PSYC 301 Quiz 3

What happens if we present the words at slower rate (9s per items vs 3s for fast rate) - Slowing down allows for more rehearsal of all items - Which items will this impact?

% of words recalled is better for slow presentation for primary affected words (word in the beginning of the list bc more practice time) recency effect is not changed so WM is not affected by presentation slowdown

Cause of Memory Errors - Summary

*Connections* - Intrusion errors based on *inference* (Nancy arrived at cocktail party) - Intrusion errors based on *associations* (E.g. sleep words) - *Suggestion* based errors (video of plane crash and princess Diana death) *Schema based errors*

Positivity includes both seeing yourself in a better light and also retaining more positive memories

(If you think back to the trip you took, you will likely remember the fun and pleasurable parts but won't really remember the negative annoying things such as how long the bus trip was or how boring it was to sit in the airport during flight delay) Sometime we wonder though if self-serving is true memory effect or it is a result of selection (purposely/consciously filtering our memories)

Cause of Memory Errors

*1. Connections* (inference [Nancy themed story], association [DRM study sleep], connections [summer beach family trip]) *2. Schema based errors* We talked about intrusion errors based on: - *inference* (information about the event that we learned outside of the specific memory can creep into it) - *associations* (DRM) - *suggestions* (footage of a plane crash is misremembered because major news events are generally learned about through such footage on television) 1st theory we looked at that may explain errors is based on the *network view of memory* (connections between similar events) Now we are going to look at Schemas Theory

Mnemonic Training Reshapes Brain Networks Dresler et al., 2017, Neuron RESULTS

- 6 weeks training resulted in previously naïve controls performing similarly in recall task as athletes - Functional Connectivity changes induced by 6 weeks of mnemonic training were correlated with the network organization that distinguishes athletes from controls - The similarity of Functional Connectivity changes to athletes/control difference predicted behavioral performance - Memory performance improvements were sustained after 4 month

Implicit memories can exist without explicit memory

- Amnesic patients - Procedural memory - Preferring a musical melody that they had been exposed to before - Priming effect

CognitiveFX test battery - Verbal Memory Test

- Analyzes short-term verbal memory - For each test run, the subject views a series of 8 common words for 1s each and is instructed to silently memorize the words as they appear - Subjects are given 12 additional seconds after all words have been presented to recall as many as possible

CognitiveFX test battery - functional Picture Naming Test

- Assesses semantic object recognition - displays line drawings of common objects for a period of 1.5 seconds each - Subjects are instructed to silently identify each object upon presentation - Based on Boston Picture Naming test used to assess problems with object recognition

Primacy effect

- Better memory for first few items relative to middle items - LTM - Memory rehearsal - As the list progresses, attention is divided across more items and less is devoted to each individual item - Words later in the list are rehearsed less than earlier items - Rehearsal increases the chance there will be a transfer of items from working memory to LTM - Earlier items were rehearsed more, so there is a greater chance of transfer

Recency effect

- Better memory for the last few items - Last few items are not displaced by future items in WM - Last few items in the list are still held in working memory - Earlier items are displaced by subsequent items

Regularization via schemas

- Books are remembered in an office - Footage of a plane crash is remembered Books are misremembered as having been in an office because they are part of our schematic knowledge of offices Footage of a plane crash is misremembered because major news events are generally learned about through such footage on television

What is functional connectivity

- Correlation between activation patterns - Identifies areas of neurons that have high synchronization (similar firing patterns) - Each voxel has a time course (level of activation at any time during scan) - Functional Connectivity is measured by correlation of time courses

Method of Loci - Memory Palace

- Create and memorize loci route - Mental walk through a familiar place, in order (e.g. Imagine your house, start with front door...) - You need to have enough 'stops'/locations to fit all items on your list Associate each item from the list with a location on the route - Imagine the item there - Make sure to visualize During recall mentally walk through your route, the items placed there should come to memory when you get to stops/locations

The manipulation of working memory should affect the recall of recency items but not items presented earlier in the list

- Delaying recall with a different task displaces content in working memory - Early items should not be affected because LTM does not depend on the current activity

The Role of Meaning and Memory Connections

- Depth of processing effects are strong - Intention to learn has little or no effect - Intention to learn can lead you to choose a better strategy relying on deeper processing

Why are memory connections important?

- Depth of processing promotes recall by facilitating later retrieval - Consider learning as a way to establish indexing, which consists of a path to the information - Connections between to-be-remembered items, memories, and contexts facilitates retrieval

Kloft et al, 2020

- Double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled study - Examined acute and delayed effects on susceptibility to false memory - Memory was tested immediately (under influence) and 1 week later (sober) - Used DRM method and misinformation method - Used virtual reality (VR) as a way to test the misinformation effect in subjects acting as eyewitnesses and perpetrators RESULTS - DRM - Immediate - Cannabis-intoxicated individuals had higher false-memory rates compared to the placebo condition at immediate test RESULTS - DRM - Delayed - Cannabis-intoxicated individuals had higher false-memory rates compared to the placebo condition after delay

Kloft et al, 2020 - summary

- Examined the effects of cannabis on the susceptibility to spontaneous and suggestion-based false memories and generally found more false memories in intoxicated participants - Most pronounced in the immediate condition while people were still acutely intoxicated - Lower recall during DRM follow up for correct words and related false words could be reflective of THC-induced encoding impairments, where impaired processing during the study phase could result in decreased memory for studied words, thereby also reducing memory for similar, easily confusable items

Memory without awareness examples

- H.M. received brain surgery to control epilepsy - Lost the ability to form new explicit memories - Korsakoff's syndrome patients are also profoundly amnesic - H.M. and Korsakoff's patients have "unconscious" memories that can be tested indirectly • Example 1: procedural memories => playing golf • Example 2: performing the mirror-drawing task similar to controls Clive Wearing kept his ability to play music - this is called procedural memory - You saw during the video that he played beautifully but was not aware that he did a few minutes after he finished. So also his explicit memory was destroyed but he was able to keep his procedural memory. Another example comes from HM who learned to play golf after the surgery Korsakoff --> B1 deficiency usually due to severe and chronic alcoholism, very cognitively debilitating disorder that includes profound amnesia - We can reveal these unconscious memories if we test Korsakoff's patients indirectly. Thus, if we ask them, "Which of these melodies did you hear an hour ago?" they will answer randomly—confirming their amnesia. But if we ask them, "Which of these melodies do you prefer?" they're likely to choose the ones that, in fact, they heard an hour ago—indicating that they do somehow remember (and are influenced by) the earlier experience

Intrusion Errors Based on *Inference* Owens, Bower, & Black, 1979 had participants read a story

- In the base condition participants only read the passage - In the theme condition, participants read the same passage, but they also read this paragraph as a prologue beforehand - Afterwards participants were given a recall test - to repeat as much of the story as they could - In the theme condition, a brief prologue set the theme for the passage that was to be remembered Theme condition: Better memory, more intrusions Neutral condition: Worse memory, fewer intrusions

Different Forms of Memory Testing - Recall

- Individual generates the memory after being given a broad cue identifying the information sought - Example: "What was the name of the restaurant that we went to?" - Requires memory search - Depends heavily on memory connections - The participant must generate the studied items, often in response to a contextual cue. For example, "What was the name of the restaurant that we went to?" - Recall requires a search through memory and depends heavily on whether retrieval paths are available

Different Forms of Memory Testing - Recognition

- Information is presented, and the individual must decide if it is the sought-after information. - Example: "Is this the name of the restaurant?" - Recognition task rely on source memory - Source memory refers to recalling the source of learned information, such as knowledge of when or where something was learned - In the absence of source memory, it may be substituted by feelings of familiarity - "This feels familiar, so I must be it" - Remembering and Familiarity are quite different concepts

CognitiveFX test battery - Face Memory Test

- Investigates long-term memory - Subjects are instructed to memorize colored photographs of unfamiliar faces and informed that they will be required to identify some of the faces at a later time - 20 faces are presented twice in random order for 3s each during scanning - Recognition accuracy is recorded on a post-scan test

Working memory (WM) is a dynamic form of short-term storage

- Less like a storage place, more like a status/system - Currently activated ideas or thoughts that are being worked on

CognitiveFX test battery - Verbal Fluency Test

- Letter-based fluency test - Subject is instructed to silently generate as many unique words as possible (excluding proper names or variants of the same word) within a 20-second time limit using a given 1st letter

Memory without Awareness - Repetition priming

- Lexical decision task to test repetition priming effects - Read through a list of words checking for spelling errors - Indicate if string is a word - Some words are from the list and some are not - Lexical decisions are faster if the word has been recently seen even if participants have no recollection of the first exposure (tested by recognition test) To examine repetition priming effect of implicit memory participants were 1st ask to read a list of words checking for spelling errors with no indication that they will need to remember them later. Then they were asked to indicate if string (a pair of words?) is a word but some words are from the list and some are not There will be a faster lexical decision upon the second presentation even if the person is not aware of it. After delay participants no longer have conscious memory of the words and perform at random on recognition task but they are still faster in lexical decision task Repetition priming can be seen with word-stem completion tasks - Read through a list of words checking for spelling errors - Participants are given a string of letters and are asked to produce a word beginning with this string For example, "CLA-" evokes responses such as "clam," "class," or "clatter" - Words from the list they read are more likely to be used in this task without conscious memory of seeing them • If participants have encountered one of these words recently, they are more likely to provide it as a response in this task, even if they do not consciously remember seeing that word before

implications of "Illusion of Truth" and other errors

- Marketing: Implicit memory guides our choices during shopping - Politics: 'Is Mayor Wilson a crook?' 'Known criminal claims Mayor Wilson is a crook'

Encoding specificity refers to remembering both the materials to be learned and the context of those materials

- Materials are better recognized as familiar later if they appear in, or are cued by, a similar context - Barclay et al., 1974 - "The man _LIFTED_ the piano." - "The man _TUNED_ the piano." - Which cue will be helpful on recall? - 'something heavy' or 'nice sound' - We can think of semantic context as a container Encoding specificity refers to the tendency, when memorizing, to place in memory both the materials to be learned and the context of those materials - As a result, materials will be recognized as familiar later on only if they appear again in a similar context - Read and remember target worlds (all caps) in sentences - During recall exercise, participants did better when given a cue matching the context

CognitiveFX test battery - functional Trail Making Test

- Measures cognitive flexibility and working memory - Presents a virtual connect-the-dots tasks using a button pad response system (video) - Randomly arranged numbers and letters are displayed on a screen and the subject must locate and connect each series of numbers and letters in ascending order while alternating back and forth between the two character types

The Network Model of Memory

- Memory can be thought of as a vast network of ideas - Ideas represented as nodes connected to each other via associations or associative links

Spreading Activation

- Memory network is biologically inspired (based on neurons and action potentials) - Spreading activation travels from one activated node to another in a network via the associative links - A node's activation level increases with increasing input from neighboring nodes - Subthreshold activation can accumulate - The node fires if the response threshold is reached - Activates neighboring nodes - Draws attention to firing node

Component processes view of WM (Eriksson et al., 2015)

- No processes (and correspondingly no brain structures) are unique or specific to WM - WM results from various combinations of processes that in other constellations can be functionally described in other terms than working memory (Cowan, 2001; D'Esposito and Postle, 2014; Fuster, 2009; Jonides et al., 2008) - WM is a particular state of a representation (temporarily enhanced accessibility) regardless of the kind of representation

Enhanced Performance in Cognition - EPIC

- Originally thought it will take 3-6 months - After many patient trials they develop 1 week program that is occasionally extended to 2 weeks in complicated cases like Riley's - Started treating patients in 2017 - Treated over 1000 patients

Learning as Preparation for Retrieval

- There are different ways to retrieve information from memory - Learning connects new material with existing memory - These retrieval paths help us learn new material - To locate information we need to travel from one memory to next until you reach the target - Starting point is crucial for successful retrieval - When we learn, we make connections between the newly acquired material and representations already in memory - These connections serve as retrieval paths when we need to remember the new material - Starting point is critical (JFK vs EWR Penn-station)

False Fame study by Jacoby et al. (1989) How the Implicit Memories get us astray

- Participants asked to pronounce a list of names - Later, shown a list of famous names and fictitious names - Half of the made-up, non-famous names had been seen earlier, and half were brand new - Participants asked to rate the fame of each person - When list with famous names presented 24 hours after first list, participants likely to rate made-up names as those of real famous people - Vague sense of familiarity about the names - Misattribution Participants were first asked to read aloud a list of fictitious names. 24 hours later, they were asked to rate another list of names in terms of how famous each person was. The list included real famous people, as well as fictitious names that had been read earlier. In some conditions, participants rated the fictitious names as famous. The familiarity of those names was misattributed

Can There Be Explicit Memory without Implicit? Bechara et al, 1995

- Patient with Hippocampus damage and intact Amygdala - Patient with Amygdala damage and intact Hippocampus - Patient with damage in both - Healthy matched controls Classical Conditioning - very loud (abrasive) boat horn sound (unconditioned stimulus) - Visual: Blue light followed by unconditioned stimulus, other colors (Y, G, R) no sound - Auditory 1 neutral sound followed by unconditioned stimulus, other sounds no - Measured bodily arousal by skin conductance response - Asked which stimulus was followed by horn Hippocampus damage disrupted the ability to report explicitly which light was associated with the horn, but this patient still demonstrated an implicit fear response to the blue light Amygdala damage disrupted the implicit fear response to the blue light, but this patient could still report explicitly which light was associated with the horn

Riley's Treatment Explained - Diagnosis

- Patients with post concussion syndrome perform the test battery in the fMRI scanner - Their results are then compared with normative maps to asses the deficits - This assessment allow us to create custom treatment protocol

John Jerome White story - the identification

- Police created a composite sketch of the attacker from the victim's description - a GBI agent who was investigating White on another charge thought he resembled the sketch - White was arrested on September 21, 1979 - A week later (six weeks after the crime) the victim picked White out of a photo array, saying she was "almost positive" he was the attacker - She later picked him out of a live lineup - White was the only person in both the photo lineup and live lineup

Explicit memory

- Revealed by direct memory testing, such as recall or a standard recognition test - Accompanied by the conviction that one is remembering a specific prior episode - Conscious awareness

Implicit memory

- Revealed by indirect memory testing, such as a priming task - No realization that one is being influenced by past experiences - Unconscious awareness

Familiarity and Source Memory STUDY

- Source memory and familiarity are also distinguishable neuroanatomically - The "remember/know" distinction • Participants were asked to judge whether a particular item was encountered ("remember") or if they had a feeling of familiarity ("know") Subjects were scanned while they encoded a list of visually presented words. Half of the words were presented in red and half were presented in green. In a post-scan memory test, subjects were shown a series of studied and novel words and asked to indicate on a 1-6 scale how confident they were that the item was on original list and to indicate whether the item was studied in red or green. The use of the color was to identify whether they had the source memory which in this case would be remembering seeing the word on the screen and thus knowing the color. Participants are asked to make "remember/know" decisions, pressing one button if they recall the episode of encountering a particular item ("remember") and another if they have a feeling of familiarity ("know") They then identify the neural signature of the recognition and the source memory by finding the brain area with activation In this study, researchers tracked participants' brain activity during encoding and then analyzed the data according to what happened later, when the time came for retrieval Activation in the rhinal cortex during encoding predicts later feelings of familiarity and a "know" response Activation in the hippocampus during encoding predicts later source memory and a "remember" response

Can training improve WM?

- Studies show that working memory can be improved by certain training programs - Training is associated with cortical and subcortical activation changes as measured with fMRI (Dahlin et al., 2009; Klingberg, 2010) - PET-based studies of the dopamine D1 and D2 systems have observed training-related changes in cortical D1 receptors (McNab et al., 2009) and in striatal D2 binding (B) (Bäckman et al., 2011)

Maintenance rehearsal

- Thinking about the material in a mechanical way - Repeated exposure does not guarantee memory (do you remember specific orientation of Apple logo?)

CognitiveFX test battery - Matrix Reasoning Test

- Visual processing task - Non-verbal problem solving using a 3x3 array of visually complex figures with one figure missing - Subject is then instructed to select the best match for the missing figure from among four "candidate" figures by pressing a designated button

Contemporary View of Working memory

- WM is a set of basic processes that maintain information in an easily accessible state for brief periods of time by interactions with long-term memory representations - Attention is a cornerstone of WM processes (e.g., Baddeley and Hitch, 1974; Cowan, 1995; see Kastner and Ungerleider, 2000; Petersen and Posner, 2012) - Selective attention process operates on perceptual information and related LTM representations

John Jerome White story - the conviction

- White was convicted and sentenced to life in prison 1980 - He was released on parole in 1990 - He went back to prison soon after for another crime to finish original sentence - In 2007 DNA of James Parham matched the rape kit of 1979 crime - Parham pled guilty and was sentenced to 20y - White was released and exonerated - James Parham was in the original live lineup BUT NOT the photo array

Iconic Memory - Sperling, 1960

...

Sensory Memory

...

Why memories may weaken

1. Decay theory of forgetting—memories may fade or erode over time 2. Interference—newer learning may disrupt older memories - Confusable connections in memory network 3. Retrieval failure—memory is intact but cannot be accessed - Can be partial (the tip-of-the-tongue effect) There is some truth to all three hypotheses

Problems with file storage analogy

1. New learning is grounded in previously learned (stored) knowledge - Thus, acquisition and storage are interconnected 2. Effective learning depends on how the information will later be retrieved - Thus, acquisition and retrieval are interconnected

CognitiveFX test battery summary

1. Object recognition 2. Long Term memory 3. Face recognition 4. Verbal working memory (rehearsal loop) 5. Working memory 6. Cognitive flexibility 7. Visual processing 8. Non-verbal problem solving 9. Letter-based fluency

Mnemonic Training

2 hrs intro course in mnemonic strategies - Method of loci (memory palace) - Created 1st loci route and 1st memorization task 40 days training at home with online program - 30 min per day - 1st 2 weeks - Build and memorized 3 loci routes - Train random words memorization Next 4 weeks used 4 loci routes to memorize - random word Images - Difficulty level adjusted dynamically based on performance - Weekly status meeting Behavioral Performance After Training: - @ baseline 20 min 72 words recall means: athletes 70, controls - 40 - The correlation between Athletes>Controls and individual Before-After score difference was significantly related to participant's change in recall performance

Incidental Learning-depth of processing (Craik & Tulvig, 1975)

Participants are presented with 24 words in 3 conditions 1. Upper case or lower case? 2. Does the word rhymes with ...? 3. Does the word fits in the sentence? % of words recalled was best for 3 then 2, and upper/lower case recalled the least amount of words

Flashbulb memories can include substantial errors

After the September 11 attack on the World Trade Center, 3,000 people were interviewed • How had they first heard about the attack? • Who brought them the news? • What were they doing at the time? One year later, they were re-interviewed • 37% gave a substantially different account yet had high confidence • Three years later, 43% gave a substantially different account

Clive Wearing

Amnesia from a viral infection - Unable to form new memories - Can remember skill sets (e.g., how to play music) - Remembers his wife

Memory Errors: False memory based on suggestions

An example of a memory error: • In 1992 an airplane lost power to two engines • It crashed into the side of an apartment building in Amsterdam • 43 people died including entire flight crew • No video footage of the crash exists Study 1 - 193 people were interviewed 10 months later • Asked 'Did you see TV film of the plane hitting the building?" • More than half the participants reported seeing the crash on TV • In later follow-ups, many participants confidently provided details about the crash that they could not have actually known Researchers interviewed nearly 200 Dutch people in Amsterdam several months after a plane crash in the city. When asked if they had seen footage of the plane crash on television, over half the participants reported that they had. However, there is no footage of the crash. In later follow-ups, many participants confidently provided details about the crash that they could not have actually known. Study 2 - follow up on 93 people • Asked 'Did you see TV film of the plan hitting the building?" • Asked detailed questions about the film ("Was the plane on fire before it hit the building?" "Was plane coming vertically or horizontally") • 2/3 participants reported seeing the crash on TV and provided answers to detailed questions This was replicated in another study that asked British people about seeing Princes Diana accident footage (that doesn't exist) • 44% "saw" it - Satisfying social expectations or conforming to social norms - However, more persistent questioning can lead to some of these people admit that they did not see the video... others persisted and provided additional details

The Cost of Memory Errors - Misinformation Effect

Another line of research has investigated the misinformation effect The participant experiences an event and is exposed to misleading information about how it unfolded Some time is allowed to pass. On a later memory test, a substantial number of participants have incorporated the misleading information into their original memory for the event

HM

Anterograde and partial retrograde amnesia due to removal of hippocampus - Can't form new memories

Key variable related to memory and forgetting is retention interval

Retention interval—the amount of time that elapsed between initial learning and subsequent retrieval

Mnemonic Training Reshapes Brain Networks Dresler et al., 2017, Neuron

Assessed functional brain network organization of 23 of the world's most successful memory athletes and matched controls with fMRI during both task-free resting state baseline and active memory encoding - Provided 6 weeks of mnemonic training to naïve controls - Identified functional connectivity changes induced by training Training-induced memory improvements (in control group) continued to persist 4 months after training

John Jerome White story - the crime

August 11, 1979, an intruder broke into a Manchester, Georgia, home to find a 74-year-old woman asleep on her couch. The man beat and raped the woman and then demanded all her money. She gave him $70 cash from her purse; the attacker then pulled the telephone cord out of the wall and left through the back door. - Wrongful convictions based on eyewitness testimony due to implicit memory error - Wrongly accused, exonerated based on DNA evidence - 1 of 100s of cases ¾ of them convicted based on eyewitness

Memories about ourselves are a mix of genuine recall and schema-based reconstruction

Autobiographic memory is associated with specific effects We talked about schema being mental representation of something - Self-schema is your mental representation of yourself and how you see yourself As with general memories, memories about oneself are subject to errors • Our autobiographical memories are also biased to emphasize consistency and positive traits

The self-reference effect

Better memory for information relevant to oneself

The Cost of Memory Errors - Planted events THE BALLOON RIDE THAT NEVER WAS

In this study, participants were shown a faked photo created from a real childhood snapshot - With this prompt, many participants were led to a vivid, detailed recollection of the balloon ride—even though it never occurred!

CH. 6

CH. 6

How does THC impact false memories? (Kloft et al 2020)

Cannabis is one of the most widely used illicit substance in the world - As a potential factor impacting memory, cannabis intoxication is an issue of particular interest from a legal perspective as cannabis-intoxicated eyewitnesses and suspects are common - Studies found that one dose of THC had negative impact on memory and decision making - Increased activation of Cannabinoid receptor in hippocampus was implicated in these results This study looked at impact of THC on false memory as THC is becoming widely accepted around the world and commonly used by eyewitnesses and suspects in legal cases Testimonies by eyewitnesses or suspects are oftentimes the only piece of evidence that triers of fact can use for legal decision making, and, thus, gathering reliable testimony is crucial

Ch. 7

Ch. 7

Ch. 8

Ch. 8

Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a pairing of unconditioned stimulus with neutral stimulus - This pairing is a memory - connection in our memory network - unconditioned stimulus is the one that elicit automatic response In human studies emotional stimuli that illicit a fear response are usually used. Classical conditioning process usually involves both implicit and explicit memories

Function of Working Memory

Cognitive system with a limited capacity that combines temporary storage and processing information we are focused on in the moment - Virtually all mental activities require working memory (WM) - Working memory is used whenever multiple elements or ideas are combined or compared in mind - Individuals can differ in WM capacity

Riley's Treatment

CognitiveFX Healthy Neurovascular Coupling - Neurovascular coupling (NVC) is the process of coordinating oxygen supply to active neurons - active neurons dilate local blood vessels => increase supply of O2 and glucose - In a healthy brain, there is a very efficient system that delivers blood to the exact region of the brain that is being used at the time - NVC helps the brain sustain an activity, by providing additional oxygenated blood to brain cells so they can continue working - E.g., when you study, your hippocampus gets additional supply of oxygenated blood so that there is enough oxygen and nutrients for your brain to do its job

Memory confidence

Confidence is not a reliable indicator of memory - No widespread, reliable indicators of memory accuracy have been found • Repetition can increase confidence without changing recall accuracy

LONG-TERM RETENTION OF COURSE MATERIALS (Conway, Cohen, & Stanhope, 1991)

Considerable loss after three years => Then fairly stable memory Forgetting of names and specific concepts occurs over 3 years, after which performance stabilizes Participants in this study were quizzed about material they had learned in a college course taken as recently as three months ago or as far back as a decade ago. The data showed some forgetting, but then performance leveled off; memory seemed remarkably stable from three years onward. Note that in a recognition task, memory is probed with "familiar-or-not" questions, so someone with no memory, responding at random, would get 50% right just by chance Students tested after 10 years remembered the same amount of material as those tested after 3 years How quickly memories "fade" may depend on how well established the memories were in the first place Longer retention intervals produce lower levels of recall However, if the material is very well learned at the start, and also if you periodically "revisit" the material, you can dramatically diminish the impact of the passing years

Memory and Emotion

DIRECT (Emotional events => Amygdala => Hippocampus => Better consolidation) - At a biological level, emotional events trigger a response in the amygdala that promotes consolidation—the process through which memories are "cemented" in place through the creation of new or altered neural connections INDIRECT (Enhancing strategic, semantic, working memory, and attentional processes) INDIRECT: when something emotionally salient is happening we focus on it, mull over it, think it through - this additional processing represented by involvement of PFC areas by enhancing strategic, semantic, working memory, and attentional processes (top-down mechanism) Many of our life experiences are emotional. Emotion in general helps us remember

Intrusion Errors Based on *Association*

Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) procedure - Participants are presented with series of words - E.g "bed, rest, awake, tired, dream, wake, snooze, blanket, doze, slumber, snore, nap, peace, yawn, drowsy" - Asked to recall the list - "sleep" was not on the list but very likely to be recalled

Building Blocks of WM (Eriksson et al., 2015)

Delayed matched to sample task - Participant is presented with 4X4 matrix and given time to study it - Time delay - 2 matrices are presented and participant needs to select which one was presented earlier - Encoding of information into WM results from interactions among selective attention processes and perceptual object representations that trigger related LTM object representations - When the perceptual input no longer is present, sustained attention along with a rehearsal process is crucial for maintaining the information in working memory - At retrieval selective attention and pattern completion processes become engaged to match the perceptual information provided at the retrieval stage with information maintained in working memory

Working Memory Capacity - Digit Span Task

Digit-span task: participants hear a series of digits read to them (e.g., "8, 3, 4") and must immediately repeat them back - The list is increased until memory fails - The number of digits the person can echo back without errors is referred to as that person's digit span - Using the digit-span task, average WM capacity is estimated at 7 plus-or-minus 2 items

Other flashbulb memories are well remembered

Discussion with other people can act as rehearsal People will alter their accounts to improve conversation and/or pick up new information from others' accounts This can alter the actual memory for the event called co-witness contamination In many cases, people "share" memories with one another and compare their recollections People are likely to alter their accounts in various ways. They may leave out boring bits, or add to make their account more interesting or to impress their listeners. These new points about how the event is described will, in turn, often alter the way the event is later remembered. People sometimes "pick up" new information in these conversations. Often, this new information will be absorbed into other witnesses' memory—a pattern sometimes referred to as "co-witness contamination"

But what is an "item"?

Do we remember 7 sentences as easily as 7 words? 7 letters? 7 equations? - George Miller proposed that working memory holds 7(plus/minus 2) chunks - Chunk is an informal term that doesn't define quantity, the size depends on individual

Elaborate Encoding Promotes Retrieval (Craik and Tulving,1975)

Does the word fit in the sentence experiment with 2 conditions 1. Simple sentences She cooked the _____ 2. Elaborate sentence The great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling ______ Elaborate sentences lead to richer retrieval paths % of words recalled is higher for complex sentences

How is NVC dysregulation diagnosed?

Drs. Allen & Fong standardized fMRI protocol combined with battery of cognitive tests - Designed the test battery - Designed the test protocol - Tested the battery on 60 healthy volunteers to create a normative fMRI maps for each task

Long-Term Memory

Duration- Long-lasting, enduring Capacity and size- Enormous Ease of entry- Effortful Ease of retrieval- Can be difficult, slow, and even unsuccessful

Working Memory

Duration- Temporary, fragile Capacity and size- Limited Ease of entry- Relatively easy Ease of retrieval- Relatively easy

Riley's Treatment explained by CognitiveFX

Dysregulation in Neurovascular Coupling - Many cognitive processes (e.g. memory acquisition) are time consuming and require consistent supply of fresh, oxygenated blood - When fresh oxygen is not consistently and accurately supplying the brain, those cognitive processes stop working until it is resupplied - It is called dysregulation in neurovascular coupling - Neurovascular coupling dysregulation is one of the root causes of concussion symptoms

The Cost of Memory Errors - Implanted events

Entire events can be implanted into memory - Easier to plant plausible memories than implausible - Easier to add false memories than to replace true with false - Imagery can increase one's confidence in a false memory - Visual imagery (e.g., "picture each event") - Relevant and tangible photos or videos

Attributing Implicit Memory to the Wrong Source Brown, Deffenbacher, & Sturgill, 1977)

Eyewitnesses may select someone from a photo lineup based on familiarity rather than recollection - Saw video of staged crime - 2 days later were shown 'mug shots' (unknown to them, all different from the video) - 5 days later asked to select from photo line up Where a bit of information was learned or where a particular stimulus was last encountered is misremembered - An eyewitness may select someone from a photo lineup based only on familiarity On TV, crime victims view a live lineup, but it's far more common in the United States for the victim (or witness) to see a "photo lineup" like this one. Unfortunately, victims sometimes pick the wrong person, and this error is more likely to occur if the suspect is familiar to the victim for some reason other than the crime. The error is unlikely, though, if the face is very familiar, because in that case the witness will have both a feeling of familiarity and an accurate source memory. ("Number Two looks familiar, but that's because I see him at the gym all the time.") Likelihood of error: 29%

Impact of social pressure on memory errors

False memories can occur for emotional and consequential events • Shaw and Porter (2015): Participants were persuaded that they had committed a crime that in fact had never happened (assault w/ weapon) - Interviewer repeatedly asked about the event she learned from their parents and said 'most people are able to remember things like that' - Participants remembered this imaginary event a few years later False memories can be planted through repetition and social pressures • This effect can lead people to confess to crimes they did not commit • This study involved a lot of manipulation and social pressure (not more than subjects experience during the police investigation)

Familiarity and Source Memory

Familiarity and source memory are independent. - Familiarity without source memory: - Watching a movie with the actor that looks familiar but you can't remember his name nor a movie you saw with him Source memory without Familiarity - Example: Capgras syndrome, in which loved ones are recognized without a sense of familiarity

Implicit Memory

Familiarity without source memory suggest that we have memories we are not consciously aware of

Testing Semantic Priming - Lexical decision task

Further evidence for spread of activation and priming within networks comes from the lexical-decision task Participants were given a lexical-decision task involving pairs of words. In some pairs, the words were semantically related (and so the first word in the pair primed the second); in other pairs, the words were unrelated (and so there was no priming). Responses to the second word were reliably faster if the word had been primed — providing clear evidence of the importance of subthreshold activation. (after meyer & schvaneveldt, 1971) When items are presented in pairs, the semantic relationship between words affects the speed of lexical decision. A word like "butter" will be recognized faster after having seen "bread" because its node has already received spreading activation. - Respond YES if both are words - Otherwise NO

Connection Based Memory Errors

However, it can be difficult to separate memory for a particular episode from associated knowledge in memory. It is also easy for new information to be transplanted or grafted into an event. Connections serve as retrieval paths. Connections can also lead to memory errors • Shared connections make similar memories less distinguishable • Elements might be connected because they are associated or because they were actually part of the memory • One type of error is called an intrusion error

The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) procedure is also used to demonstrate intrusion errors

If a list such as "bed, rest, awake, tired, dream, wake, snooze, blanket, doze, slumber, snore, nap, peace, yawn, drowsy" is presented, participants are very likely to recall having studied the word "sleep" as well, even though it was not on the list Will recall common topic words

Implicit Memory and the "Illusion of Truth"

Illusion of truth—effect of implicit memory in which claims that are familiar (e.g., from being heard before) end up seeming more plausible. Step 1: Participants had to judge how interesting are statements Step 2: Another set of statements judged how credible 'certainly true' to 'certainly false' - The statements (that already appeared?) from the 1st set were judged to be more credible - Occurs despite warnings in advance - Half statements made by men and half by women - Women's statements true, men's false - Statements were presented along with creator name - 'Gail said that crocodiles sleep with their eyes open'

Acquisition and Retrieval --> MIRROR DRAWING STUDY

In a mirror-drawing task, participants must draw a precisely defined shape - they might be asked, for example, to trace a line between the inner and outer star. The trick, though, is that the participants can see the figure (and their own hand) only in the mirror Performance is usually poor at first but gradually gets better. Remarkably, the same pattern of improvement is observed with amnesic patients, even though on each attempt they insist that they're performing this task for the very first time

Regressed memory example

In one study, participants were asked to draw a picture while mentally "regressed" to age 6 At first glance, their drawings looked remarkably childlike But when compared to the participants' own drawings made at that age, it is clear that the hypnotized adults' drawings were much more sophisticated They represent an adult's conception of a childish drawing and are not the real thing Rather than regressing, the adult draws what he or she thinks a 6-year-old would draw

Intrusion Errors based on *similarity/ connections*

Intrusion errors due to similarity of memories The observation of intrusion errors—errors in which other knowledge intrudes into the remembered event—supports this hypothesis In this illustration, the beach trip memory and family reunion memory share connections, so intrusions can arise (in this case, because the family reunion took place during summer break)

Alcohol effect on memory (Roediger and Butler, 2011, Oorousow et al., 2019)

Lab studies of false memory show no effect of alcohol - (amount is usually less that of legal driving limit) Several field studies have been conducted - recruited bar patrons in different stages of intoxication - to witness or act in mock crime - Followed by memory test with misleading information - Intoxicated participants showed a greater tendency to go along with the suggestive cues compared with sober participants at both time Alcohol is the most prevalent substance. We know that it negatively effects memory resulting in memory loss and black outs. As to false memory effects the results somewhat mixed. Most lab studies show no effect. However, the amount of alcohol used in these (due to ethical considerations) usually does not exceed legal driving limit and thus may not be representative of real life scenarios. More recently (last 10 years) several field studies have been conducted recruiting bar patrons in different stages of intoxication to witness or act in mock crime followed by memory test with misleading information displayed a greater tendency to go along with the suggestive cues compared with sober participants at both time

Mental context vs . Physical location Smith, Glenberg & Bjork, 1978

Learning and testing in different rooms - Room vary by appearance, sounds and scent - 3 conditions 1. Learned and tested in the same room 2. Learned in one room tested in the other 3. Learned in one room tested in the other but urged to think about the 1st room before the recall and try to remember how it looked and make them feel The results: participants in #3 did as well as #1 and both #1&3 did better than #2 We can't always learn in the same physical context that we will need the info in the future. Turns out its mental context that is more important. What matters for memory retrieval is the mental context, not the physical environment itself. The benefits of context-dependent learning to memory can be gained via *context reinstatement*, re-creating the context (e.g., thoughts, feelings) that was present during learning.

Encoding Specificity - Wheeler, Peterson, & Buckner, 2000

Let's look at how our brain processes learning and remembering things.. What goes into your memory is a record of the material you've encountered and also a record of the connections you established during learning - On this basis, it makes sense that the brain areas activated when you're remembering a target overlap considerably with the brain areas that were activated when you first encountered the target - Here, the top panels show brain activation while viewing one picture or another picture or while hearing a particular sound - The bottom panels show brain activation while remembering the same targets (after wheeler, peterson, & buckner, 2000) (the point is, the same areas are activated)

Implicit Memory - Indirect memory tests

Look at how a second encounter yields different responses than the first encounter - Priming can be considered an implicit memory of first encounter - Priming effects have been evident in amnestic patients - Experimenters played music and they played it again again later on, although it was not recognized it was usually preferred

Entering Long-Term Storage - 2 types of rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal: - Reciting - Thinking about the material in a mechanical way - Keep an item in WM Relational or elaborative rehearsal: - Linking - Thinking about the material in terms of meaning, relating the items to each other and to what one already knows - Creates connections necessary to establish LTM

Memory Errors, A Hypothesis

Memory errors are to memory what visual illusions are to vision processing - The same mechanisms that make memory processing efficient are responsible for memory errors - There are multiple hypotheses explaining memory errors One has to do with memory connections. We said that connections between the concepts build during acquisition help us during retrieval. Let's see how they can lead to false memories.. - Memory network is huge collection of interconnected nodes, each node representing a concept or thought or idea or event or characteristic. Here is the example that has several beach going events - Memory connections link each bit of knowledge in memory (e.g., ideas) to other bits of knowledge and other memories. Elements within a memory are also linked by connections, and storage is modality-specific There are, however, no actual boundaries separating the contents of one memory from others, only differences in connection density

Autobiographical Memory

Memory of episodes and events in one's own life. Memories about ourselves are a mix of genuine recall and schema-based reconstruction The self-schema (self-reference effect)

Is working memory a place? (Cabeza & Nyberg, 2000)

Meta-analysis shows no, appears everywhere in the brain

Hypnosis makes people more open to misinformation

Mix of recollection, guesses, and inferences At least some recovered memories may actually be false memories (false either entirely or partially) Contrary to popular belief, hypnosis does not help people recover lost memories Hypnosis does make people more open to suggestion and more vulnerable to misinformation effects

Mnemonics

Mnemonic strategies improve memory through organization

How General Are the Principles of Memory? THE LIFESPAN RETRIEVAL CURVE

Most people have few memories of their early childhood (roughly from birth to age 3 or 4); this pattern is referred to as "childhood amnesia" In contrast, the period from age 10 to 30 is well remembered, producing a pattern called the "reminiscence bump" This "bump" has been observed in multiple studies and in diverse cultures; events from this time in young adulthood are often remembered in more detail (although perhaps less accurately) than more recent events

Retrieval Cues

Networks suggest an explanation for why hints help us remember A participant is asked, "What is the capital of South Dakota?" This activates the south dakota nodes, and activation spreads from there to all of the associated nodes. However, it's possible that the connection between south dakota and pierre is weak, so pierre may not receive enough activation to reach threshold. Things will go differently, though, if the participant is also given the hint "South Dakota's capital is also a man's name." Now, the pierre node will receive activation from two sources: the south dakota nodes and the man's name node. With this double input, it's more likely that the pierre node will reach threshold. This is why the hint ("man's name") makes the memory search easier.

Consolidation is key in establishing long term memories IF consolidation is interrupted due to fatigue or injury = NO MEMORY establishes Most consolidation happens during sleep

One of the major processes that establishes permanent LTM is consolidation It's a long term process that takes hours after the memory acquisition Most of the consolidation happens during sleep If interrupted => no LTM Remember the case of Riley Horner story

Information processing view of memory

One way to frame learning and memory - Acquisition: the process of gaining information and placing it into memory - Storage: holding the information in memory until it is needed - Retrieval: locating the needed information and bringing it into active use Analogy to creating, storing, and opening a computer file

Does intention improve learning? (Hyde and Jenkins, 1969)

Participants are presented with 24 words in 4 conditions: 1. Learn as many words as you can 2. Does the word contains E? 3. How many letters in the word? 4. How pleasant is the word? They are then asked to recall as many words as they can # of words recalled was best for 1, then 4, 3, and finding the e recalled the least amount of words

Self-referencing and the brain

Participants evaluated words in 3 conditions: "Does this word describe the president?" "Is this word printed in capital letters?" "Does this word describe you?" You are more likely to remember words that refer to you, in comparison to words in other categories - Here, participants were asked to judge adjectives in three conditions: answering questions like "Does this word describe the president?" or "Is this word printed in capital letters?" or "Does this word describe you?" Data from fMRI recordings showed a distinctive pattern of processing when the words were "self-referential." Specifically, self referential processing is associated with activity in the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC). This extra processing is part of the reason why self-referential words are better remembered.

Experiments supporting the modal model

Participants study a long series of words (e.g., 30 words, 1 word presented per second) - Free-recall memory test - Which words do they remember better, in the beginning, in the middle or at the end for the list? - During 1st second when 1st word arrives it gets 100% attention - During 2nd second 1st & 2nd words each get 50% - During 3rd second 1st, 2d, & 3d words each get 33% - 1st group of words have been processing significantly longer => better chance of getting them into long term memory - Last word on the list will be held in working memory

Memory Errors - Impact of true imagery Lindsay, D. S., et al., "True photographs and false memories"

Participants were "reminded" of a (fictitious) stunt they'd pulled while in the second grade - Participants were much more likely to "remember" the stunt (and so more likely to develop a false memory) if the experimenter showed them a copy of their actual second grade class photo - Photo convinced them that the experimenter really did know what had happened, and this made the experimenter's (false) suggestion much more persuasive In one study, participants were "reminded" of a (fictitious) stunt they'd pulled while in the second grade. Participants were much more likely to "remember" the stunt (and so more likely to develop a false memory) if the experimenter showed them a copy of their actual second-grade class photo Apparently, the photo convinced the participants that the experimenter really did know what had happened, and this made the experimenter's (false) suggestion much more persuasive

Memory Errors - impact of feedback

Participants witnessed a simulated crime and were asked to identify the culprit - Some got positive feedback - Feedback affected confidence but not accuracy - Just like repetition, positive feedback increases confidence without changing accuracy For example, participants in one study witnessed a (simulated) crime and later were asked if they could identify the culprit from a group of pictures. Some of the participants were then given feedback ("Good, you identified the suspect"); others were not This feedback could not possibly influence the accuracy of the identification, because the feedback arrived only after the identification was done. But the feedback did influence confidence, and witnesses who had received the feedback expressed a much higher level of confidence in their choice than did witnesses who received no feedback Thus, with confidence inflated but accuracy unchanged, the linkage between confidence and accuracy was diminished

A double dissociation between explicit and implicit memory (Bechara et al., 1995)

Patient SM046 had suffered damage to the amygdala and shows little evidence of implicit memory (i.e., no fear response — indexed by the skin conductance response) but a normal level of explicit memory Patient WC1606 had suffered damage to the hippocampus and shows the opposite pattern: massively disrupted explicit memory but a normal fear response

FLASHBULB MEMORIES

People often have especially clear and long-lasting memories for events like first hearing about Princess Diana's death in 1997, the attack on the World Trade Center in September 2001, or the news of Michael Jackson's death in 2009 These memories (called "flashbulb memories") are vivid and compelling, but they are not always accurate

Traumatic Memories

Physiological arousal and stress at the time of event increase consolidation • Stress enhances memory for materials directly related to source of stress (but opposite effect for other aspects of the event) • These memories can also be lost - Causes include head injuries, sleep deprivation, drugs or alcohol, and—controversially—"repression" - Stress during retrieval can also interfere Traumatic memories are often enhanced and unusually vivid, likely due to the biological process through which memories are formed; these processes are enhanced by physiological arousal Alternatively, some traumatic memories can be lost due to head injuries, sleep deprivation, drugs or alcohol, and—controversially—"repression"

Riley's Treatment Explained by CognitiveFX

Restoring Neurovascular Coupling - To rehabilitate the brain after concussion, brain cells need to be pushed by targeted activities - This can be done by strategically combining physical and cognitive exercise in a week of intensive therapy - Physical exercise is important to prepare the brain in a way that conditions the vessels of the brain and regulates systems in the brain that respond to stress, so that brain cells have an opportunity to participate in healthy rehabilitation - Cognitive and motor exercises are done to target the parts of the brain that are experiencing problems

Context-dependent learning is dependent on the state the learner is in during acquisition Godden & Baddeley, 1975

Scuba divers memorized words - Underwater - On land Where tested to remember the words - Underwater - On land The environment triggers certain thoughts. Cold ... water ... light ... the learner builds the connections between thoughts and material - When back in the same environment it is likely that the same thoughts will be triggered and thus better retrieval - New material is most likely to be recalled when the person is in the same mental, emotional, or biological state as when the material was learned - Scuba divers learned materials either while on land or while underwater. Then, they were tested while on land or underwater. Performance was best if the divers' circumstances at the time of test were matched to those in place during learning

The self-schema is a set of beliefs and memories about oneself

Self-schema play a role in how we remember our past - Consistency: seeing past self more like present and adjust recall to accommodate it - Positivity / self-serving: remembering more positive things about self

The network model of memory is biologically inspired based on neuronal architecture - we talked about how activation travels from one neuron to the others through synapses - associative links are their equivalent in the network model Spreading activation is the process through which activation travels from one node to another, via the associative links As each node becomes activated, it serves as a source of further activation, which spreads onward through the network

Similar to neurons, nodes have activation levels and fire a signal if the input stimulating them summates to reach the threshold. Activation levels below the response threshold, so-called subthreshold activation, also have an important role to play: activation is assumed to accumulate, so that two subthreshold inputs may add together, or summate, and bring the node to threshold

Stable Autobiographical Memories MEMORY OVER THE VERY LONG TERM

Some memories are fairly stable over the very long term. When people were tested for how well they remembered names and faces of their high school classmates, their memory was remarkably long-lasting - In the name-matching task, participants were given a group of names and had to choose the right one - In the picture-cueing task, participants had to come up with the names on their own In both tasks, the data show a sharp drop-off after 47 years, but it is unclear whether this reflects an erosion of memory or a more general drop-off in performance caused by the normal process of aging

Traumatic Memories - Military Survival Training Study

Some military training includes preparation for being captured by the enemy - Such survival training is extremely stressful as solders undergo Enhanced Interrogation Protocol normally reserved for terrorists - 530 Participants are confined in mock POWC (isolation, interrogations ~ 40min) - All participants experienced 2 conditions moderate and severe stress (w/ physical confrontation) Experience modeled on POWC (prisoner of war camp) These interrogations are designed to test the limits and abilities of the participants to withstand ''exploitation by the enemy'' and to demonstrate problem-solving skills while experiencing extreme stress Compared accuracy of eyewitness recognition using three established law enforcement methods for identifying crime suspects: - the live lineup - the photo-spread technique - the sequential photo method RESULTS - After 24hrs asked to identify interrogator Picked wrong person from lineup 38% (moderate), 56% (severe)

Chunking

The ability to condense information Example: HOPTRASLU (nine items) HOP TRA SLU (three chunks) - Requires effort but reduces WM load - Does not increase WM capacity but allows to keep more information in working memory as 9 items can be re-packaged as 3

Hypnosis is not considered a helpful tool in memory recovery

The cognitive interview procedure can diminish forgetting - Includes *context reinstatement* - Diverse retrieval cues to trigger memories - Repeated retrieval and testing can prevent forgetting Remember the study we talked about early on when participants learn material in one room and then tested in the other but had to think about 1st room before test? - Cues that may reactivate connections

Misinformation VR conditions - Kloft et al, 2020

The eyewitness scenario showed a fight at a train station (4 min total duration) The perpetrator scenario involved theft of a handbag at a bar (2 min duration) Each participant was exposed once to each scenario on separate test days, counterbalanced with treatment condition RESULTS The eyewitness - The cannabis group had higher false-memory rates when still intoxicated, but this effect disappeared after 1 wk when sober again The perpetrator - The cannabis group had higher false-memory rates when still intoxicated, but this effect disappeared after 1 wk when sober again

Does training-related WM improvement generalize?

Transfer after WM training has been observed in - behavioral studies (Harrison et al., 2013; Klingberg et al., 2002) - demanding WM training may even transfer to improve fluid intelligence (Jaeggi et al., 2008) - The results of other studies have called into question the possibility of obtaining broad transfer after working memory training (Redick et al., 2012; Thompson et al., 2013; see Shipstead et al., 2012) - large scale study of more than 11,000 participants indicated that this may be the case for cognitive or brain training in general (Owen et al., 2010) - Skill transfer is restrictive to the processes that has been trained by intervention - More general attention training can transfer more broadly within working memory (e.g., Brehmer et al., 2012; Harrison et al., 2013) - and even to general cognitive domains such as fluid intelligence (see Au et al., 2014) - and to reduce inattention in daily life (Spencer-Smith and Klingberg, 2015)

Successfully implanted events

Use of visual imagery enhances likelihood of false memories • Participants asked to clearly picture events in their minds: • Going to emergency room late at night • Winning a stuffed animal at a carnival • Having been hospitalized overnight for a high fever • Having spilt a bowl of punch at a wedding • Having been lost in a shopping mall • Having taken a hot-air balloon ride • Having been attacked by a vicious animal This step increased confidence that event occurred

Modifications of Modal Model 1. STM/WM understood as a status or processing system, rather than a place 2. Retrieval does not involve movement back to WM

Valid modal model concepts 1. Separation of WM & LTM 2. Limited capacity of WM 3. Large size and permanence of LTM 4. Moving info into and out of WM is easy 5. Moving info into and out of LTM require effort 6. Contents of working memory are quite fragile

Loftus and Palmer, 1974

Viewing a series of pictures depicting a car accident Asked • How fast were the cars going when they _____ each other? • The word varied as: • Contacted • Hit • Bumped • Collided • Smashed • A week later participants asked about broken glass at the scene • 'Smashed' participants where more likely to say yes Witnesses who were asked how fast cars were going when they "hit" each other reported (on average) a speed of 34 miles per hour. Other witnesses, asked how fast the cars were going when they "smashed" into each other, gave estimates 20% higher. When all participants were later asked whether they'd seen broken glass at the scene, participants who'd been asked the "smashed" question were more likely to say yes — even though there was no broken glass

Riley Horner's amnesia

Was accidentally kicked in the head while "crowd surfing" at a music festival on June 11 2019 - Was taken to the emergency room and discharged - Doctors told her parents that she is ok - When she woke up the next day and then next day after that for the next 3 months she thought it was June 11 - Her memory was reseting every few hours

Katona (1940) argued that the key to creating connections in the material to be remembered is organization

We memorize well when we find order in the material or impose it ourselves

Prevalence of substance use in crime victims in US (Kloft et al., 2021)

We saw that being under stress and trauma results in unreliable memory This study looked at impact of THC on false memory as THC is becoming widely accepted around the world and commonly used by eyewitnesses and suspects in legal cases

Hierarchy of Memory Types

We've distinguished two types of memory—explicit and implicit However, there are reasons to believe that each of these categories must be subdivided further, as shown here Evidence for these subdivisions includes functional evidence (the various types of memory follow different rules) and biological evidence (the types depend on different aspects of brain functioning) memorize this chart

CognitiveFX EPIC treatment

Weekly program - Patient receives an average of 26 hours of therapy throughout the week - Patients meet with a multidisciplinary team of therapists and trainers each day - Every patient receives treatment unique to their injury and symptoms

Memory is facilitated by organizing and understanding

What the memorizer was doing to memorize matters - Example: maintenance rehearsal versus elaborative rehearsal The background knowledge of the memorizer matters - Aids in making connections Acquisition, storage, and retrieval are not easily separable - New learning is grounded in previously learned (stored) knowledge - Effective learning depends on how the information will later be retrieved

Intrusion Errors Based on Association => THE EFFECTS OF THE DRM PARADIGM

When asked how confident they are in their memories, participants are just as confident in their (false) recall of "sleep" as they are in their (correct) memory of genuine list words (bed, rest, awake, tired, dream, wake, snooze, blanket, doze, slumber, snore, nap, peace, yawn, drowsy) Because of the theme uniting the list, participants can remember almost 90% of the words they encountered. However, they're just as likely to "recall" the list's theme word—even though it was not presented

College students were asked to recall their HS grades as accurately as they could. They recalled: 89% (were able to recall correctly?) A 29% (were able to recall correctly?) D

When students forgot a good grade, their (self-serving) reconstruction led them to the (correct) belief that the grade must have been a good one; consistent with this, 89% of the A's were correctly remembered. But when students forgot a poor grade, reconstruction led them to the (false) belief that the grade must have been okay; as a result, only 29% of the D's were correctly recalled

Is the memory more accurate when recalled closer to the event? Similar effects are observed under experimental conditions

Yes, but ... Brewer and Treyens (1981) - Participants waited in an office for study to start - Then taken out to a different room and informed that all they need to do is to describe the 1st room from memory - 1/3 of participants remembered seeing books when there were none Brewer and Treyens (1981) found that participants who had been asked to wait in an office for 35 seconds, biased by their expectations of what should be in an academic office, recalled seeing books and other items typical of an office even though these items had not been present

The self-schema

a set of beliefs and memories about oneself Thus, people generally recall their past attitudes, the past status of their romantic relationships, and their health in a fashion that emphasizes consistency and thereby makes the past look more like the present than it really was

The self-reference effect

a tendency to have better memory for information relevant to oneself than for other sorts of material

Intentional learning

deliberate, with the expectation that memory will be later tested

What neuroimaging technique can be used to assess NVC?

fMRI is used to measure NVC

Incidental learning

learning in the absence of an intention to learn

working-memory system is divided in multiple components:

sensory memory --> central executive WM: central executive is split into visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and phonological loop then --> long term memory

However, schemas can also cause us to make errors when remembering an event

• For example, you might remember seeing magazines in a dentist's office even if there were none • Memories tend to be regularized For instance, imagine that you visit a dentist's office where there are no magazines in the waiting area. Your schema of a dentist office probably does include a waiting room with magazines. Our memories tend to conform to our schemas This general knowledge may cause you to regularize your memory of this particular event and "remember" magazines that were not there.

Causes of better memory for emotional events

• Increased activity in the amygdala and hippocampus • Narrowing of attention • Shift to emotion-relevant goals • More rehearsal

Memory Errors - Schematic Knowledge

• Other intrusions are due to schematic knowledge • A schema refers to knowledge that describes what is typical of a given situation • Schemas help us to be comfortable in familiar situations • Schemas can help us when remembering an event Your schema of a restaurant includes the script of events that typically occur, for example, being given a menu. This general knowledge may be helpful in reconstructing your memory of this particular event and filling in gaps in the memory - when trying to remember the name of the restaurant visualizing the menu might be helpful

Summary of memory

• People can confidently remember things that never happened • Memories are interconnected, creating retrieval paths but also intrusions • Forgetting may be a consequence of how general knowledge is formed - Specific episodes merge in memory to form schemas - Schemas guide attention during encoding and inferences during recall • Despite errors, our memory system is efficient and aids in knowledge acquisition People sometimes confidently recall memories that never took place, in both the laboratory and real life These errors result from how memories for specific events are embedded in generalized or schematic knowledge Schemas are normally helpful for remembering by providing organization and retrieval paths Forgetting may be a consequence of how our general knowledge is formed. Specific episodes merge in memory to form schemas

Interference based forgetting - Baddeley & Hitch, 1977

• Rugby players asked to list teams they played in the season • Different players played different number of games • Different # interferences within the same time period Members of a rugby team were asked to recall the names of teams they had played against. Overall, the broad pattern of data shows that memory performance was powerfully influenced by the number of games that intervened between the game to be recalled and the attempt to remember. This pattern fits with an interference view of forgetting