Psyc 351D exam #3

Stereotaxic apparatus: y-axis

*Dorsal-ventral* measurements are the y-xis, and are made relative to the surface of the brain

Version 3 of the maze task:

*Landmark version* The platform's location is identified by a cue on the pool wall The platform moves on every trial, but the relation to the cue is constant

Version 2 of the maze task:

*Matching-to-place learning* The rats have already learned that a platform always lies somewhere in the pool, but is moved to a different location every day Once the rat finds the platform, the animal is removed from the pool and after a delay is released again; the rat's task is to swim directly to the platform

Stereotaxic apparatus: z-axis

*Medial-lateral* measurements are the z-axis, and are made relative to the midline junction of the cranial bones

Version 1 of the maze task:

*Place learning* The rat must find the platform from any starting location in the pool The only cues available are outside the pool, so the rat must learn the relation between several cues in the room & the platform's location

Stereotaxic apparatus: x-axis

*Rostral-caudal* measurements are the x-axis, and are made relative to the junction of the frontal & parietal bones (the bregma)

Psychomotor stimulants for ADHD:

70% show improvements with treatment, but little evidence that drugs directly improve academic achievement

_______ rhythms are extremely regular, with a frequency of approximately 11 cycles per second, and are commonly observed when a person is awake but relaxed. A) Alpha B) Beta C) Theta D) Delta

A

How does PET work?

A PET camera is a doughnut-shaped array of radiation detectors that encircles a person's head A small amount of water, labeled with *radioactive molecules*, is injected into the bloodstream The person injected is not in danger because these molecules are very unstable; they break down in just a few minutes The radioactive molecules (usually oxygen-15) release tiny, positively charged, subatomic particles known as *positrons* (electrons with positive charge) Positrons are emitted from an atom that is unstable because it is deficient in neutrons The positrons are attracted to the negative charge of electrons in the brain, and the collision of the 2 particles leads to both of them being annihilated, thus creating *energy* The energy (in the form of *2 photons*) leaves the head at the speed of light and is detected by the camera The photons leave the head in exactly the *opposite direction* from the site of positron Their source can be identified by annihilation photon detectors

Microdialysis:

A catheter with a semipermeable membrane at its tip is placed in the brain A fluid flows through the cannula where it passes along the cell membrane Simple diffusion drives the passage of extracellular molecules across the membrane along their concentration gradient The fluid containing the brain molecules exit through tubing to be collected for analysis The fluid is removed at a constant rate so that changes in the brain chemistry can be correlated with behaviour *Often used to record reward* Physicians are starting to use this for TBI and stroke patients, since secondary events (due to chemistry) are often worse that the actual physical damage

Optical tomography:

A dynamic imaging technique that operates on the principle that an object can be reconstructed by gathering light that was transmitted through the object 1 requirement is that the object must at least partially transmit light Soft body tissue can be used Ex. fNRIS

Agoraphobia:

A fear of public places or situations in which help might not be available

Magnetoencephalography:

A magnetic field passing across a wire induces an electrical current in the wire When a current flows along a wire, it induces a magnetic field Neural activity, by generating en electrical field, also produces a magnetic field The field is too small for a single neuron, but can be strong enough to be recorded on the scalp if a population The record of this phenomenon is a *magnetoencephalogram* (MEG)

How does CT work?

A narrow X-ray beam is be passed through the same object at many different angles, creating many different images, & then the images can be combined with the use of computing & math techniques to create a 3D image of the brain *High-density tissue* (ex. bone) absorbs lots of radiation (light) *Low-density* (ex. blood) absorbs little (dark)

Skinner used a pigeon to explain his theory:

A pigeon is placed in a box that has a small disc on the wall (the stimulus) If the pigeon pecks at the disc (the response), a food tray opens & the pigeon can feed (reinforcement) The pigeon quickly learns the association (within mins) This can be made more complex; the pigeon might be required to turn 360 degrees before pecking

Broca's "limbic lobe":

A ring of structures around the brainstem in early amphibians & reptiles Evolutionarily developed into the *limbic system* that we know today

Intracellular recordings:

A single neuron

Optogenetics:

A transgenic technique that combines the genetics & light to control targeted cells in living tissue Based on the discovery that light can activate proteins (which can occur naturally or be inserted into the cells)

____ is the most common brain disorder in children

ADHD/ADD

In 1949, MacLean expanded the Papez circuit to include the _____ & the ______

Amygdala Prefrontal cortex

How is the amygdala dissimilar to the hypo?

Amygdala requires more complex stimuli

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI):

An MRI method that detects the *directional movements of water molecules* to image nerve fibre pathways in the brain Can be used to delineate abnormalities in neural pathways Also used to identify changes in the myelination of fibres

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS):

An MRI method that uses the *hydrogen proton signal* to determine the concentration of brain metabolites such as N-acetyl aspartate (*NAA*) Especially useful for disorders such as concussion

Evolutionarily, why does anxiety exist if it only seems to cause trauma?

An increase in anxiety can be beneficial If we are drowsy & need to be alert to deal with a crisis

Men's frequency of copulation correlates with his levels of ____

Androgens

What is one pheromone in humans that effects glucose?

Androstadienone

The American version for animal ethics is called the ______

Animal Welfare Act

What is the problem with an electrolytic lesion?

Any nerve fibres passing through this region die as well

Evolutionary psychology:

Applies principles of natural selection to explain human behaviour

Learned taste aversion:

Many humans have similarly acquired food aversions because the taste of a certain food (especially a novel one) was paired with illness Even when the food that was eaten is unrelated to the later illness *Associative learning* for adaptive sense (helps an animal avoid poisonous foods) This occurs in our *unconscious*

The somatosensory cortex's role in taste:

Responsible for localizing tastes on the tongue & for our reactions to a food's texture

The _____ fMRI is collected when participants are asked to look at a fixation cross and to keep their eyes open

Resting-state

Tumor in hypothalamus:

Results in constant hunger Person may consume anything & everything Consume more than 20,000 calories a day if allowed to do so

So the nervous system (not free will) produces most behaviour; but another explanation for why we act as we do comes from ______

Rewarding experiences

What does the EEG look like when we're calm?

Rhythmical brain waves called *alpha rhythms* occur Extremely regular, with a frequency of 11 cycles/second and amplitudes that wax & wane In humans, alpha waves are generated in the *visual cortex*

Right VS Left orbital cortex:

Right mediates pleasantness of taste Left for unpleasantness

Research on the neuroanatomy responsible for emotional & motivated behaviour focuses on a neural circuit formed by the ____, the _____ & the _____

Hypothalamus Frontal lobe Limbic system

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS):

Light transmitted through cortical tissue to image *blood-oxygen consumption* (oxygenated hemoglobin) in the brain Form of optical tomography

Although the hypothalamus plays a central role, it takes its instruction from the _____ & _____

Limbic system Frontal lobe

_____ & _____ project to the hypothalamus

Limbic system Frontal lobes

What happens if the amygdala is damaged?

Loses not only innate fears, but also acquired fears & preferences

What does the EEG look like when we're aroused?

Low amplitude and a fast frequency

Epigenetics:

While epigenetic factors do not change the DNA sequence, the genes that are expressed can change in response to environment & experience Epigenetic changes can persist throughout lifetime & even across multiple generations

Caspi analyzed COMT gene in 26-year-olds:

While no genotype was more likely to use cannabis in adolescence, carriers of the *Val allele* were far more likely to develop psychotic symptoms (only if used in *adolescence*, not in adulthood)

In vivo:

Within the brain

5 different taste receptors:

1. Sweet 2. Sour 3. Salty 4. Bitter 5. Umami

_____ play a central role in motivated & emotional behaviour

Chemosignals

Disadvantage to microeletrodes:

Inserting the electrodes can kill the cell

The hypothalamus is less than ___% of the brain's volume

1

5 hormones produced by the anterior pituitary:

1. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone 2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone 3. Follicle-stimulating hormone 4. Prolactin 5. Growth hormone

3 things in the brain increase when someone is solving cognitive problems:

1. Amount of blood 2. Oxygen 3. Glucose

Prefrontal receives input from 5 places:

1. Amygdala 2. Dorsomedial thalamus 3. Sensory association cortex 4. Posterior parietal cortex 5. VTA (*DAS VP*)

VNO connects to 2 places:

1. Amygdala 2. Hypothalamus

Emotions entail 3 things:

1. Autonomic response 2. Subjective feeling that we label 3. Thoughts or plans related to the experience itself

3 disadvantages to fMRI:

1. Because changes in blood flow take as long as 1/3 of a second, the temporal resolution of fMRI is not as precise as EEGs 2. Subjects must lie motionless in a long, noisy tube, an experience that can prove claustrophobic 3. Restricts the type of behavioural experiments

Electrical measures are important for 3 reasons:

1. Brain function 2. Medical diagnosis 3. Monitoring the effectiveness of therapies used to treat brain disorders

3 advantages to PET:

1. Can detect the decay of hundreds of radiochemicals, which allows the mapping of a wide range of changes & conditions (pH, glucose, oxygen, proteins, etc) 2. Can detect relative amounts of a given NT, the density of NT receptors & metabolic activities 3. Widely used to study cognitive function (with great success)

2 disadvantages of CT scans:

1. Cannot tell white VS gray matter 2. Radiation

Limbic cortex in mammals contains 2 things:

1. Cingulate gyrus 2. Hippocampal formation

The amygdala consists of 3 divisions:

1. Corticomedial 2. Basolateral 3. Central

Health Research Extension Act: (4)

1. Covers *all animal use* conducted by the USA Public Health Service and *applies to any live vertebrate animal* used in research, training or testing 2. Requires the each institution provide acceptable assurance that it meets all minimum regulations & *conforms with the Guide for the Care & Use of Lab Animals* 3. Must seek voluntary *accreditation from the Association for Assessment & Accreditation of Lab Animal Care International* 4. US universities that receive government *grants* are required to provide adequate treatment for all vertebrate animals

2 drugs that relieve Parkinson's patients:

1. DA agonists 2. ACh antagonists

Prefrontal cortex has 5 areas:

1. Dorsolateral 2. Dorsomedial 3. Ventromedial 4. Orbitofrontal 5. Anterior cingulate cortex

What possibly happens in the brain to lead to ADHD? (3)

1. Dysfunction of NE system 2. Dysfunction of DA system 3. Dysfunction in frontal basal ganglia

4 ways to measure the brain's electrical activity:

1. EEG 2. ERP 3. MEG 4. Single-cell recording

2 ways to ablate the substantia nigra:

1. Electrolytic lesion 2. Neurotoxic lesion

Amygdala has 4 roles:

1. Emotions (esp fear) 2. Species-specific behaviours 3. Eating & drinking 4. Sex

The base of the taste bud is contacted by the branches of afferent nerves that come from 3 cranial nerves:

1. Facial (7) 2. Glossopharyngeal (9) 3. Vagus (10)

ADHD behaviours are associated with 3 things:

1. Family breakups 2. Substance abuse 3. Driving accidents

The hypothalamus controls homeostasis in 3 general manners:

1. Feedback loops 2. Neural control 3. Experiential responses

2 reasons to study brain-behaviour interactions:

1. Function of the injured area; what the remaining brain can do in the absence of that area 2. Develop animal models of neurological & psychiatric disorders

2 advantages to MEGs:

1. Higher resolution than ERP 2. Good temporal (same as ERP)

Hippocampal formation: (2)

1. Hippocampus 2. Parahippocampal cortex

Amygdala sends connections to 2 places:

1. Hypothalamus 2. Brainstem

4 critical neural structures in emotional & motivated behaviour:

1. Hypothalamus 2. Pituitary gland 3. Limbic system 4. Frontal lobe

2 ways to study nature VS nurture:

1. Identical twin studies 2. People who were adopted early in life

4 regions responded to both types of pain (social & physical) in the study:

1. Insula 2. Dorsal anterior cingulate (limbic) cortex 3. Somatosensory thalamus 4. Secondary somatosensory cortex (*DISS*)

3 disadvantages to PET:

1. Invasive 2. Does not measure direct local neural activity; it infers activity 3. Radioactive materials must be prepared in a cyclotron located close to the scanner (expensive)

Hypothalamus has 3 parts:

1. Lateral 2. Medial 3. Paraventricular

2 disadvantages to fNRIS:

1. Light does not penetrate the brain very far, so restricted to cortical activity 2. Spatial resolution is not as good as other non-invasive methods

3 disadvantages to MEGs:

1. No magnets 2. Cannot move machine 3. Very expensive

3 advantages to EEGs & ERPs:

1. Non-invasive 2. Cost (cheap) 3. Good temporal

4 advantages to ERPs:

1. Non-invasive 2. Low cost 3. Portable 4. Good temporal

The expression of emotions includes 2 things:

1. Physiological changes 2. Movements of facial muscles

Body odours activate 3 areas usually activated for visually emotional stimuli:

1. Posterior cingulate 2. Anterior cingulate 3. Occipital cortex

2 pathway of the ventroposterior medial nucleus of the thalamus:

1. Primary somatosensory cortex 2. Gustatory cortex

2 advantages to using MEGs:

1. Provide a description of the electrical activity as well as a 3D localization of the cell groups generating the measured field 2. In living tissue, MEGs undergo less distortion than electrical signals do (higher resolution than ERP & better source identification)

The epithelium has 2 types of cells:

1. Receptor cells 2. Support cells

Evidence for forebrain abnormalities in those with ADHD: (2)

1. Reduced brain volume 2. Increase in the DA transporter protein

In the USA, must submit a protocol to the university's institutional animal care committee, which consists of 4 types of people:

1. Researchers 2. Vets 3. People with knowledge of science 4. Laypeople

2 disorders that are associated with being impaired in producing & perceiving facial expressions:

1. Schizophrenia 2. ASD

Hippocampus has 4 roles:

1. Stress response 2. Species-specific behaviours 3. Memory 4. Spatial navigation

Studying of the brain was done 2 ways up until the 20th century:

1. Studied brains of dead people and animals 2. Study people who have sustained brain injuries

Klüver-Bucy syndrome has 6 symptoms:

1. Tameness & loss of fear 2. Indiscriminate dietary behaviour 3. Greatly increased autoerotic, homosexual & heterosexual activity with inappropriate object of choice 4. Tendency to attend to & react to every visual stimulus 5. Tendency to examine all objects by mouth 6. Visual agnosia

EEG recordings illustrate 3 features of the brain's electrical activity:

1. The EEG changes as behaviour changes 2. An EEG recorded from the cortex displays an array of patterns, some of which are rhythmical 3. The living brain's electrical activity is never silent, even when a person is asleep or comatose

One study used PET to look at the neural networks that process human body odours & made 2 discoveries:

1. The brain analyzes *common odours & body odours differently*; while both activate primary olfactory regions, body odours also activate structures not previously found 2. Smelling a stranger's odour activates the *amygdala & insular cortex*, similar to activation observed for *fearful* visual stimuli

Papez "complete" circuit: (3)

1. The mammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus connects to the anterior thalamus 2. Ant thalamus connects with the cingulate cortex 3. Cingulate connects with the hippocampal formation, amygdala & prefrontal cortex

2 pieces of evidence for the James-Lange theory:

1. The same autonomic responses can accompany different emotions 2. People with reduced info about their own autonomic arousal, such as those people with a spinal-cord injury; these people suffer a decrease in perceived emotion

The CCAC has 4 main principles that it uses as its guidelines for reviewing experimental protocol:

1. The use of animals in research, teaching & testing is acceptable only if it promises to *contribute to the understanding* of enviro principles or issues, fundamental biological principles, or development of knowledge that can reasonably be expected to *benefit humans, animals or the enviro* 2. *Optimal standards for animal health & care* result in enhanced credibility & reproducibility of experimental results 3. Acceptance of animal use in science critically depends on *maintaining public confidence* in the mechanisms & processes used to ensure necessary, humane & justified animal use 4. *Animals are used only if the researcher's best efforts to find an alternative have failed*; researchers who use animals employ the most humane methods on the *smallest # of appropriate animals* required to obtain valid information

People can often identify 3 types of smells:

1. Their own odour 2. Odour of kin 3. Odour of friends with above-chance accuracy

Route 1 of the solitary tract: (2)

1. Travels through the posterior medulla to the *ventroposterior medial nucleus of the thalamus* 2. This nucleus in turn sends out 2 pathways

Paraventricular nucleus has 3 neuropeptides:

1. VP 2. OT 3. Endorphins

TH feedback loop: (3)

1. When thyroid hormone is low, the hypothalamus releases TSH-releasing hormone 2. ANT PIT releases TSH 3. TSH acts on the thyroid gland to release more TH

3 areas of research that ERPs are used for:

1. mTBI (compensation) 2. Depression 3. Studying how children learn & process information as they mature (relates to sensitive areas that decline with age in elderly)

Dogs & cats have ____x as much receptor area as humans have

10

Phobias effect 1/_____ people

10

BDNF Val 66*Met*:

11% reduction in hippocampal volume Poor episodic memory & higher incidence of dementia

The scanner collects activity for a least ____ blocks

4 mins long

____% of those with ADHD fail to get a high-school diploma

40

_____% of the US population suffers from an anxiety disorder at some point in their lives

5

______% of ADHD kids still show symptoms in adulthood

50

_____% of the world has major depression; ______% have anxiety disorders of some sort

6 15-35

Lifespan of an olfactory chemical receptors:

60 days (short)

A ______ makes it possible to view the three-dimensional structure of living brain tissue. A) multiphoton microscope B) light microscope C) electron microscope D) All of the answers are correct

A

A stereotaxic apparatus is used: a. for lesioning the brain. b. in fMRI. c. for transcranial magnetic stimulation. d. for lesioning and transcranial magnetic stimulation.

A

Epigenetics is: a. the change in gene expression caused by experience. b. the same as gene expression. c. the study of gene alteration. d. the alteration of DNA sequences.

A

Monkeys who have been deprived of sensory experience find _____ the most rewarding. A) looking at a toy train circling a track B) looking at a bowl of fruit C) looking at a dog D) All of the stimuli listed have equal reward value.

A

Most homeostatic mechanisms involve the: a. hypothalamus. b. amygdala. c. thalamus. d. anterior pituitary gland.

A

Olfactory receptor neurons code different scents because: a. each scent activates a unique pattern of receptor neurons. b. each neuron responds to a specific scent. c. each neuron responds to all scents equally. d. None of the answers is correct.

A

The electroencephalograph (EEG) was invented by: A) Hans Berger. B) Wilder Penfield. C) Paul Broca. D) Karl Lashley

A

The fact that many people who have a spinal cord injury have a decrease in perceived emotion supports the _____ theory of emotion. a. James-Lange b. neural c. cognitive d. Darwinian

A

The receptors for smell are embedded within the _____ and have cilia that extend into the _____. A) nasal epithelium; olfactory mucosa B) olfactory bulb; pyriform cortex C) pyriform cortex; olfactory bulb D) nasal epithelium; glomeruli

A

The selection of motor sequences that are to be executed comes from the: a. premotor cortex. b. prefrontal cortex. c. cerebellum. d. motor cortex.

A

There are _____ taste receptors. a. five b. four c. six d. three

A

Which of the following is not one of the symptoms of major depression? a. inappropriate sexual behavior b. sleep disturbances c. feelings of worthlessness and guilt d. general slowing of behavior

A

Creating a lesion is called _____

Ablation

The receptor cells in the VNO send their axons to the ____

Accessory olfactory bulb

Innate releasing mechanisms (IRMs):

Activators for inborn, adaptive responses that aid an animal's survival Help an animal to successfully feed, reproduce & escape predators "Releasing" indicates that IRMs act as triggers for behaviours set in motion by internal programs

Corticosterone is made in the ____

Adrenal glands

The OFC's role in taste:

Affective properties

The failure to develop a certain structure is called _____

Agenesis

Those with panic disorder often also experience _____

Agoraphobia

One taste bud consists of ____ types of receptors

All 5

Fraga studied 40 pairs of identical twins:

Although the gene expressions were virtually identical when measured at childhood, 50-year-old twins exhibited differences so remarkable as to make them as different epigenetically as young non-twin siblings

The feelings part of emotion includes activity in the _____ & _____

Amygdala Frontal lobe

Many olfactory targets, such as the _____ & the ______, have no connection through the thalamus

Amygdala Piriform cortex

Oxygen content in the brain when active:

As neurons become active, they use more oxygen, resulting in a temporary dip in the amount of oxygen in the blood At the same time, active neurons signal the blood vessels to dilate to increase the blood flow Fox discovered that when human brain activity increases, the increase in oxygen produced by increased blood flow exceeds the tissue's need for oxygen

PROP:

Associates with allelic variation in the taste receptor gene, TAS2R38 People who are able to detect minute quantities find the taste very bitter Referred to as "supertasters" Advantage is that bitter foods are often poisonous Disadvantage is not liking many nutritious fruits & vegetables *Those who do not taste PROP as bitter are called "non-tasters"* (more tolerant of brussels sprouts)

Depression can often result from mTBI, and it may result in _____ and _____ deficits

Attentional Short-term memory

The "a" in CAT scan stands for ____

Axial

Daily frequency of copulation in males is correlated with: a. the sexual refractory period. b. androgen levels. c. sex drive. d. None of the answers is correct.

B

In order to view synapses in detail you need: A) a light microscope. B) an electron microscope. C) an EEG. D) None of the answers is correct.

B

Innate releasing mechanisms: a. are responsible for eliciting all infant behavior. b. can be modified by experience. c. are present in lower species but not in humans. d. disappear as we mature.

B

Reward is thought to be regulated largely by the: a. nigrostriatal dopamine pathway. b. mesolimbic dopamine pathway. c. norepinephrine pathway. d. serotonin pathway.

B

Subjects who are paid handsomely to do nothing, see nothing, and hear and touch nothing rarely stay in the experiment longer than: A) 12 hours. B) 24 hours. C) 36 hours. D) 48 hours.

B

The first field of study of the relationship between brain function and behavior is: A) neurology. B) neuropsychology. C) physiological physiology. D) behaviorism.

B

The mirror-drawing task measures: A) sensory perception. B) motor memory. C) sensory memory. D) emotional memory.

B

_____ stains show cell bodies, whereas ______ stains show cell bodies and processes (e.g., dendrites). A) Golgi; Nissl B) Nissl; Golgi C) Broca; Golgi D) Nissl; Broca

B

A study used fNIRS on newborns (0-3 days old) as they listened to the sounds of a familiar or unfamiliar language:

Babies wore a mesh cap containing the apparatus, made up of optical fibres *If familiar, their brains showed a generalized increase in oxygenated hemoglobin* If unfamiliar, oxygenated hemoglobin decreased When the babies heard the same sentences played backwards, there was no difference in brain response The *prenatal brain is tuned in to the language environment into which it will be born*

Event-related potentials (ERPs):

Brief changes in an EEG signal in response to a discrete sensory stimulus Graded potentials on dendrites that a sensory stimulus triggers

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI):

Based on the principle that *hydrogen atoms* like spinning bar magnets in the presence of a magnetic field Normally, hydrogen atoms point randomly in different directions, but when placed in a magnetic field, they line up parallel as they orient themselves with respect to the field's lines of force *Radio pulses* are applied to a brain whose atoms have been aligned in this manner, and the radio pulses form a 2nd magnetic field This causes the spinning atoms to wobble irregularly, producing a tiny electrical current that the MRI measures Areas with *high water content* (neuron-rich areas) will stand out from areas with lower water content (axon-rich areas) because of the differences in hydrogen density

Homeostatic mechanisms:

Basic neural circuits for controlling behaviour & autonomic process that maintain critical body functions within a narrow, fixed range

Motivation:

Behaviour that seems purposeful & goal-directed Both inferred & subjective, and can occur without awareness or intent Includes both *regulatory behaviours* (which are essential for survival) and *non-regulatory behaviours* (which are not required to meet the basic needs of an animal)

Humans are inferior to other animals in detecting many smells, but we surprisingly have an acute sensitivity to smells that are ____

Behaviourally relevant

Pheromones:

Biochemicals released by one animal that acts as chemosignals & can affect the physiological or behaviour of another animal

Histological:

Brains were sectioned postmortem and the tissue stained with different dyes Can use a light microscope to selectively stain individual neurons to reveal their complete structure (*Golgi-stained*), or to identify cell bodies in the brain (*Nissl-stained*)

On entering the ____, the solitary tract divides into 2

Brainstem

A study contrasting normal rats and ADX rats (who had their adrenal glands removed) observed that: a. both groups of rats learned normally. b. corticosterone plays no role in learning and memory. c. only ADX rats had difficulty remembering objects they had encountered before. d. both groups of rats had difficulty remembering objects they had encountered before.

C

According to your text, cats kill: A) for survival. B) because of training by their mother. C) because the activity in the cat's killing circuit is pleasant. D) All of the answers are correct.

C

Administering nicotine to rats: A) improves learning. B) impairs learning. C) first improves learning, then impairs learning on a second task. D) first impairs learning, then improves learning on a second task.

C

Alpha rhythms are recorded from: A) microelectrodes. B) evoked potentials. C) an EEG. D) action potentials.

C

Broca's area is located in the: A) temporal lobe. B) parietal lobe. C) frontal lobe. D) limbic lobe.

C

Emotion can be considered _____, whereas motivation can be considered _____. a. behavior that is purposeful and goal-directed; cognitive interpretations of subjective feelings b. chemical reactions to subjective feelings; behavior that helps to promote sexual reproduction c. cognitive interpretations of subjective feelings; behavior that is purposeful and goal-directed d. chemical reactions to subjective feelings; behavior that serves a self-regulatory function

C

Event-related potentials are: A) quite different from the EEG. B) summed action potentials. C) largely graded potentials on dendrites. D) None of the answers is correct.

C

If a person is awake and alert, the EEG pattern will consist of: A) high-amplitude, high-frequency waves. B) low-amplitude, low-frequency waves. C) low-amplitude, high-frequency waves. D) There is no systematic pattern to EEG activity.

C

Emotions:

Cognitive interpretations of subjective feelings Can operate outside our immediate awareness as well

Magnetic resonance imaging measures: a. density differences of carbon atoms perturbed by a radio pulse b. density differences of oxygen atoms perturbed by a radio pulse c. density differences of hydrogen atoms perturbed by a radio pulse d. metabolic activity of brain cells engaged in processing brain functions

C

Near-infrared spectroscopy measures: A) electroencephalographic activity. B) single-cell activity. C) blood-oxygen consumption. D) blood-glucose consumption.

C

Positron emission tomography (PET) uses: a. radio pulses. b. hydrogen atoms. c. radioactive isotopes. d. magnets.

C

Taste-aversion learning: a. is not really learning but an instinctive reaction. b. is found only in humans. c. appears to take only one trial of learning. d. is caused by an innate releasing mechanism.

C

The best method of examining the response characteristics of individual neurons in the visual cortex is: a. an EEG. b. MEG. c. a single-cell recording. d. ERP.

C

Using blue light to excite and green-yellow light to inhibit neurons is making use of: A) transcranial magnetic stimulation. B) near-infrared spectroscopy. C) optogenetics. D) photomicroscopy

C

Your text describes a patient by the name of Roger. Roger ate indiscriminately. He was found to have: A) an amygdala lesion. B) an acquired neurosis. C) a tumor near his hypothalamus. D) a tumor near his brainstem.

C

______ uses a stimulating coil to pass a magnetic field through the skull in order to induce electrical stimulation of the cortex. A) Deep brain stimulation B) Self-stimulation C) Transcranial magnetic stimulation D) Electroconvulsive therapy

C

Some research suggests that the ____ gene may be the culprit for cannabis-psychosis because this gene has been associated with schizophrenia

COMT

Extracellular recordings:

Can distinguish activity of as many as 40 neurons at once

In Canada, 20 organizations make up the ____, which is dedicated to enhanced deals with animal care in experimentation

Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)

_____ is the most widely used illicit drug in the world

Cannabis

What happens if private companies do not conform to these guidelines in the USA?

Cannot publish their results unless they follow this process

fMRI:

Changes in the oxygen context of the blood alter the magnetic properties of the water in the blood fMRI can accurately match these changes in magnetic properties to specific locations in the brain

Another way to modulate reward circuits comes via our ______

Chemical senses

Phobias often use ____ therapies

Cognitive-behavioural

Lateral hypo:

Composed of nuclei & nerve tracts connecting the lower brainstem to the forebrain The main tract is the *medial forebrain bundle* (MFB)

In the 1970s, Cormack & Housnfield independently developed an X-ray called ______

Computerized tomography (CT)

MFB:

Connects structures in the brainstem with the *limbic system*, as well as projections from the brainstem to the *basal ganglia & frontal cortex* A large part of this tract are fibres that ascend from the *DA and NE-containing cells* of the lower brainstem

Prefrontal cortex:

Controlling executive functions Plays a role in specifying goals toward which movement should be directed The process by which we select movements that are appropriate for the particular time & context May be cued by internal information (memory & emotion) or it may be made in response to context (enviro)

There are "thermostat" cells that become very active when cool/warm

Cool

The thinking part of emotion includes activity in the _____

Cortex

Without ____, neurons in the hippo die

Corticosterone

Disadvantage to MEGs:

Cost (expensive)

Animal Welfare Act:

Covers mammals (rats, mice, cats, monkeys, birds), but *excludes farm animals* Administered by the US Department of Agriculture through inspectors in the Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service

Whishaw's behavioural tests for rats with strokes:

Created to see how rats who have had strokes cope with the deficits Both novel tasks & scoring methods for fine details for skilled reaching movements in rats In 1 test, rats are trained to reach through a slot to obtain a piece of sweet food These movements are quite similar to humans and can be broken down into segments (which are scored separately)

A brain imaging study by Kross et al. (2011) examined the regions that were important for processing both physical and emotional pain. The results of this study demonstrated that: A) physical pain activated the somatosensory cortex, whereas emotional pain activated the amygdala. B) physical pain activated the somatosensory cortex, whereas emotional pain activated the anterior cingulate cortex. C) physical pain activated the frontal lobes, whereas emotional pain activated the somatosensory cortex. D) the same brain areas responded to both physical and emotional pain.

D

EEG can be used to: A) monitor sleep. B) estimate depth of anesthesia. C) detect epilepsy. D) All of the answers are correct.

D

EEG is a measure of: a. evoked potentials. b. action potentials. c. event-related potentials. d. graded potentials.

D

In a study on infant language, researchers found that when newborn infants listened to a familiar language there was an ______ in oxygenated hemoglobin, and there was a ______ in oxygenated hemoglobin when they listened to an unfamiliar language. A) decrease; increase B) increase; no change C) decrease; no change D) increase; decrease

D

Loss of initiative or drive and apathy are characteristic of: a. hypothalamic lesions. b. dorsolateral cortex lesions. c. amygdala lesions. d. orbital cortex lesions.

D

The _____ prefrontal sends connections to the sensory association cortex, the posterior parietal, the cingulate, the basal ganglia & the premotor

Dorsolateral

The Corsi test measures: A) emotion. B) language. C) sensory perception. D) memory.

D

The event-related potential (ERP) technique relies heavily on: A) repeated stimulus presentation. B) signal averaging. C) brain stimulation. D) both repeated stimulus presentation and signal averaging

D

The medial forebrain bundle goes through the: a. dorsal hypothalamus. b. periventricular hypothalamus. c. medial hypothalamus. d. lateral hypothalamus.

D

______ uses light to control targeted cells in living tissue in order to activate proteins. A) Photomicroscopy B) Genetic engineering C) Photoengineering D) Optogenetics

D

What possible receptor gene may be implicated in ADHD?

D4

What is the most likely cause of ADHD?

DA receptors in the forebrain (frontal lobe & subcortical basal ganglia)

Canadian Council on Animal Care:

Dedicated to enhanced animal care & use through education, voluntary compliance & codes of ethics Organized to respond flexibly to the concerns of both the scientific community & the general public Rapid & frequent amendments to its guidelines

Scoville & Milner's experiments:

Described a patient from whose brain Scoville had removed the hippocampus as a treatment for epilepsy This patient became amnesic (Lashley had never bothered to remove this area, partly because it was a subcortical region that was difficult to get to)

PET:

Detects changes in the brain's blood flow by measuring changes in the uptake of compounds such as oxygen & glucose

Taste & aging:

Differences in taste thresholds also emerge as we age Children are much more responsive than adults to taste & are often intolerant of spicy foods because they have more taste receptors than adults have By age 20, humans have lost 50% of their taste receptors

What happens if we injure the dorsolateral prefrontal?

Disruption of selecting behaviours appropriate to the particular time & place *Become overly dependent on enviro cues* They are easily distracted by what they see/hear This problem is exaggerated & persistent Unable to act on internalized info most of the time *Without the enviro cue, they seem to lack motivation*

Olfactory receptor neurons in vertebrates:

Do not respond to specific odours, but rather a range of odours A given odourant stimulates a unique pattern of receptors, and the summed activity produces our perception of a particular odour Combinations of receptors in a novel gene family allows us to discriminate about 10,000 different smells

Advantage to cerebral voltammetry:

Does not require the chemical analysis of fluid removed from the brain

The _____ nucleus of the thalamus does project to the *orbitofrontal cortex*

Dorsomedial

What is the advantage of using drugs to study behaviour?

Drugs through the bloodstream is that their effects wear off in time, so you can re-examine the behaviour after the drug has worn off

_____ brain-imaging allows people to measure the amount of blood, oxygen & glucose the brain uses

Dynamic

____ detect at gyri; _____ a sulci

EEGs MEGs

What does the EEG look like when we drift into sleep, then into deep sleep?

EEGs become slower & larger in amplitude

To study those with mTBI & depression, should use MRIs/ERPs

ERPs

What is difficult about ERPs?

ERPs are mixed in with so many other electrical signals in the brain that they are difficult to spot just by visually inspecting an EEG record

What are ERPs most useful for?

ERPs can be used not only to detect which areas of the brain are processing particular stimuli but also to study the *order in which different regions play a role* If the P in a certain area is larger than anywhere else, it's a *"hot spot"*

Donald Hebb studied the effects of sensory deprivation:

Each student lay on a bed in a small, soundproofed room with ears enveloped by a hollowed-out pillow Cardboard tubes covered the hands & arms A translucent visor covered the eyes Most were content for perhaps 4-8 hours, then they became increasingly distressed In one version of the experiment, participants could listen, on request, a talk for 6 year old children on the dangers of alcohol; some asked to hear it 20x a day Few lasted more than 24 hours *The brain must have an inherent need for stimulation*

Advantage to fNRIS:

Easy to hook up & record throughout their lifetime (non-invasive)

If animals have the opportunity to press a bar that briefly turns on the current, they quickly learn to press the bar to obtain the current (called _____)

Electrical self-stimulation

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS):

Electrical stimulation of the brain is invasive because holes must be drilled in the skull; because of this, researchers invented this *non-invasive* technique A small wire coil is placed adjacent to the skull A high-voltage current is pulsed through the coil, which in turn produces a rapid increase & decrease in the magnetic field around the coil *The magnetic field easily passes through the skull & causes a population of neurons in the cortex to depolarize & fire*

Electrodes can also be placed directly on the cerebral cortex during neurosurgery, a method called ____

Electrocorticography (ECoG)

Recording electrical activity ("brain waves") produces an _____ ("electrical record from the head")

Electroencephalogram

What was the first method of studying the brain's physiological processes?

Electroencephalographs

Klüver-Bucy syndrome is rare in humans, but can occur as a result of a type of _____

Encephalitis

The hypothalamus maintains homeostasis by acting on the _____ & the ____, as well as other brain circuits, to regulate our internal enviro

Endocrine system ANS

Skinner believed that all behaviours are selected by ____

Enviro factors

The study of animal behaviour is called _____

Ethology

What is the difficulty with PET?

Even though the distribution of blood is not uniform, it is still difficult to conclude very much from such a map because the entire brain is receiving oxygen & glucose

Study of congenitally blind children:

Evidence for a prewired motor program related to facial expressions Spontaneously produce the very same facial expressions that sighted people do

Study of those who were abused & committed suicide:

Examined epigenetic differences in hippocampal tissue in those with committed suicide with a history of child abuse, and those who committed suicide with no abuse (and controls) The abused victims parallel those found in the rats with inattentive mothers

IRMs can be modified with _____

Experience

Microelectrodes can be placed next to cells (_____ recording) or inside cells (_____ recording)

Extracellular Intracellular

The easiest way to measure chemical changes in the brain:

Extract tissue postmortem from humans or animals and undertake biochemical techniques (such as high-performance liquid chromatography) to measure specific chemical levels

ERPs, mTBI & depression:

Found that all subjects with the head injury had a *delayed P3 wave*, but only those with depression also had a *delayed N2 wave*

Mitral cells cells send their axons from the olfactory bulb to ____ areas

Forebrain

Skinner argued against the commonly held view that much of behaviour is under our own control:

Free will is only an illusion because behaviour is controlled not by the organism but the enviro, through experience

Non-regulatory behaviours mostly entail the ____ of the brain

Frontal lobe

An individual's genotype exists in an environmental context that is fundamental to ______, the way genes become active or not

Gene expression

Variations in _____ contribute to brain organization

Gene sequences

Study of rats & nicotine:

Gonzalez administered nicotine to rats as they learned a skilled reaching task & then studied their later acquisition of a new skilled reaching task *The later motor learning was impaired by the earlier, nicotine-enhanced motor learning*

As a result of being unable to publish, most companies use use standards described as _____ that are just as rigorous

Good Lab Practice

The electrical activity of bodies & dendrites (_____) tends to be much more varied than that of axons (_____)

Graded potentials Action potentials

Non-tasters, either by genotype or phenotype (few taste buds), reported...

Greater consumption of vegetables

Repetitive TMS:

Has been used as potential treatment for a variety of behavioural disorders (*anti-depressant* actions mostly)

Garcia observed that farmers are constantly shooting at coyotes for attacking lams, yet despite these painful consequences, the coyotes never seem to learn to stop killing lambs in favour of other prey:

He speculated that a coyote's brain is not prewired to make this association So instead, Garcia gave the coyotes a poisoned lam carcass, which made them sick (but did not kill them) With only one pairing of lamb & illness, most coyotes learned not to eat sheep for the rest of their lives

Somatic marker hypothesis:

He studied frontal-lobe injury patients, and was struck by how they could be highly rational in analyzing the world yet still make irrational social & personal decisions He argued that it is the neural machinery that underlies emotion no longer affects these people, consciously or not He proposed that emotions are responses induced by either internal or external stimuli not normally attended to consciously *Posits that "marker" signals arising from emotions and feelings act to guide behaviour and decision making, usually an unconscious process* Ex. Seeing a bear causes you to run before you even "think" about that action

The Office of Human Research Protections of the National Institutes of Health administers the ____ in the USA

Health Research Extension Act

Preparedness:

Helps account for some complex behaviours Animals have a predisposition to respond to certain stimuli differently from other stimuli, such as two rats fighting after being given a shock Might be able to extend this idea to explain human behaviour such as racism

Reflected infrared light infers blood flow because...

Hemoglobin absorbs light as a particle wavelength By measuring the blood's light absorption it is possible to measure the brain's average oxygen consumption

Advantage to CT:

High localization

Skinner's theory of enviro:

His argument was that certain events function as rewards (*reinforcers*) and when a reinforcing event follows a particular response, similar responses are more likely to occur again Reinforcement can be manipulated to encourage the display of complex behaviours

At the beginning of the 20th century, neuroanatomy's primary tools were ______

Histological

The hypothalamus houses many ______

Homeostatic mechanisms

Humans VS rats VS dogs VS cats for *taste*:

Humans & rats like sucrose & saccharin solutions, but *dogs reject saccharin & cats are indifferent to both* (cannot detect sweetness at all)

Generalized anxiety disorder:

Hyperactivity of the sympathetic NS Often unaware that they are overly anxious

Drugs that prevent DA promote ____ rats; drugs that stimulate DA promote ____ rats

Hypokinetic Hyperkinetic

The autonomic part of emotion includes activity in the _____

Hypothalamus

Insula's role in taste:

Identifies the nature & intensity of flavours

Reading an ERP:

If a person hears a tone, the EEG record is very irregular when it's first presented; but after 100 stimulus presentations, a distinctive wave pattern appears # of negative (N) and positive (P) waves over a few hundred milliseconds after the stimulus The waves are numbered in relation to the time at which they occur (P1 occurs 100 ms after, N2 occurs 200 ms after) Some ERPs to sound always produce common waves, whereas some sounds (spoken words) are very unique

Channelrhodospin-2:

If exposed to blue light, the ion channel opens and depolarizes the neuron

Halorhodopsin:

If exposed to green-yellow light, chloride pump is activated, hyperpolarizing the neuron

History of language in the brain:

In 1861, Auburtin argued that language functions are in the brain's frontal lobes 5 days later, Broca observed a brain injured patient who had lost his speech & was able to say only "tan" and utter a swear word Left frontal lobe injury determined after his death Broca had concluded that speech was located in the *3rd frontal convolution of the left frontal lobe*

Study with place cells:

In 2008, showed that in mice with a genetically engineered mutation that produces deficits in spatial memory, place cells lack specificity

Rewarding experiences in cats:

In cats, their prey-killing circuitry in some way is rewarding This ensures that the cat will engage in the pleasure-producing behaviour often This helps to guarantee that it will usually not go hungry

Hypothalamus & experiential responses:

In response to experience, hypothalamic neurons undergo structural & biochemical changes Such changes can affect the output of hormones Ex. When a woman is lactating, the cells producing OT increase in size to promote the increasing demands of the infant

Microdialysis & voltammetry are collectively called _____

In vivo chemistry

Visual agnosia:

Inability to recognize objects or drawings of objects This is the only one that occurs due to temporal damage, the rest are amygdala for Klüver-Bucy syndrome

The ____ prefrontal projects to the amygdala & hypothalamus

Inferior

Emotion, like motivation, is an _____ state

Inferred

The ______ theory believes that physiological changes come first, and the brain then interprets these changes as an emotion of some kind

James-Lange

The ______ syndrome results after the removal of the amygdalae and anterior temporal cortices of monkeys

Klüver-Bucy

Rats with electrodes in the _____ hypothalamus eat whenever the stimulation is turned on

Lateral

Rats with electrodes placed in the _____ will eat whenever the stimulation is turned on

Lateral hypothalamus

Perinatal anoxia rat studies:

Leads to abnormalities in the right hemisphere, also seen in those with ADHD

Garcia's observations can be applied to _____ in humans

Learned taste aversion

Study of stressed pregnant rats:

Led to large changes in gene expression in their offspring, both in the *frontal lobe & the hippocampus*

To perform a leukotomy, a surgeon uses a special knife called a _____ to sever the connections of a region of the *orbitofrontal cortex*

Leukotome

There is a modest risk for the emergence of ____, especially when adolescents use cannabis

Psychosis

Increase in the DA transporter protein: ADHD

Means that DA reuptake into the pre-synapse occurs faster than in does in brains of people without ADHD Would decrease the relative DA, which is why Ritalin is effective (blocks DA reuptake)

If the receptors are affected by a chemosignal, a _____ receptor leads to the opening of sodium channels & a change in the membrane potential

Metabotropic

_____ is a way of measuring chemistry in freely moving animals

Microdialysis

What do we use to record APs from single cells?

Microelectrodes

Gustatory stimuli interacts with the receptor tips (_____) to open ion channels

Microvilli

In glomeruli, synapse onto ____ cells

Mitral

How does this behaviour, when dorsolateral prefrontal is damaged, relate to socializing?

Most people readily change their behaviour to match the situation at hand (ex. acting around friends VS family) These people cannot

Processing body odours:

Mostly unconscious Represents an automatic process that matches odours to a learned "library" of smells

Regulatory behaviours:

Motivated by an organism's survival Controlled by homeostatic mechanisms These neural circuits might induce an involuntary response (ex. shivering to warm up; sweating to cool down) Both neural & hormonal mechanisms

The ultimate function of any brain region is to produce behaviour (______)

Movement

Each receptor cell sends a process that ends in 10-20 cilia in the olfactory _____

Mucosa

Neurons in the amygdala & prefrontal are ____

Multimodal

After the electron microscope, the ______ microscope was generated to make a 3D image of _____ tissue

Multiphoton Living

IRMs can be related to the Darwinian view of the NS evolution:

Natural selection favours behaviours that prove adaptive for an organisms, and these behaviours are passed on to future generations The natural selection of specific behaviours, therefore, is really the selection of particular brain circuits Animals that survive long enough to reproduce & have healthy offspring are more likely to pass on their brain circuit genes This theory is simple when applied to cats, but more complex when applied to humans - this is where *evolutionary psychology* comes into play

Non-regulatory behaviours:

Neither required to meet basic survival needs of an animal nor controlled by homeostatic mechanisms Some of these behaviours, such as sexual intercourse, entail the hypothalamus, but *most do not* Most of these behaviours are strongly influenced by *external stimuli*; so sensory systems are involved

Hypothalamus & the posterior pituitary:

Neurons in the hypothalamus make peptides that are transported down their axons to terminals lying in the posterior pituitary; if these neurons become active, they release the peptides that are stored there These peptides are picked up by capillaries in the posterior pituitary's rich vascular bed The blood varies them to distant targets

Deep-brain stimulation (DBS):

Neurosurgery in which electrodes are implanted in the brain to stimulate a targeted area with a low-voltage electrical current to facilitate behaviour DBS to subcortical structures makes movement smoother, allowing medications to be reduced significantly DBS has been used experimentally as a treatment in both depression and OCD; further trials are underway for psychiatric disorders and TBI recovery

Psychosurgery:

Neurosurgery intended to alter behaviour Frontal lobotomy

Panic disorder:

No apparent relation to external circumstances Attacks last only a few mins; occur only occasionally However, the dread of another episode may be continual

Study of kittens & IRMs:

No exposure to any adult cats except their mother, when shown a photo of a cat, respond with all normal-adult signs of being threatened (hissing & arching the back) So something is prewired in the kitten brain

Olfactory receptor cells project to the _____, ending in _____

Olfactory bulb Glomeruli

The receptor surface for olfaction is the _____, which lies in the nasal cavity

Olfactory epithelium

What is a way to fix the problem with ERPs?

One way to detect ERPs is to produce the stimulus repeatedly and average the recorded responses Averaging tends to cancel out any irregular and unrelated electrical activity, leaving in the EEG record only the potentials that the stimulus generated

______ is a transgenic technique that combines genetics and light to activate proteins in living tissue using specific frequencies of light.

Optogenetics

The gustatory cortex projects to the _____

Orbital cortex

Other than the dorsolateral prefrontal, what other area results in difficulty adapting their behaviour to context, especially social context?

Oribtal prefrontal

Why is maintaining a constant body temp so necessary?

Our whole body is a chemical "soup" 1000s of reactions are taking place all the time An increase of 2 degrees might increase one reaction by 10% and another by only 2% These uneven changes wreak havoc on the body, especially metabolism & the workings of neurons

In vitro:

Outside the brain

The sensitivity to bitterness is related to genetic differences in the ability to detect a specific chemical (_____)

PROP

______ effects 3% of the population

Panic disorder

Papez's research on rabies:

Papez observed that people with rabies display radically abnormal emotional behaviour Postmortems showed that the rabies had selectively attacked the *hippocampus* Proposed the Papez circuit, whereby emotion could reach consciousness, presumed at that time to reside on the *cerebral cortex*

What was one of the first disorders to make a neuronal-behavioural relationship?

Parkinson's

Gustatory cortex:

Part of the insula Just rostral to the secondary somatosensory cortex

The recency memory task:

Participants are shown a long series of cards, each bearing 2 stimulus items that are words or pictures On some trials a question mark appears between the items The subjects' task is to indicate whether they have seen the items before, and if so, which item they saw more recently People may be able to recall that they have seen items before but be unable to recall which was most recent; or they may not be able to identify the items as being familiar, but when forced to choose the most recent one, they can correctly identify it Recalling information verbally is in itself a form of memory

_____ act to increase brain levels of NE & DA for those with ADHD

Psychomotor stimulants

One study used fMRI to scan 40 participants who had recently experienced an unwanted breakup:

Participants looked at either a photo of their ex-partner or a photo of a same-gender friend with whom they shared a positive experience at about the time of the break up Emotional cue phrases associated with each photograph directed the participants to focus on a specific experience they shared with each person In a separate session, they employed either painfully hot or non-painfully warm stimulation on participants' forearms *Social rejection hurts in the same way physical pain hurts*

Temporal lobe damage in humans:

People with damage to the temporal lobes complain of memory disturbance, but memory is not a single function It would be rare for someone to be impaired in all forms of memory

Other ADHD models focus on manipulating the animal's prefrontal development by _____

Perinatal anoxia

If TMS is used on the visual cortex, the participant sees dots of light (_____)

Phasphenes

Skinner applied his theory to complex human behaviours, such as _____

Phobias

The most common & least disabling type of anxiety disorder are _____

Phobias

The main function of the hypothalamus is to control the _____

Pituitary gland

In 1971, O'Keefe found that some cells in the hippocampus fire when an animal is in a specific place; called them ____

Place cells

Butler & Harlow came to a similar conclusion as Hebb through a series of experiments conducted around the same time:

Placed rhesus monkeys in a dimly lit room with a small door that could be opened to view an adjoining room The researchers could vary the stimuli in the adjoining room so that the monkeys could view different objects or animals each time they opened the door The monkeys spent a lot of time opening the door and viewing whatever was on the display The monkeys were willing to perform various tasks just for an opportunity to look through the door The longer they were deprived of a chance to look, the more time they spent looking when finally given the opportunity

Orbitofrontal cortex:

Plays a central role in a variety of emotional & social behaviours, as well as in eating

Hypothalamus & amygdala in taste:

Plays a role in feeding behaviour, but possibly evaluates the pleasantness & salience of flavours as well

Why does the VNO connects to those 2 places?

Plays a role in reproductive & social behaviour

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF):

Plays a role in stimulating *neural plasticity*, and low levels are found in those with mood disorders The 2 alleles of this gene are BDNF Val 66Met and BDNF Val 66Val

EEG waves are recorded with an oscilloscope called a ____

Polygraph

Disadvantage of ERPs:

Poor spatial localization

Researchers use _____ to study the metabolic activity of brain cells engaged in processing brain functions

Positron emission tomography (PET)

One hypothesis is that early life stress may produce changes in the ______ in those with depression

Prefrontal cortex

Because of learned taste aversion, learning theories have developed the concept of ____

Preparedness

COMT:

Produces an enzyme that involves metabolizing DA in the synapse

Route 2 of the solitary tract:

Projects through the pons to the hypothalamus & amygdala

Opsins:

Proteins derived from microorganisms, and they combine a light-sensitive domain with an ion channel (ex. channelrhodospin-2)

Morris' original maze task for rats:

Rats are placed in a large swimming pool and an escape platform lies just below the surface of the water, invisible to the rats

How is the amygdala similar to the hypo?

Receives inputs from all sensory systems

Neural control: OT

Regulation by the limbic system & frontal lobes OT is released from the paraventricular nucleus As an infant suckles the breast, the tactile stimulation causes the hypothalamus to release OT, which stimulates milk letdown in the mammary glands (so both neural & hormonal) However, the sight, sound or even thought of her baby can trigger a mother to eject milk Feelings of anxiety can inhibit milk ejection (frontal)

Good Lab Practice:

Regulations specify that researchers consider alternatives to procedures that my cause more than momentary pain or distress

Behaviours motivated by an organism's survival are called ______ behaviours.

Regulatory

BDNF Val 66*Val*:

Related to neuroticism & anxiety disorders So the BDNF alleles produce different phenotypes because they influence brain structure & functions differently

The effects of brief pulses of TMS do not outlive the stimulation, but _____, which involves continuous stimulation for up to several minutes, produces more long-lasting effects

Repetitive TMS (rTMS)

The mirror-drawing task:

Requires a person to trace a pathway, such as a star, by looking in a mirror Movements are backwards, but with practice, we improve Subjects with certain types of memory problems have no recollection of learning the task on the previous day, but nevertheless perform it flawlessly *Procedural memory*

The Corsi block-tapping test:

Requires participants to observe an experimenter tap a sequence of blocks They must repeat the sequence correctly; the subject does not see the #s on the blocks but rather must remember the location of the blocks tapped Provides a measure of short-term recall of spatial position, an ability we call *block span*

Umami:

Sensitive to glutamate, and perhaps protein

Human body temperature is controlled by a "thermostat" in the hypothalamus that holds internal temperature at 37 degrees Celsius; referred to as the _____

Setpoint

Frontal lobotomy patients:

Show no sign of outward emotion No longer have any feelings about things or most people; just feels empty & much like a zombie Like other frontal injuries, no ability to plan or organize Apathy & loss of initiative Prosody, or tone of voice, is also devoid in these patients

Androstadienone:

Shown to alter glucose utilization in the neocortex Affects cortical processes even though the signal was not actually detected consciously

Chemical senses in cats:

Smell of a mouse stimulates hunting in cats

The size of frontal lobes is related to a species' ______

Sociability

The 3 cranial nerves form the main gustatory nerve, the _____

Solitary tract

Neurotoxic lesion:

Solution to electrolytic's problem Lower a narrow, metal tube (cannula) instead of an electrode, infuse a neuron-killing chemical, and thus produce a neurotoxic lesion

Damasio emphasized an important aspect of the link between emotional & cognitive factors in his ______

Somatic marker hypothesis

Cells in sensory regions of the brain are highly _____ in what excites them

Specific

Non-invasive examination of brain structure, such as MRI, CT, or DTI, is called _____ imaging

Static

Rat ADHD studies with drugs:

Studies show that Ritalin improves the performance of rats that do poorly on tests of attentional processes One rat strain, the *Kyoto SHR rat*, has been widely used as an especially good model for ADHD The strain presents known abnormalities in *pre-frontal DA* innervation that correlate with behaviours like hyperactivity *DA agonist*, such as Ritalin, can reverse these behaviours in both children with ADHD & SHR rats

Awareness of danger & of safety has both an innate & a learned component:

The *innate* component is like IRMs Ex. A rat that has never encountered a ferret shows an immediate fear response to the odour of ferret The innate response triggers the rat an autonomic activation that stimulates conscious awareness of danger The *learned* component consists of the avoidance of specific animals, places, etc that the organism has come to associate with danger

Motor VS premotor cortices:

The *motor* cortex controls fine movements The *premotor* cortex participates in the selection of appropriate movement sequences

Hypothalamus & the anterior pituitary:

The glandular tissue of the anterior pituitary synthesizes various hormones The hypothalamus controls the release of anterior pituitary hormones by producing chemicals known as *releasing hormones* Releasing hormones are secreted into capillaries that transport them to the ANT PIT

The ____ process in PET & fMRI studies images the change in blood flow by comparing a control condition with an experimental condition

Subtraction

The connection between anatomy & behaviour can also be seen in studies of animals trained on various type of learning tasks (ex. spatial mazes):

Such learning can be correlated with a variety of neuroanatomical changes Modifications in the synaptic organization of cells in specific cortical regions (ex. visual cortex for maze animals), or the # of newly generated cells that survive in the hippocampus Although the changes in synaptic organization or cell survival have not yet been proved to be the basis of the new learning, experimental evidence reveals that *preventing the growth of new hippocampal neurons leads to memory deficits*

After the light microscope, the electron microscope was invented to view _____

Synapses

Studies of newborn rats & the adult hippocampus:

Szyf & Meaney have shown that the amount of maternal attention given by mother rats to their newborn infants alters the expression of certain genes in the adult hippocampus These genes are related to the infants' stress response when they are adults

What is one way to study ADHD in rats?

Take advantage of the normal variance in performance of rats on various tests of working memory & cognitive functioning Can think of ADHD as one extreme on a spectrum of behaviours that are part of a normal distribution in the general population

One study investigated sensitivity to quinine (normally perceived as bitter) in participants who were assessed for the TAS2R38 genotype:

Taste bud density was estimated by counting # of papillae Quinine was reported as more bitter to those who tasted PROP as very bitter or to those who had more taste buds So the *receptor & the anatomy of the tongue play a role in bitterness*

Taste receptors are found within _____ located on the tongue, under the tongue, on the soft palate on the roof on the mouth, on the sides of the mouth & at the back of the mouth on the nasopharynx

Taste buds

How does PET measure blood flow then?

The PET system enables the measurement of blood flow in the brain because the unstable radioactive molecules accumulate in the brain in direct proportion to the rate of local blood flow Local blood flow is related to neural activity because potassium ions released from stimulated neurons dilate adjacent blood vessels *The greater the blood flow, the higher the radiation counts* recorded by the PET camera

In a study, researchers had an adult display to young infants various exaggerated facial expressions:

The babies responded with very much the same expressions the adults displayed They were too young to be imitating the adults intentionally

In a study, had normal rats and ADX rats (adrenal glands removed):

The behaviour of these rats was studied in the object/context mismatch task When *normal rats* encountered objects in the correct context, they spend little time investigating behaviour the objects are familiar; if they encountered an object in the wrong context, they are curious & spend about 75% of their time investigating (treating the mismatched object as new) *ADX rats* treated both the object in context & the mismatched object the same (spent half of their time investigating each object) *If given enriched housing & exercise in running wheels (known to increase neuronal generation in the hippo), they were not impaired in the task*

James-Lange theory:

The brain (cortex) creates a cognitive response to autonomic info The response varies with the context in which the arousal occurs

Male brain without androgens:

The brain circuits are still present but much more difficult to activate in the absence of androgens

Advantage of fMRI:

The dense blood-vessel supply to the cerebral cortex allows for a spatial resolution on the order of 1 mm

Disadvantage to CT:

The density of gray matter does not differ much from white matter

Place cells during sleep in rats:

The map of the maze "replayed" in their brain activity

Disadvantage to cerebral voltammetry:

The measurement of chemicals requires the degradation of one chemical to another; so it cannot be used in clinics

In one study, people were required to contract their facial muscles by following instructions about which parts of the face to move:

The movements produced happy & angry expressions Afterward, they viewed a series of slides & reported how the slides made them feel When making a happy face, they felt happier; when making an angry face, they felt mad *Our own facial expressions provide us with important clues to the emotions we are feeling as well*

The enviro does not always effect change in the brain...

The pigeon cannot learn to peck a disc to escape from a mild electric shock to its feet Although the same simple pecking behaviour is being rewarded, apparently the pigeon's brain is not prewired for this 2nd kind of association - it flies away from noxious situations instead

The amygdala projects to the frontal lobe, so what happens if this lobe is damaged?

The quality of emotion-related appraisals suffers & the response might be inappropriate

If Lashley couldn't get to the hippo, how could Scoville & Milner?

The solution to accessing subcortical regions is to use a *stereotaxic apparatus*, a device that permits a researcher to target a specific part of the brain for ablation

Behavioural neuroscience:

The study of the biological bases of behaviour, and includes both humans & animals Measuring behaviour in lab animals is more complex; we can't simply ask them to tell us their symptoms Researchers must develop ways to enable the animals to reveal their symptoms

Neuropsychology:

The study of the relationship between brain function & behaviour Measuring this includes non-invasive imaging, complex neuroanatomical measurement & sophisticated behavioural analyses

How can we make the Corsi test more difficult?

The test can be made more difficult by determining the maximum block span of an individual (ex. 6 blocks), and then adding one (span + 1) Span + 1 task reflects the learning & longer-term memory storage of information

Why does a fly stop eating?

Theorized that when the blood-sugar levels rise to some threshold, the fly stops eating But if you inject glucose into the circulatory system, the fly does not stop eating - so this theory is false Instead, flies have a *recurrent nerve that extends from the neck to the brain* & carries *information about whether any food is present in the esophagus* If this nerve is cut, the fly never stops eating

Evolutionary psychology in explaining human male aggression:

This behaviour may seem counter-productive to our species, but these psychologists argue that fighting is about social status *Men who fought & won duels passed on their genes* to future generations Some believe that this explains homicide *Natural selection likely favour sexually jealous males*; therefore, male jealousy would become a prevalent motive for interpersonal violence, including homicide While homicide itself does not help a man produce more, but *men who are apt to commit homicide are more likely to engage in other behaviours that improve their social status* & therefore reproductive fitness This theory cannot account for all behaviour however

If brain circuits do not activate reward circuits to produce behaviour, what circuits are they activating?

Those that reduce the aversive experience

Electrolytic lesion:

To ablate the substantia nigra, a small hole is drilled in the skull and an electrode is lowered to the substantia nigra If a current is passed through the electrode, the tissue in the region of the electrode tip is killed, producing an electrolytic lesion

Lashley's experiments in the 20s:

Tried to find the location of memory (removed cerebral cortex areas in monkeys & rats) He failed to produce amnesia, but discovered instead that memory loss was related to the amount of tissue he removed Concluded that memory was distributed throughout the brain and not in a single place

How do researchers get around this difficulty with PET?

Use a statistical trick They subtract the blood-flow pattern when the brain is in a carefully selected control state from the pattern of blood flow imaged when the subject is engaged in a task This subtraction shows the *change in blood flow* The change can be averaged across many subjects to yield a representative, average image difference that reveals which areas of the brain are selectively active

Brodmann:

Use histology to divide the cerebral cortex into many distinct zones These zones are presumed to have specific functions

Pheromones are detected by a special olfactory receptor system known as the _____

Vomeronasal organ

Emotions are not restricted to humans:

We now know that the expression of emotion in all mammals is related to activity in the *limbic system & frontal lobes*

Agenesis of the frontal lobes: JP

When JP was a child, he developed the habit of wandering; he had no fear of being lost As he grew into adolescence, he was constantly in trouble He developed no close friendships of either sex He was a person of normal intelligence who seemed unaffected by the consequences of his behaviour JP was not influenced by past consequences nor current enviro input He was unable to formulate plans for the future or to inhibit behaviours; he acted on impulse

Inferring purpose in behaviour: to know a fly

When a fly lands on a table, it wanders about Eventually it finds good and sticks its proboscis into it & eats it The fly may then walk to another place to groom Finally, it spends a long period of time motionless Dethier studied flies for years and determined that all of these behaviours have *nothing to do with purpose or intent* Flies have *taste receptors on their feet*, so when they walk, they are actually tasting Tasting is automatic Built-in preference for sweet tastes; aversion for sour, salty or bitter The sweeter the good, the more a fly will consume

When was the hypothalamus' involvement in generating behaviour first discovered?

When a small electric shock was delivered through a wire electrode to an animal, and it suddenly engaged in some complex behaviour; the behaviour depending on the type of animal and which site was stimulated All the behaviours were smooth, well integrated & indistinguishable from normally occurring ones; furthermore, they were all goal-directed If an electrode elicited feeding behaviour, the animal ate as soon as the stimulation was turned on & continued to eat until the stimulation was turned off; if the food was removed, the animal would neither eat nor engage in other behaviours (ex. drinking)

Flehmen in cats:

When the novel urine from a cat or human stimulate cats to raise their upper lip to close off the nasal passages & suck air into the mouth The air flows through the duct on the roof of the mouth en route to the VNO

The common view that ADHD is a cultural phenomenon has been challenged in a scholarly review:

When the same rating criteria are used, the prevalence of ADHD worldwide is the same

Cerebral voltammetry:

Where a small carbon fibre electrode & a metal *electrode are implanted* in the brain, and a small current is passed through the metal electrode The current causes electrons to be added to or removed from the surrounding chemicals, and these changes can be translated into a measure of *extracellular levels * Because different currents lead to changes in different compounds, it is possible to *identify levels of different NTs*