (1998). If someone is consistently slower identifying something good after seeing a black face than a white face, for example, this would indicate a degree of _____. Implicit racial bias as measured by the IAT has been found between groups around the world and even among children as young as____ years old levels of implicit racism as measured by the IAT remain ___ across children and adults. higher implicit racism by white participants in several studies predicted negative, unfriendly ___ behaviors in interracial interactions, Janice Sabin and Anthony Greenwald (2012) found that doctors with stronger pro-white bias on the IAT were more likely to recommend prescribing pain-relieving medication after surgery for white patients, and ___ likely to do so for black patients, compared to physicians with less of a pro-white IAT score. This, in turn, can affect their partner's perceptions of them, possibly leading to the ironic outcome of well-intentioned individuals appearing to be racist precisely because they were ____ not to be. Because of these concerns, engaging in interracial interactions can be so stressful as to leave the individuals _____, less able immediately after the interaction to complete mental tasks (

impossible implicit racism Anthony Greenwald implicit racism 3 and 4 consistent nonverbal less trying cognitively exhausted

Collectivists do show some biases favoring their ___—indeed, being oriented strongly toward one's in- group can be highly valued in their cultures—and may draw ___ distinctions between ingroup and outgroup members than individualists do Along these lines, in a study of nearly 45,000 individuals from 36 countries André van Hoorn (2015) found that collectivists tend to have a narrower circle of people they ___ than do individualists. a number of researchers have found that people from collectivist cultures are less likely to ___ their ingroups in order to boost their own self-esteem East Asianers are more likely to see their ingroups as having both ___ qualities compared to Westerners, who tend to emphasize the positive aspects of their ingroups much more exclusively ___ refers to the processes by which people learn the norms, rules, and information of a culture or group. We learn a tremendous amount of informa- tion (often without even realizing it) by absorbing what we see around us in our culture, groups, and families. These lessons include what various stereotypes are, how valued or devalued various groups are, and which prejudices are acceptable to have. the stereotypes and prejudices of a parent can ___ the stereotypes and prejudices of a child, often in implicit ways (Castelli et al., 2009). More generally, and more pervasively, the stereo- types and prejudices exhibited by peers, the popular media, and one's culture are part of the air each of us breathes as we develop, and these influences can be ___. White students who were exposed to a fellow white student's negative nonverbal behavior to- ward a black student became more likely to exhibit a variety of ___ ra- cial attitudes and behaviors than if they saw the ___ behavior targeting a white student or if they saw positive ___ behavior toward a black student.

ingroups sharper trust enhance positive and negative Socialization shape profound negative same nonverbal

One of the challenges is that trying to suppress stereotyping or to control prejudiced actions can take ___, and people often don't have the time, energy, or awareness to dedicate to this effort older people have a harder time suppressing stereotypes than younger people, which may explain in part why older people often appear more ___ than younger people (von Hippel & Henry, 2011). Some research suggests that being ___ in blood sugar, such as from being hun- gry, can weaken people's ability to control stereotyping and prejudice, and that a sugar-heavy drink can correct this problem What is more clear is that being ___ makes people have a difficult time suppressing thoughts or inhibiting impulses Galen Bodenhausen (1990) ran an experiment with two types of people: "morning people" (who are most alert early in the morning) and "night people" (who peak much later, in the evening). Morning people were more likely to use stereotypes when tested at ___; night owls were more likely to do so early in the ____. More recently, Sonia Ghumman and Chris- topher Barnes (2013) found that the more ____ the stu- dents in their study were, the more stereotyping and preju- dice they exhibited. Through noninvasive methods they stimulated a part of the brain (the medial prefrontal cortex) that is thought to be associated with ____ control. One kind is ____ driven—not wanting to appear to others to be prejudiced. A second type is ___ driven—not wanting to be prejudiced, regardless of whether or not others would find out (Dunton & Fazio, 1997; Plant & Devine, 1998, 2009). According to the self-regulation of prejudiced responses model proposed by Margo Monteith and others (2002; Monteith & Mark, 2009), internally motivated individuals in particular may learn to control their prejudices more ____ over time.

mental effort prejudiced low intoxicated night morning sleepy cognitive externally inter- nally effectively

According to Jacquie Vorauer (2003; Vorauer & Sasaki, 2014), in- dividuals engaging in intergroup interactions often activate ____, or thoughts about the outgroup's stereotypes about them, and worry about being seen as consistent with these stereotypes. In- deed, this kind of concern about interracial interactions can lead to ___ cardiovascular reactions associated with feelings of threat Ashby Plant and David Butz (2006), for example, found that when nonblack participants with this avoidant concern interacted with a black confederate, they had ___ pleasant interac- tions. Philip Goff, Claude Steele, and Paul Davies (2008) found that white male students sat ___ away from black students than white students in an interaction—but only if they thought they would be engaged in a conversation about a ___ sensitive topic. participants were significantly less likely to ask about the race of the person in the photograph when playing the game with a ____ confederate than a white confederate, even though this hurt their ability to win the game. The result of this was that in the race-relevant version of the game, the younger children significantly ____ the older children! A ___ approach that acknowledges and positively values racial and ethnic differences is often more effective in promoting better intergroup attitudes and behaviors (Plaut et al., 2015; Rattan & Ambady, 2013). Lisa Rosenthal and Sheri Levy (2013) similarly find that thinking in a more ___ way—that is, focusing on the ways that racial and ethnic groups have interacted and influenced each other's cultures throughout history—can be very effective in promoting positive intergroup relations. Gender stereotypes are distinct from virtually all other stereotypes in that they often are ___ rather than merely descriptive. In other words, they indicate what many people in a given culture believe men and women should be like, not merely what people think they actually are like.

metaste- reotypes unhealthy shorter and less farther racially black outper- formed multicultural polycultural prescriptive

Minimal Group Paradigm the experimenter told the participants that some people are chronic "overestimators" and that others are "underestimators." As part of a sec- ond, entirely separate task, participants were divided into two groups—one that was said to consist of overestimators and the other of underestimators. This procedure was designed to create ___ groups in which people are categorized on the basis of trivial, minimally important similarities. Still, participants con- sistently allocated more points to members of their own group than to members of the other group. This pattern of discrimination, called ____, has been found repeatedly in studies in many countries and using a variety of different measures Tajfel (1982) and John Turner (1987) pro- posed ___. (1) a ___ identity and (2) various ___identities that are based on the groups to which we belong. In other words, people can boost their ____ through their own personal achievements or through affiliation with successful groups. ____ is an intimidating-looking word for a familiar feeling—the ex- perience of pleasure at other people's misfortunes, particularly for celebrities or others we don't feel empathy for. Mina Cikara (2015; Cikara et al., 2014) has found that people who identify strongly with their social groups frequently experience this ___ toward outgroup misfortunes, along with a lack of empathy. (1) ___ to one's self-esteem heighten the need for ingroup favoritism, and (2) expressions of ingroup favoritism ___ one's self-esteem. First, among participants whose self-esteem had been lowered by negative feedback, they rated the woman more ___ if she seemed to be Jewish than if she did not, even though the videotaped job interview and credentials of the two women were the same. Second, participants who had received negative feedback and were given an opportunity to belittle the Jewish woman later exhibited a post-experiment __ in self-esteem—the more negatively they evaluated the Jewish woman, the better these participants felt about themselves. Anthony Greenwald and Thomas Pettigrew (2014) propose that this is the more common type of intergroup bias, at least in the ____ today. Malice toward outgroups tends to be frowned upon, whereas providing important ___ to one's ingroups may be more subtle and acceptable.

minimal ingroup favoritism social identity theory personal collective or social self-esteem Shadenfreude pleasure Threats enhance negatively increase United States advantages

To demonstrate this point Devine exposed white participants in one study to subliminal presentations on a computer monitor. Those who were subliminally primed with many of these words activated the African American stereotype and saw another person's behavior in a more ___, hostile light. Especially note- worthy is the fact that these effects occurred even among participants who did not ___ believe in the stereotypes in question. some stereotypes are much more prevalent than others in a particular culture, and with more exposure to a stereotype comes a greater likelihood of ___ activation. Another factor is how ___ the perceiver is. ___ can also play an important role. For example, when people's self- esteem is threatened, they may become motivated to stereotype others so that they will feel ___ about themselves, and this can make them more likely to activate stereotypes ___ ( People who are motivated for ___ reasons (that is, they really don't want to be prejudiced, rather than just not wanting to be seen by others as prejudiced) tend to be somewhat more successful at this kind of self-regulation. The pictures were presented for fractions of a second. Payne found that the participants were more likely to mistake a harmless object for a ___ if it was preceded by a black face than if the object was preceded by a white face. I ___ and others (2002) designed a video game for their experiment in which they had participants decide whether or not to "shoot" a target person who appeared on their computer screen. If the target held a gun, they were ____ to press the "shoot" key if he was black than if he was white. If the target held a harmless object, they took ___ to press the "don't shoot" key if he was black than if he was white. In ad- dition, participants were more likely to ___ "shoot" an unarmed target if he was black than if he was white. Debbie Ma and Joshua Correll (2011) found that this racial bias in decisions to shoot was significantly stronger if the targets looked more ___ of their respective races (as rated by samples of participants) than if they did not. Taken together the results of these studies suggest that when the decision must be made very ___, members of some groups are more likely to be mis- takenly perceived as holding a gun than members of other groups.

negative consciously automatic prejudiced Motivation better automatically intrinsic weapon Joshua Correll quicker longer mistakenly stereotypic quickly

Blake Riek and others (2010) put Democrats and Republicans together into two-person groups. When their different political party memberships were highlighted, the participants rated the other group more ___. When their shared identity as Americans was highlighted, however, such as by having them wear shirts with the American flag printed on the front and calling their group the America Group, their intergroup ratings were significantly more ___. A group with smaller numbers or less power may feel overwhelmed and a sense of lost ___ if they merge completely with a larger or more power-ful group. Instead, members of these groups sometimes prefer their specific group is preserved but in which they recognize their connection and potential for ___ with the majority or more powerful group A theme running through many of the successful in- terventions against stereotype threat effects is that the individuals feel a sense of ___ in the situation. These negative reactions to the criticism were eliminated, how- ever, if the reviewer who gave the criticism added two ele- ments: (1) he made it clear that he had ____ standards, and (2) he assured the students that he was ___ that they had the capacity to achieve those standards. In addition to causing distrust, one of the most powerful ways in which stereo- type threat undermines students is that it reduces their sense of ___. For example, Walton and Cohen (2011) gave some first-semester African American students at a predominately European American college infor- mation designed to reduce feelings of uncertainty about their sense of ___ at the university. Nilanjana Dasgupta and others (2015) also conducted a recent study with female engineers. The results indicated that women who were in the majority were more motivated and in- terested in the group ___, demonstrated more ___, and gave more helpful ___ than women who were in the minority or even women who were in groups with equal numbers of males and females (

negatively positive identity cooperation trust and safety high confident belonging belonging task con- fidence input

More generally, there has been a surge of research findings in recent years concerning how stigmatized targets are at increased risk for serious and long-term ___ problems Steele (1997) called this predicament stereotype threat, for it hangs like "a threat in the ___" when the individual is in the stereotype-relevant situation. Steele and his colleagues (2002) later broadened the scope of their analysis to include social identity threats more generally. These threats are not necessarily tied to specific stereotypes but instead reflect a more general devaluing of a person's ____ First, reactions to the "threat in the air" can directly interfere with ___—for example, by increasing anxiety and triggering distracting thoughts. Second, if this stereotype threat is chronic in the academic domain, it can cause individuals to ___ from that domain—to dismiss the domain as no longer relevant to their self-esteem and identity. Thus, a seemingly minor change in the setting—a few words about the meaning of a test—had a pow- erful effect on the black students' performance. In a second study, the researchers used an even more subtle manipulation of stereotype threat: whether or not the students were asked to report their race just before tak- ing the test. Making them think about race for a few seconds just before taking the test impaired the ____ of black students but had no effect on white students. As Steele's theory predicted, women performed worse than men when they were told that the test typically produced gender ___, but they performed as well as men when they were told that the test typically did not produce gender differences. When the experimenters characterized the game as diagnostic of "natural ___ ability," the white students did worse. But when they characterized it as diagnostic of "sports ___," the black students did worse. Just knowing about the stereotype seems to be enough, particularly if the individual identifies strongly with the targeted ___ and cares about performing well.

physical and psychological air social group. performance disidentify per- formance differences athletic intelligence group

A recent meta-analysis by Kristin Davies and others (2011) on 135 studies supports the idea that cross-group friend- ships are associated with more ___ attitudes and behaviors toward outgroup members. a longitudinal study of dating in college by Shana Levin and others (2007) revealed that white, Asian American, and Latino students who dated ___ their group more during college showed less ____ and intergroup ___ at the end of college than students who did not date outside their own racial group. A number of studies have found evidence for what is known as the___, or the indirect contact effect—knowing that an ingroup friend has a good and close relationship with a member of an out- group can produce positive intergroup benefits in ways similar to direct contact. Elliot Aronson and his colleagues (1978) developed a cooperative learning method called the ___. In this system, everyone—regardless of race, ability, or self-confidence—needs everyone else if the group as a whole is to ___. Compared with children in traditional classes, those in jigsaw classrooms grew to like each other more, liked school more, were less prejudiced, and had higher self-esteem. One important consequence of the jigsaw classroom technique is that individuals became more likely to classify outgroup members as part of their own __. The ___ developed by Samuel Gaertner and John Dovidio (2010; 2012) proposes that if members of different groups recategorize themselves as members of a more inclusive superordinate group, intergroup at- titudes and relations can improve. (

positive outside ingroup bias anxiety extended contact effect jigsaw classroom succeed ingroup Common Ingroup Identity Model

one way to define ____ is as preju- dice and discrimination based on a person's racial background. . For example, institutions may unwittingly perpetuate racism by tending to accept or hire individuals ___ to the people who already are in the institution, and popular culture may signal what kinds of people are ___ valued. . Similarly, ___ may be defined as preju- dice and discrimination based on a person's gender or as institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one gender (typically men) over another (typically women). For the purposes of this chapter, we define ___ as beliefs or asso- ciations that link whole groups of people with certain traits or characteristics. ____ consists of negative feelings about others because of their connec- tion to a social group. Whereas stereotypes concern associations or beliefs and prejudice concerns feelings, discrimination concerns behaviors—specifically, negative ____ directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group. Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination can operate some- what independently, but they often ___ each other. In multiple follow- up surveys with demographically similar samples of white students conducted from 1951 through 2001, these negative images of blacks largely faded and were replaced by more ___ images . Similarly, public opin- ion polls have indicated that racial prejudice in the United States has ___ sharply since World War II. ____, a subtle form of prejudice that tends to surface when it is safe, socially acceptable, or easy to rationalize.

racism similar or connected most and least sexism stereotypes Prejudice behaviors influence and reinforce favorable dropped modern racism

the police may not be trained to avoid activating racial stereotypes, and given the prevalence and power of these stereotypes in our society, there is good reason to suspect that they would be influenced by them in ___ decisions. In some of this research, police officers have shown a similar bias to mistakenly "shoot" a black than white target, and in some they have shown little or no racial bias in the decision to shoot. Even in the studies in which the officers' decisions were not as racially biased, however, racial bas was evident in the officers' __ times, indicating that they were quicker to decide to shoot armed black than white targets and slower to decide to not shoot unarmed black than white targets In addition, several studies have also found that for both civilians and police officers, ___ designed specifically to curtail these biases can be effec- tive, at least to some degree. In addition, even though police officers are able to avoid these biases under testing conditions, when officers must make these decisions under conditions of fatigue, high stress, and distraction—the conditions officers often face when having to make real shoot-or-not decisions—their ability to overcome stereotype-based biases are ___, thus increasing the likelihood of the mistakes seen in the tragic incidents that sparked all this research. For example, Correll and oth- ers (2002) found that the the racial bias in the decision to shoot was not related to participants' levels of racial prejudice. In addition, these researchers also found that African American participants showed the ____ against black targets as white participants did, again sug- gesting that racial prejudice is not necessarily reflected in this bias. Correll and others (2007a) found that by manipulating the ____ of stereotypes that associate blacks with dan- ger in perceivers' minds (such as by having them first read newspaper articles about black or white criminals), they could strengthen or weaken this bias. the ____, which states that under certain conditions, direct contact between members of rival groups will reduce intergroup prejudice. A Then, as the dust began to settle, research brought the grave realization that contact between black and white schoolchildren was not having the intended effect on intergroup attitudes. These researchers propose that contact reduces prejudice by (1) enhancing ___ about the outgroup; (2) reducing ___ about intergroup contact; and (3) increasing ___ and perspective taking. Another potential cause for optimism, although perhaps tinged with some regret, is the finding by Nicole Shelton and Jennifer Richeson (2005) that both whites and blacks would like to have more contact with each other but believe that the other group does ___ want to have contact with them!

split-second re- sponse training compromised same bias accessibility contact hypothesis knowledge anxiety empathy not

___, which proposes that people are motivated (at least in part) to defend and justify the existing social, political, and economic conditions. Sys- tem-justifying beliefs protect the ___. members of disadvantaged groups with a system justification orientation think that the system is fair and just, and they may admire and even show outgroup favoritism to outgroups that ___ in this system. According to the stereotype ___ model (Kervyn et al., 2015; North & Fiske, 2014), many group stereotypes vary along two dimensions: ___ The stereotype content model proposes that stereotypes about the com- petence of a group are influenced by the relative ___ of that group in society—higher relative status is associated with higher ___. Stereo- types about the warmth of a group are influenced by perceived ____ with the group—greater perceived competition is associated with lower warmth. Robber's Cave (Sherif) Parents had given permission for their sons to take part in an experiment for a study of com- petitiveness and cooperation. Almost overnight, the groups turned into hostile ___, and their rivalry escalated into a full-scale war. Keep in mind that the participants in this study were ____ boys. What did eventually work was the introduction of ____ goals, mutual goals that could be achieved only through coop- eration between the groups. Theviewthatdirectcompetitionforvaluablebutlim- ited resources breeds hostility between groups is called ___ For example, Marcel Coenders and others (2008) found that support for discrimination against ethnic minority groups tended to increase in the Netherlands when the unemployment level had re- cently ___. David Butz and Kuma Yogeeswaran (2011) found that students in the United States indicated more prejudice against Asian Americans if they had just read information about serious economic ___ and growing competi- tion for ___ resources. "Realistic" com- petition for resources may in fact be ____—a perception in the mind of an individual who is not engaged in any real conflict. In addition, people may become ___ of other groups not because of their conviction that their own security or resources are threatened by these groups but because of their sense of ____ the belief that they fare poorly compared with others.

system justification theory status quo thrive content warmth and competence. status competence competition antagonists well-adjusted superordinate realistic conflict theory risen problems scarce imagined resentful relative deprivation,